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Electrical engineering fundamentals
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Chapter two
Basic Laws
2.1 Introduction
Chapter 1 introduced basic concepts in an electric circuit. To actually determine the values
of these variables in a given circuit requires that we understand some fundamental laws that
govern electric circuits. These laws, known as Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws, form the
foundation upon which electric circuit analysis is built. in addition to these laws, we shall
discuss some techniques commonly applied in circuit design and analysis.
2.2 Network Terminology
In this section, we shall define some of the basic terms which are commonly
associated with a network.
1. Network: Any arrangement of the various, electrical energy 50= along with the different
circuit elements is called an electrical network. Such a network is shown in the Fig. 2.1.
2. Network Element: Any individual circuit element with two terminals which can be
connected to other circuit element is called a network element. Network elements can be
either active elements or passive elements.
3. Branch: A part of the network which connects the various points of the network with one
another is called a branch. In the Fig. 2.1, AB, BC, CD, DA, DE, CF and EF are the
various branches. The branch may consist of more than one element.
4. Junction Point: A point where three or more branches meet is called a junction point.
Points D and C are the junction points in the network shown in the Fig. 2.1.
5. Node: A point at which two or more elements are joined together is called node. The
junction points are also the nodes of the network. In the network shown in the Fig. 2.1, A,
B, C, D, E and F are the nodes of the network.
6. Mesh (or Loop): Mesh (or Loops) is a set of branches forming a closed path in a network
in such way that if one branch is removed then remaining branches do not form a closed
path. In the Fig. 2.1 paths A-B-C-D-A, A-B-C-F-E-D-A, D-C-F-E-D etc are the loops of
the network.
In this chapter, the analysis of d.c. circuits consisting of pure resistors and d.c.
sources is included.
CHAPTER 2 Basic Laws LECTURE NOTES 1
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2.3 Classification of Electric al Networks
The behavior of the entire network depends on the behavior and
characteristics of its elements. Based on such characteristics electrical
network can be classified as below,
i) Linear Network: A circuit or network whose parameter i.e. elements are
always constant irrespective of the change in time, voltage, temperature etc.
is known as linear network.
ii) Nonlinear Network: A circuit whose parameters change their values Figure 2.1 an electrical
network.
with change in time, temperature, voltage etc. is known as nonlinear
network.
iii) Bilateral Network: A circuit whose characteristics, behavior is same irrespective of the
direction of current through various elements of it is called bilateral network.
iv) Unilateral Network: A circuit whose, operation, behavior is dependent on the direction
of the current through various elements is called unilateral network.
v) Active Network: A circuit whose contain at least one source of energy is called active.
An energy source may be a voltage or current source.
vi) Passive Network: A circuit which contains no energy source is called passive circuit.
This is shown in the Fig 2.2.

(a) (b)
Figure 2.2 (a) active network, (b) passive network
vii) Lumped Network: A network in which all the network elements are physically
separable is known as lumped network. Most of the electric networks are lumped in nature,
which consists of element like R, L, C, and voltage source etc.
viii) Distributed Network: A network in which the network elements like resistance,
inductance etc. cannot be physically separable for analysis purposes, is called distributed
network. The best example of such a network is a transmission line, where resistances,
inductance and. capacitance of a transmission line are distributed all along its length and
cannot be shown as separate elements, anywhere in the circuit.

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2.4 OHM’S LAW
As shows in chapter one, the materials in general have a characteristic behavior of
resisting the flow of electric charge. The resistance R of any material with a uniform cross-
sectional area A depends on A and its length l.
The circuit element used to model the current-resisting behavior of a material
is the resistor. For the purpose of constructing circuits, resistors are usually
made from metallic alloys and carbon compounds. The circuit symbol for the
resistor is shown in Fig. 2.3, where R stands for the resistance of the resistor.
The resistor is the simplest passive element. Georg Simon Ohm (1787–
1854), a German physicist, is credited with finding the relationship Figure 2.3 Circuit
symbol for resistance.
between current and voltage for a resistor. This relationship is known as
Ohm’s law.

Key Point: Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to
the current i flowing through the resistor.
Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance; R. (The
resistance is material property which can change if the internal or external conditions of the
element are altered, e.g., if there are changes in the temperature.) Thus,
v = iR (2.1)
The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; it is
measured in ohms (Ω).

Then R = v/i (2.2)

so that 1 Ω= 1 V/A
It should be pointed out that not all resistors obey Ohm’s law. A resistor that obeys Ohm’s
law is known as a linear resistor. It has a constant resistance and thus its current-voltage
characteristic is as illustrated in Fig. 2.4(a). A nonlinear resistor does not obey Ohm’s law.
Its resistance varies with current and its i-v characteristic is typically shown in Fig. 2.4 (b).
Examples of devices with nonlinear resistance are the light bulb and the diode. A useful
quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of resistance R, known as conductance and
denoted by G:
G =1/R =i/v (2.3)

CHAPTER 2 Basic Laws LECTURE NOTES 3

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(a) (b)

Figure 2.4 The i-v characteristic of: (a) a linear resistor, (b) a nonlinear resistor.

The conductance is a measure of how well an element will conduct electric current.
The unit of conductance is the mho (ohm spelled backward) or reciprocal ohm, with symbol
Ʊ, the inverted omega. Although engineers often use the mhos, in this lectures we prefer to
use the Siemens (S), the SI unit of conductance:
1 S = 1 Ʊ = 1 A/V
Thus,
Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is measured
in mhos (Ʊ) or siemens (S).
From Eq. (2.3), we may write
i = Gv (2.4)
The power dissipated by a resistor can be expressed in terms of R. Using Eqs. (1.23) and
(2.1),
p = vi = i2R = v2/R (2.5)
The power dissipated by a resistor may also be expressed in terms of G as
p = vi = v2G =i2/G (2.6)
We should note two things from Eqs. (2.5) and (2.6):
1. The power dissipated in a resistor is a nonlinear function of either current or voltage.
2. Since R and G are positive quantities, the power dissipated in a resistor is always
positive. Thus, a resistor always absorbs power from the circuit.
2.4.1 Limitations of Ohm's Law
The Limitations of the Ohm's law are,
1) It is not applicable to the nonlinear devices such as diode, zener diode, voltage regulators.
2) It does not hold good for non-metallic conductors such as silicon carbide. The law for
such conductors is given by, V = kIm where k, m are constants.

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EXAMPLE 2.1: An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find its resistance.
Solution:
From Ohm’s law, R = v/i =120/2 = 60 Ω

EXAMPLE 2.2: In the circuit shown below, calculate the current i, the conductance G,
and the power P.
Solution:
The voltage across the resistor is the same as the source voltage (30 V)
because the resistor and the voltage source are connected to the same
pair of terminals. Hence, the current is
i = v / R = 30 / 5 × 103 = 6 mA
The conductance is G = 1 / R = 1/ 5 × 103 = 0.2 mS
We can calculate the power in various ways using either Eqs. (1.29), (2.5), or (2.6).
p = vi = 30× (6 × 10−3) = 180 mW
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.1: For the circuit shown below, calculate the voltage v, the
conductance G, and the power p.
Answer: 20 V, 100 μS, 40 mW.

2.5 SERIES RESISTORS

A series circuit is one in which several resistances

are connected one after the other. There is only one
path for the flow of current. Consider the
resistances shown in the Fig. 2.5. The resistance R1,
R2 and R3, said to be in series.
Req= Equivalent resistance of the circuit.
Fig. 2.5A series circuit
Req = R1 + R2 + R3
i.e. total or equivalent resistance of the series circuit is arithmetic sum of the resistances
connected in series.
For N resistances in series, R = R1 + R2 + R 3 + …+ RN (2.7)
If R1 = R2 = · · · = RN = R, then

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Req= N×R (2.8)
2.5.1 Characteristics of Series Circuits
1) The same current flows through each resistance.
2) The supply voltage V is the sum of the individual voltage drops across the resistances.
V= V1 + V2 + V3 + …+ VN (2.9)
3) The equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.
4) The equivalent resistance is the largest of all the individual resistances.
i.e. R > R1, R > R2, ... R > RN

2.6 PARALLEL RESISTORS

The parallel circuit is one in which several resistances
are connected across one another in such a way that one
terminal of each is connected to form a junction point while
the remaining ends are also joined to form another junction
point. Consider a parallel circuit shown in the Fig. 2.6.
Req= Total or equivalent resistance of the circuit,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 Fig. 2.6 A parallel circuit.
= + +
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

In general if 'N' resistances are in parallel,

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + + ⋯+ (2.10)
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝑵

Note that Req is always smaller than the resistance of the smallest resistor in the parallel
combination. If R1 = R2 = · · · = RN = R, then
Req =R/N (2.11)
Conductance (G):
It b known that, 1/R = G (conductance) hence,
G=G1+G2+G3+…+GN (2.12)
Important result:
Now If N = 2, two resistance are in parallel then,.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
= + or 𝑹= (2.13)
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐

CHAPTER 2 Basic Laws LECTURE NOTES 6

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2.6.1 Characteristics of Parallel Circuits
1) The same potential difference gets across all the resistances in parallel.
2) The total current gets divided into the number of paths equal to the number of resistances
in parallel. The total current is always sum of the individual currents.
3) The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the
reciprocal of the individual resistances.
4) The equivalent resistance is the smallest of all the resistances R < R1, R<R2, R<RN.
5) The equivalent conductance is the arithmetic addition of the individual conductances.
In general, it is often convenient and possible to combine resistors in series and
parallel and reduce a resistive network to a single equivalent resistance Req.

Example 2.3: Find Req for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.

To get Req, we combine resistors in series and in parallel. The 6-Ω

and 3-Ω resistors are in parallel, so their equivalent resistance is
6 Ω || 3 Ω = 6 × 3/ (6 + 3) = 2 Ω
Figure 1
(The symbol || is used to indicate a parallel combination.) Also, the
1-Ω and 5-Ω resistors are in series; hence their equivalent
resistance is
1Ω+5Ω=6Ω
Thus the circuit in Fig. 1 is reduced to that in Fig. 2(a). In Fig.
2(a), we notice that the two 2-Ω resistors are in series, so the
equivalent resistance is
2Ω+2Ω=4Ω
This 4-Ω resistor is now in parallel with the 6-Ω resistor in Fig. 2
(a); their equivalent resistance is
Figure 2
4 Ω || 6 Ω = 4 × 6/ (4 + 6) = 2.4 Ω
The circuit in Fig. 2 (a) is now replaced with that in Fig. 2 (b). In Fig. 2 (b), the three
resistors are in series. Hence, the equivalent resistance for the circuit is
Req = 4 Ω + 2.4 Ω + 8 Ω = 14.4 Ω
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.2: By combining the resistors in Figure below, find Req.
Answer: 6 Ω.
CHAPTER 2 Basic Laws LECTURE NOTES 7
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PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.3: Find the conductance Geq for the circuit in Figure below.
Answer: 10 S.

2.7 Short and Open Circuits

In the network simplification, short circuit or open circuit existing in the network
plays an important role. Since the value of R can range from zero to infinity, it is important
that we consider the two extreme possible values of R.
2.7.1 Short Circuit

When any two points in a network are joined directly to each other with a thick
meta1ic conducting wire the two points are said to be short circuited. The resistance of such
short circuit is zero.
The part of the network, which is short circuited, is shown in the
Fig. 2.7. The points A and B are short circuited. The resistance
of the branch AB is Rsc=0. The Current IAB is flowing through
the short circuited path. According to Ohm's law,
VAB= Rsc × IAB = 0 × IAB= 0 V
Figure 2.7 Short circuit (Rsc = 0)
Key Point: The voltage across short circuit is always zero though current flows through the short
circuited path.

2.7.2 Open Circuit

When there is no connection between the two points of a network, having some
voltage across the two points then the two points are said to be open circuited.
As there is no direct connection in an open circuit, the
resistance of the open circuit is ∞. The part of the network
which is open circuited is shown in the Fig. 2.8. The points A
and B are said to be open circuited. The resistance of the branch
AB is ROC = ∞ Ω.
Figure 2.8 Open circuit (ROC =∞).

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According to Ohm's law,
IOC= VAB/ ROC = VAB/ ∞ = 0 A

Key Point: The current through open circuit is always zero though there exist voltage across
open circuited terminals.

2.8 The voltage-divider and current-divider circuits

2.8.1 The voltage-divider circuit

Voltage-divider circuit, shown in Fig.2.9. We
analyze this circuit by directly applying Ohm's law
and Kirchhoff's laws. To aid the analysis we
introduce the current i as shown in Fig.2.9 (b). From
Kirchhoff's current law R1 and R2, carry the same
Figure 2.9 (a) A voltage-divider circuit and (b)
current. Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law around The voltage-divider circuit with current i indicated

the closed loop yields

vs = i R1 + i R2 ,
Now we can use Ohm's law to calculate v l and, v2:
𝐑 𝟏 𝒗𝒔 𝐑 𝟐 𝒗𝒔
𝒗𝟏 = , 𝒗𝟐 = (2.14)
𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐

In general, if a voltage divider has N resistors (R1, R2, . . . , RN) in series with the source
voltage vs, the Nth resistor (RN) will have a voltage drop of
𝐑 𝐍 𝒗𝒔 𝐑 𝐍 𝒗𝒔
𝒗𝑵 = = (2.15)
𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 +· · ·+𝐑 𝐍 𝐑 𝐞𝐪

2.8.2 The current-divider circuit

The current-divider circuit shown in Fig. 2.10. The
current divider is designed to divide the current is between
R1 and R2. We find the relationship between the current is,
and the current in each resistor (that is, i1 and i2) by directly
applying Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's current law. The
Figure2.10 the current-divider circuit.
voltage across the parallel resistors is
𝐑𝟏𝐑𝟐
v= i1R1= i2R2 = 𝒊𝒔
𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐

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𝐑 𝟐 𝒊𝒔 𝐑 𝟏 𝒊𝒔
𝒊𝟏 = , 𝒊𝟐 = (2.16)
𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐

If we divide both the numerator and denominator by R1R2, Eq. (2.16) become
𝐆𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝐆𝟐 𝒊𝒔
𝒊𝟏 = , 𝒊𝟐 = (2.17)
𝐆𝟏 + 𝐆𝟐 𝐆𝟏 + 𝐆𝟐

Thus, in general, if a current divider has N conductors (G1, G2, . . . , GN) in parallel
with the source current i, the nth conductor (GN) will have current
𝐆𝐍 𝒊𝒔 𝐑 𝐞𝐪 𝒊𝒔
𝒊𝑵 = = (2.18)
𝐆𝟏 + 𝐆𝟐 +⋯+𝐆𝐍 𝐑𝐍

EXAMPLE 2.4: Find io and vo in the circuit shown in Fig. 1(a). Calculate the power
dissipated in the 3-Ω resistor.
Solution: The 6-Ω and 3-Ω resistors are in parallel, so their
combined resistance is
6 Ω || 3 Ω = 6 × 3/ (6 + 3) = 2 Ω
By apply voltage division, since the 12 V in Fig. 1(b) is
divided between the 4-Ω and 2-Ω resistors. Hence,
vo =2(12 V)/(2 + 4) = 4 V
Apply current division to the circuit in Fig. 1(a) now that we
know i, by writing
i = 12/ 4 + 2 = 2 A
io = 6 i /(6 + 3) = 2 / 3 (2 A) = 4 / 3 A Figure 1(a) Original circuit,
(b) Its equivalent circuit.
The power dissipated in the 3-Ω resistor is
po = vo io = 4(4/3) = 5.333 W

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.4: Find v1 and v2 in the circuit shown in Figure below. Also
calculate i1 and i2 and the power dissipated in the 12-Ω and 40-Ω resistors.
Answer: v1 = 5 V, i1 = 416.7 mA, p1 = 2.083 W, v2 = 10 V, i2 = 250 mA, p2 = 2.5 W.

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2.9 WYE-DELTA TRANSFORMATIONS
Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the
resistors are neither in parallel nor in series. For example,
consider the bridge circuit in Fig. 2.11. How do we combine
resistors R1 through R6 when the resistors are neither in series
nor in parallel? Many circuits of the type shown in Fig. 2.11
can be simplified by using three-terminal equivalent networks. Figure 2.11The bridge network.

These are the wye (Y) or tee (T) network shown in Fig. 2.12 and
the delta (Δ) or pi (π) network shown in Fig. 2.13.

Figure 2.12 Two forms of the same network: (a) Y, (b) T.

Figure 2.13 Two forms of the
same network: (a) Δ, (b) π.
Delta to Wye Conversion
Suppose it is more convenient to work with a wye network in a place where the
circuit contains a delta configuration. We superimpose a wye network on the existing delta
network and find the equivalent resistances in the wye network. For terminals 1 and 2 in
Figs. 2.12 and 2.13, for example, R12(Y) = R1 + R3, R12 (Δ) = Rb || (Ra + Rc) (2.19)
Setting R12(Y) = R12 (Δ) gives
𝐑 𝐛 (𝐑 𝐚 + 𝐑 𝐜 )
𝐑 𝟏𝟐 = 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟑 = 𝐑𝐚 + 𝐑𝐛 + 𝐑𝐜
𝐑 𝐜 (𝐑 𝐚 + 𝐑 𝐛 ) 𝐑 𝐚 (𝐑 𝐛 + 𝐑 𝐜 )
𝐑 𝟏𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 = 𝐑 𝟑𝟒 = 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟑 = (2.20)
𝐑𝐚 + 𝐑𝐛 + 𝐑𝐜 𝐑𝐚 + 𝐑𝐛 + 𝐑𝐜

By solving previous equations, we get

𝐑𝐛 𝐑𝐜
𝐑𝟏 = (2.21)
𝐑𝐚 + 𝐑𝐛 + 𝐑𝐜
𝐑𝐜 𝐑𝐚
𝐑𝟐 = (2.22)
𝐑𝐚 + 𝐑𝐛 + 𝐑𝐜
𝐑𝐚 𝐑𝐛
𝐑𝟑 = (2.23)
𝐑𝐚 + 𝐑𝐛 + 𝐑𝐜
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Wye to Delta Conversion
Reversing the Δ-to-Y transformation also is possible. That is, we can start with the Y
structure and replace it with an equivalent Δ structure. The expressions for the three Δ-
connected resistors as functions of the three Y-connected resistors are
𝐑𝟏𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟐𝐑𝟑 + 𝐑𝟑𝐑𝟏
𝐑𝐚 = (2.24)
𝐑𝟏
𝐑𝟏𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟐𝐑𝟑 + 𝐑𝟑𝐑𝟏
𝐑𝐛 = (2.25)
𝐑𝟐
𝐑𝟏𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟐𝐑𝟑 + 𝐑𝟑𝐑𝟏
𝐑𝐜 = (2.26)
𝐑𝟑

The Y and Δ networks are said to be balanced when

R1 = R2 = R3 = RY, Ra = Rb = Rc = RΔ (2.27)
Under these conditions, conversion formulas become
RY =RΔ/ 3 or RΔ = 3RY (2.28)
EXAMPLE 2.5: Obtain the equivalent resistance Rab for the circuit in Fig. 1 and use it to
find current i.
Solution:
In this circuit, there are two Y-networks and one Δ-
network. Transforming just one of these will simplify the
circuit. If we convert the Y-network comprising the 5-Ω, 10-
Ω, and 20-Ω resistors, we may select
R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω, R3 = 5 Ω
Thus, from Eqs. (2.24) to (2.26) we have
Figure 1.
𝐑𝟏𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟐𝐑𝟑 + 𝐑𝟑𝐑𝟏 𝟏𝟎×𝟐𝟎+𝟐𝟎×𝟓+𝟓×𝟏𝟎 350
𝐑𝐚 = = = = 35 Ω
𝐑𝟏 𝟏𝟎 10
𝐑𝟏𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟐𝐑𝟑 + 𝐑𝟑𝐑𝟏 350
𝐑𝐛 = = = 17.5Ω
𝐑𝟐 20
𝐑𝟏𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟐𝐑𝟑 + 𝐑𝟑𝐑𝟏 350
𝐑𝐜 = = = 70Ω
𝐑𝟑 5

With the Y converted to Δ, the equivalent circuit (with the voltage source removed for
now) is shown in Fig. 2 (a). Combining the three pairs of resistors in parallel, we obtain
70 || 30 =70 × 30/ (70 + 30) = 21 Ω
12.5 || 17.5 =12.5 × 17.5/ (12.5 + 17.5) = 7.2917 Ω

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15 || 35 =15 × 35/ (15 + 35) = 10.5 Ω
so that the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2 (b). Hence, we find
Rab = (7.292 + 10.5) || 21 =17.792 × 21/ (17.792 + 21) = 9.632 Ω
Then
i = vs/ Rab =120/ 9.632 = 12.458 A

Figure 2 Equivalent circuits to Fig. 1, with the voltage removed.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.5: For the bridge network in Figure below, find Rab and i.

Answer: 40 Ω, 2.5 A.

2.10 Energy Sources

There are basically two types of energy sources; voltage source and current source.
These sources are classified as i) Ideal source and ii) Practical source. Let us see the
difference between Ideal and practical sources.

2.10.1 Voltage Source

*Ideal voltage source:
Ideal voltage source is defined as the energy source which gives constant voltage
across its terminals irrespective of the current drawn through its terminals. This is indicated
by V- I characteristics shown in the Fig. 2.14 (b).
*Practical voltage source:
But practically, every voltage source has small internal resistance shown in series with
voltage source and is represented by Rse as shown in the Fig. 2.15. Because of the Rse,

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voltage across terminals decreases slightly with increase in current and it is given by
expression,
VL= VS – IL RL

(a) symbol (b) characteristics (a) circuit (b) characteristics

Figure 2.14 Ideal voltage source. Figure 2.15 Practical voltage source.

Voltage sources are further classified as follows,

i) Time invariant Sources:
The sources in which voltage is not varying with time are known as time invariant
voltage source or D.C. sources. These are denoted by capital letters. Such a source is
represented in the Fig. 2.16 (a).
ii) Time Variant Source:
The sources in which voltage is varying with time are known as time variant voltage sources
or A.C. sources. These are denoted by small letters. This is shown in the Fig. 2.16 (b).

Figure 2.16 (a) D.C. sources. Figure 2.16(b) A.C. source.

2.10.2 Current Source

*Ideal current source:
Ideal current source is the source which gives constant current at its terminals
irrespective of the voltage appearing across its terminal. This is explained by V-I
characteristics shown in the Fig. 2.17 (b).
*Practical current source:
But practically, every current source has high internal resistance, shown in parallel
with current source and It is represented by Rsh. This is shown in the Fig. 2.18. Because of
Rsh, current through its terminals decreases slightly with voltage at its terminals.
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(a) symbol (b) characteristics (a) circuit (b) characteristics

Figure 2.17 ideal current source. Figure 2.18 ideal current source.
Similar to voltage sources, current sources are classified as follows,
i) Time Invariant Sources:
The sources in which current is not varying with time are known as time invariant
current sources or D.C. sources. These are denoted by capital letters. Such a current source
is represented in the Fig. 2.19 (a).
ii) Time Variant Sources:
The sources in which current is varying with time are known as time variant current
sources or A.C. sources. These are denoted by small letters. Such source is represented in
the Fig. 2.19 (b).

Figure 2.19 (a) D.C. source. Fig. 2.19 (b) A.C. source.

The sources, which are discussed above are independent sources because these sources does
not depend on other voltage or currents in the network for their value. These are represented
by a circle with a polarity of voltage or direction of current indicated inside
2.10.3 Dependent Sources
Dependent source are those whose value of source depends on voltage or current in the
circuit. Such sources are indicated by diamond as shown in the Fig. 2.20 and further
classified as,
i) Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS): It produces a voltage as a function of
voltage elsewhere in the given circuit. It is shown in the Fig. 2.20 (a). The controlling
voltage is named vx the equation that determines the supplied voltage vs is
vs = µ vx, and the reference polarity for vs is as indicated. Note that µ is a
multiplying constant that is dimensionless.
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ii) Current-Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS): It produces voltage as a function of
current elsewhere in the given circuit. It is shown In the Fig. 2.20(b). the controlling current
is ix the equation for the supplied voltage vs is vs = ρ ix,
the reference polarity is as shown and the multiplying constant ρ has the dimension volts per
ampere
iii) Voltage-Controlled Current Source (VCCS): It produces current as a function of
voltage elsewhere in the given circuit. It is shown in the Fig. 2.20(c). The controlling
voltage is vx, the equation for the supplied current is is is =α vx,
the reference direction is as shown and the multiplying constant α has the dimension
amperes per volt
iv) Current-Controlled Current Source (CCCS): It produces current as a function of
current elsewhere in the given circuit. It is shown in the Fig. 2.20 (d). the controlling current
is ix the equation for the supplied current is is is = β ix,
the reference direction is as shown, and the multiplying constant β is dimensionless.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 2.20 The circuit symbols a) an ideal dependent voltage-controlled voltage source, (b) an ideal dependent
current-controlled voltages source, (c )an ideal dependent voltage-controlled current source (d) an ideal
dependent current-controlled current source.

Dependent sources are useful in modeling elements such as transistors, operational

amplifiers and integrated circuits. An example of a current controlled voltage source is
shown on the right-hand side of Fig. 2.21, where the voltage 10i of the voltage source
depends on the current i through element C.

Figure 2.21 the source on the right-hand side is a current-controlled voltage source.

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2.11 Combinations of Sources
In a network consisting of many sources, series and parallel combinations of sources
exist. If such combinations are replaced by the equivalent source then the network
simplification becomes much easier. Let us consider such series and parallel combinations
of energy sources.
2.11.1 Voltage Sources in Series
If two voltage sources are in series then the equivalent is dependent on the polarities of the
two sources. Consider the two sources as shown in the Fig. 2.22.

Figure 2.22 Figure 2.23

If the polarities of the two sources are same then the equivalent single source is the addition
of the two sources with polarities same as that of the two sources.
Consider the two sources as shown in the Fig. 2.23. If the polarities of the two sources are
different then the equivalent single source is the difference between the two voltage sources.
The polarity of such source is same as that of the greater of the two sources.

Key Point: the voltage sources to be connected in series must have same current
rating through their voltage ratings may be same or different.

2.11.2 Voltage Sources in Parallel

Consider the two voltage source in parallel as shown in
the Fig. 2.24. The equivalent single source has a value
same as Vl andV2. It must be noted that all the open
circuit voltage provided by each source must be equal as
the sources are in parallel. Figure 2.24
Key Point: the voltage sources to be connected in parallel must have same voltage rating through
their current ratings may be same or different.
2.11.3 Current Sources in Serie
Consider the two current sources in series is shown in the Fig. 2.25, the equivalent single
source has a value same as I1 and I2.
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Figure 2.25

Key Point: the current sources to be connected in series must have same current rating through
their voltage ratings may be same or different.

2.11.4 Current Sources in Parallel

Consider the two current sources in parallel as shown in the Fig. 2.26.

Figure 2.26 Figure 2.27

if the directions of the currents of the sources connected in parallel are same then the
equivalent single source is the addition of the two sources with direction same as that of the
two sources.
Consider the two current sources with opposite directions connected in parallel as shown in
the Fig. 2.27. If the directions of the two sources are different then the equivalent single
source has a direction same as greater of the two sources with value equal to the difference
between the two voltage sources.
Key Point: the current sources to be connected in parallel must have same voltage rating through
their current ratings may be same or different.

2.12 NOTATION
Notation will play an increasingly important role in the analysis to follow.
i) Double-Subscript Notation
The fact that voltage is an across variable and exists between two points has resulted
in a double-subscript notation that defines the first subscript as the higher potential. In Fig.
2.28(a), the two points that define the voltage across the resistor R are denoted by a and b.
Since a is the first subscript for Vab, point a must have a higher potential than point b if Vab
is to have a positive value. If, in fact, point b is at a higher potential than point a, Vab will
have a negative value, as indicated in Fig. 2.28(b).

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Figure 2.28 defining the sign for double-subscript notation.

In summary:
The voltage Vab is the voltage at point a with respect to (w.r.t.) point b.
ii) Single-Subscript Notation
If point b of the notation Vab is specified as ground potential (zero volts), then a
single subscript notation can be employed that provides the voltage at a point with respect to
ground.
In Fig. 2.29, Va is the voltage from point a to
ground. In this case it is obviously 10 V since it is
right across the source voltage E. The voltage Vb is
the voltage from point b to ground. Because it is
directly across the 4-Ω resistor, Vb = 4 V.
Figure 2.29 defining the use of single-subscript
notation for voltage levels.
In summary:
The single-subscript notation Va specifies the voltage at point a with respect to ground (zero
volts). If the voltage is less than zero volts, a negative sign must be associated with the magnitude
of Va .
General Comments
A particularly useful relationship can now be established that will have extensive
applications in the analysis of electronic circuits. For the above notational standards, the
following relationship exists:
Vab = Va - Vb (2.29)
In other words, if the voltage at points a and b is known with respect to ground, then the
voltage Vab can be determined using Eq. (2.29). In Fig. 2.29, for example,
Vab = Va - Vb = 10 V- 4 V = 6 V

2.13 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. However, when it is coupled
with Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a large
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variety of electric circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws were first introduced in 1847 by the German
physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887). These laws are formally known as
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
2.13.1 Kirchhoff’s current law
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a
node (or a closed boundary) is zero or the sum of the currents entering a node is equal to
the sum of the currents leaving the node.
Mathematically, KCL implies that
∑𝑵
𝒏=𝟏 𝒊𝒏 = 0 (2.30)
where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is the nth current entering
(or leaving) the node.
Consider the node in Fig. 2.30. Applying KCL gives
i1 + (−i2) + i3 + i4 + (−i5) = 0 (2.31)
since currents i1, i3, and i4 are entering the node, while currents i2 and i5 are leaving it. By
rearranging the terms, we get
i1 + i3 + i4 = i2 + i5 (2.32)

Figure 2.30 Currents at a node illustrating KCL.

A simple application of KCL is combining current

sources in parallel. The combined current is the algebraic
sum of the current supplied by the individual sources. For
example, the current sources shown in Fig. 2.31(a) can be
combined as in Fig. 2.31(b). The combined or equivalent
current source can be found by applying KCL to node a.
I T + I2 = I1 + I3
or

Figure 2.31 Current sources in parallel:

IT = I1 − I2 + I3 (a) original circuit, (b) equivalent circuit.

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A circuit cannot contain two different currents, I1 and I2, in series, unless I1 = I2; otherwise
KCL will be violated.

2.13.2 Kirchhoff’s voltage law

Kirchhoff’s second law is based on the principle of conservation of energy:
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a
closed path (or loop) is zero.
Expressed mathematically, KVL states that
∑𝑴
𝒎=𝟏 𝒗𝒎 = 0 (2.33)
Where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches in the loop) and
vm is the mth voltage.
To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit in Fig. 2.32. The sign on each voltage is the
polarity of the terminal encountered first as we travel around the loop. We can start with any
branch and go around the loop either clockwise or counterclockwise. Suppose we start with
the voltage source and go clockwise around the loop as shown; then voltages would be -v1 ,
+v2, +v3, −v4, and +v5, in that order. For example, as we reach branch 3, the positive
terminal is met first; hence we have+v3. For branch 4, we reach the negative terminal first;
hence, −v4. Thus, KVL yields
− v1 + v2 + v3 − v4 + v5 = 0 (2.34)
Rearranging terms gives
v2 + v3 + v5 = v1 + v4 (2.35)
which may be interpreted as
Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises (2.36)

This is an alternative form of KVL. Notice that if we had

traveled counterclockwise, the result would have been +v1,
−v5, +v4, −v3, and −v2, which is the same as before, except
that the signs are reversed. Hence, Eqs. (2.34) and (2.35)
remain the same.
When voltage sources are connected in series, KVL can be
Figure 2.32 A single-loop circuit
applied to obtain the total voltage. The combined voltage is illustrating KVL.

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the algebraic sum of the voltages of the individual sources.

2.13.3 Steps to Apply Kirchhoff. Laws to Get Network Equations

The steps are stated based en the branch current method.
Step 1: Draw the circuit diagram from the given information and insert all the value of
sources with appropriate polarities and all the resistances.
Step 2: Mark all the branch currents with assumed directions using KCL at various nodes
and junction points. Kept the number of unknown currents as minimum as far as possible to
limit the mathematical calculations required to solve them later on. Assumed directions may
be wrong; in such case answer of such current will be mathematically negative which
indicates the correct direction of the current.
Step 3: Mark all the polarities of voltage drops and rises as per directions of the assumed
branch currents flowing through various branch resistance of the network. This is necessary
for application of KVL to various closed loops.
Step 4: Apply KVL to different closed paths in the network and obtain the corresponding
equations. Each equation must contain some element which is not considered in any
preview equation.

2.14 Solving Simultaneous Equations and Cramer's Rule

Electric circuit analysis with the help of Kirchhoff’s laws usually involves solution of
two or three simultaneous equations. These equations can be solved by a systematic
elimination of the variables but the procedure is often lengthy and laborious and hence more
liable to error. Determinants and Cramer’s rule provide a simple and straight method for
solving network equations through manipulation of their coefficients. Of course, if the
number of simultaneous equations happens to be very large, use of a digital computer can
make the task easy. Let us assume that set of simultaneous equations obtained is, as
follows,

a11 x1+ a12 x2+………….+ a1n xn= C1

a21 x1+ a22 x2+………….+ a2n xn= C2
.
.
an1 x1+ an2 x2+…………+ ann xn= Cn

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where C1, C2, ………, Cn constants. Then Cramer's rule says that form a system
determinant Δ or D as,
𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐 ⋯ 𝒂𝟏𝒏
𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐. ⋯ 𝒂𝟐𝒏
𝜟=[ .. ]=𝑫
.
𝒂𝒏𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝟐 ⋯ 𝒂𝒏𝒏

Then obtain the subdeterminant Dj by replacing jth column of Δ by the column of

constants existing on right hand side of equations i.e. C1, C2, .... Cn;
𝑪𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐 ⋯ 𝒂𝟏𝒏 𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝑪𝟏 ⋯ 𝒂𝟏𝒏
𝑪𝒏 𝒂𝟐𝟐. ⋯ 𝒂𝟐𝒏 𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝑪𝟐. ⋯ 𝒂𝟐𝒏
𝑫𝟏 = [ .. ], 𝑫𝟐 = [ .. ]
. .
𝑪𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝟐 ⋯ 𝒂𝒏𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝟏 𝑪𝒏 ⋯ 𝒂𝒏𝒏
𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐 ⋯ 𝑪𝟏
𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐. ⋯ 𝑪𝟐
and 𝑫𝒏 = [ .. ]
.
𝒂𝒏𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝟐 ⋯ 𝑪𝒏
The unknowns of the equations are given by Cramer's rule as,
𝑫𝟏 𝑫𝟐 𝑫𝒏
𝑿𝟏 =, 𝑿𝟐 = , ⋯ , 𝑿𝒏 =
𝑫 𝑫 𝑫
Where D1, D2, …, Dn and D are values of the respective determents

Example 2.6: Apply Kirchhoff's laws to the circuit shown in figure 1 below Indicate the
various branch currents.
Write down the equations relating the various branch currents.
Solve these equations to find the values of these currents.
Is the sign of any of the calculated currents negative?
If yes, explain the significance of the negative sign.

Solution: Application Kirchhoff's laws: Figure 1

Step 1and 2: Draw the circuit with all the values which are same as the given network.
Mark all the branch currents starting from +ve of any of the source, say +ve of 50 V source
Step 3: Mark all the polarities for different voltages across the resistance. This is combined
with step 2 shown in the network below in Fig. 1 (a).

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Figure 1 (a)
Step 4: Apply KVL to different loops.
Loop 1: A-B-E-F-A, –15 I1 – 20 I2+ 50 = 0
Loop 2: B-C-D-E-D, – 30 (I1 – I2) – 100 +20 I2= 0
Rewriting all the equations, taking constants on one side,
15 I1 + 20 I2 = 50, –30 I1 +50 I2 = 100
𝟏𝟓 𝟐𝟎
Apply Cramer's rule, 𝑫=| | = 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎
−𝟑𝟎 𝟓𝟎
𝟓𝟎 𝟐𝟎
Calculating D1, 𝑫𝟏 = | | = 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟓𝟎
𝑫𝟏 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑰𝟏 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕 𝑨
𝑫 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎

𝟏𝟓 𝟓𝟎
Calculating D2, 𝑫𝟐 = | | = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎
−𝟑𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑫𝟐 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑰𝟐 = = = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟐 𝑨
𝑫 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎

For I1 and I2 as answer is positive, assumed direction is correct.

For I1 answer is 0.37 A. For I2 answer is 2.22 A
I1 –I2 = 0.37 – 2.22 = – 1.85 A
Negative sign indicates assumed direction is wrong.
i.e. I1 – I2 = 1.85 A flowing in opposite direction to that of the assumed direction.

Practice problem 2 .6: Find the currents and voltages in the circuit shown below.
Answer: v1 = 3 V, v2 = 2 V, v3 = 5 V, i1 = 1.5 A, i2 = 0.25 A, i3 =1.25 A.

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