Gaolin Wang

Nannan Zhao
Guoqiang Zhang
Dianguo Xu

Reduced
DC-link
Capacitance AC
Motor Drives
Reduced DC-link Capacitance AC Motor Drives
Gaolin Wang Nannan Zhao
• •

Guoqiang Zhang Dianguo Xu

•

Reduced DC-link
Capacitance AC Motor
Drives

123
Gaolin Wang Nannan Zhao
Harbin Institute of Technology Harbin Institute of Technology
Harbin, Heilongjiang, China Harbin, Heilongjiang, China

Guoqiang Zhang Dianguo Xu

Harbin Institute of Technology Harbin Institute of Technology
Harbin, Heilongjiang, China Harbin, Heilongjiang, China

ISBN 978-981-15-8565-4 ISBN 978-981-15-8566-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8566-1

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Preface

Reduced DC-link capacitance motor drive system has been developed for its higher
reliability, higher power density, lower cost, and longer lifetime. Compared with
the conventional drive system equipped with large volume electrolytic capacitors,
the DC-link capacitance is reduced remarkably. The DC-link voltage fluctuates
obviously, and the coupling between the grid input side and the inverter output side
is enhanced. Many techniques have been developed to improve the drive system
performance in the last few decades.
The book focuses on the advanced control of reduced dc-link capacitance AC
motor drives. The proposed control strategies are verified by experimental results,
which include high power factor control, drive system stability control, beat phe-
nomenon suppression, enhanced flux-weakening control, anti-overvoltage control,
etc. The major features of this book are the systematic analysis, effective and
optimized control of the practical issues in industry application, which could help
the readers to learn the reduced dc-link capacitance PMSM drives and promote the
drive system application. This book could benefit researchers, engineers, and stu-
dents in the field of AC motor drives.

Harbin, China Gaolin Wang

Nannan Zhao
Guoqiang Zhang
Dianguo Xu

v
Contents

1 Basic Knowdge of AC Motor Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Structure and Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 PMSM Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 PMSM Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 PMSM Mathematical Model in Three-Phase
Coordinate Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Space Vector and Coordinate Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Introduction of PMSM Space Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Coordinate Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 PMSM Mathematical Model in Different Coordinate
Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM) . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.1 Principle and Realization of SVPWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.2 Evaluation of Maximum Voltage Vector in SVPWM . . . . . 14
1.4 Vector Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.1 Basic Structure of Vector Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.2 Principle of Field Orientation Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 Model Based Sensorless Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5.1 Concept of Extended Electromotive Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5.2 Sliding-Mode Observer Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.3 Full-Order Sliding-Mode Observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.5.4 Stability Analysis of Sliding-Mode Observer . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2 High Power Factor Control of Grid Input Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1 Power Characteristic Analysis of Drive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1.1 Topology of Single-Phase Reduced DC-Link
Capacitance Motor Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

vii
viii Contents

2.1.2 Grid Input Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.1.3 Inverter Output Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 Inverter Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.1 Principle of Inverter Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.2 Inverter Power Control Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.3 Inverter Power Control Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3 Parameter Determination of Inverter Power Controller . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.1 Mathematical Model of Inverter Power Control Loop . . . . 33
2.3.2 Parameters Design of PR Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.3 Parameters Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4 Inverter Power Compensation Based on DC-Link Voltage
Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4.1 Performance Evaluation of Inverter Power Control . . . . . . 35
2.4.2 Closed Loop Control of DC-Link Voltage Control . . . . . . 36
2.4.3 DC-Link Voltage Reference Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4.4 DC-Link Voltage Control Realization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.4.5 Analysis of Maximum Motor Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.5 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3 Resonance Suppression Between Line Inductor and DC-Link
Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1 Analysis of LC Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1.1 Drive System Model Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1.2 Stability Analysis of Drive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.1.3 Influence of DC-Link Capacitance on Drive System . . . . . 55
3.2 DC-Link Voltage Feedback Based Active Damping Control
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.2.1 Principle of Active Damping Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.2.2 Direct Damping Current to Stabilize Drive System . . . . . . 57
3.2.3 Stability Analysis Using Routh-Hurwitz Criterion . . . . . . . 58
3.2.4 Realization of Direct Damping Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.2.5 Parameters Determination of Direct Damping Current
Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.2.6 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.3 Virtual Resistor Based Active Damping Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3.1 Different Configurations of Virtual Damping Resistor . . . . 69
3.3.2 Stability Analysis of Virtual Resistor Based Active
Damping Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 69
Contents ix

3.4 Inductor Current Feedback Based Active Damping Control

Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.4.1 Realization of Inductor Current Feedback Control . . . . . . . 73
3.4.2 Compensation of Distorted Grid Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.4.3 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4 Impedance Model Based Stability Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.1 Impedance Modeling of PMSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.2 System Performance Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.2.1 System Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.2.2 Analysis of Grid Current Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.3 DC-Link Voltage Feedback Stability Control Method . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.3.1 DC-Link Voltage Feedback Based Stability Control
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.3.2 System Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.3.3 Analysis of Grid Current Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.4 Grid Current Feedback Based Stabilization Control Method . . . . . 92
4.4.1 Principle of the Grid Current Feedback Based
Stabilization Control Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.4.2 System Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.4.3 Analysis of Grid Current Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.4.4 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5 Analysis and Suppression of Beat Phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.1 Beat Phenomenon Simply Caused by DC-Link Voltage . . . . . . . . 103
5.2 Beat Phenomenon of Reduced DC-Link Capacitance IPMSM
Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.2.1 Effect of Fluctuated DC-Link Voltage on Motor
Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.2.2 Interaction Between DC-Link Voltage Fluctuation
and Load Torque Fluctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.3 Drive System Performance Analysis Influenced by Beat
Phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.3.1 Effect of Beat Phenomenon on Grid Current . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.3.2 Effect of Beat Phenomenon on Motor Speed . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.4 Beat Phenomenon Suppression Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.4.1 Principle of Beat Phenomenon Suppression Method . . . . . 109
5.4.2 Beat Phenomenon Suppression of Grid Current . . . . . . . . . 110
5.4.3 Beat Phenomenon Suppression of Motor Speed . . . . . . . . . 111
5.4.4 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
x Contents

5.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6 Flux-Weakening Control Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.1 Conventional Flux-Weakening Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.2 Torque Ripple Analysis Caused by DC-Link Voltage
Fluctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.2.1 Introduction of Three-Phase Reduced DC-Link
Capacitance PMSM Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.2.2 Analysis of Influence on Stator Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.2.3 Analysis of Torque Ripple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.3 Adjustable Maximum Voltage Based Flux-Weakening Control . . . 131
6.3.1 Principle of the Control Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.3.2 Realization of the Control Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.3.3 Analysis of Stator Current Vector Trajectory . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.4 Power Loss Analysis of Flux-Weakening Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.5 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.1 Braking Performance Analysis Under Reduced DC-Link
Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.1.1 Electrical Power Analysis Under Breaking Process . . . . . . 147
7.1.2 DC-Link Voltage Analysis Under Breaking Process . . . . . . 149
7.2 Motor Loss Based Braking Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.3 Stator Current Vector Orientation Based Anti-Overvoltage
Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.3.1 Principle Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.3.2 Current Trajectory Planning in Braking Process . . . . . . . . . 153
7.3.3 Anti-Overvoltage Realization Using Stator Current
Vector Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7.3.4 Parameters Determination of Voltage Controller . . . . . . . . 156
7.3.5 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.4 Energy Control Error Analysis of Braking Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.5 Dual Anti-Overvoltage Control Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.5.1 Principle Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.5.2 Realization of Dual Anti-Overvoltage Control Method . . . . 169
7.5.3 Analysis of Energy Control Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7.5.4 Voltage Controller Coefficient Autoregulation . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.5.5 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Contents xi

8 Optimized Overmodulation Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

8.1 Overmodulation Method of SVPWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.1.1 Conventional Overmodulation of SVPWM . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.1.2 Analysis of the Overmodulation in Reduced DC-Link
Capacitance PMSM Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8.2 Voltage Distortion Caused by Convensional Dual-Mode
Overmodulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.3 Transition Analysis of Uncontrollable Modulation Region . . . . . . 196
8.4 Voltage Bundary Based Overmodulation Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
8.4.1 Optimized Voltage Boundary Based Overmodulation
Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
8.4.2 Experimental Results of Optimized Voltage Boundary
Based Overmodulation Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Nomenclature

DSP Digital Signal Processor

EEMF Extended Electromotive Force
EMF Electromotive Force
FOC Field-Oriented Control
HPF High-Pass Filter
IPMSM Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor
LPF Low-Pass Filter
MTPA Maximum Torque per Ampere
PLL Phased-Lock Loop
PMSM Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor
SPMSM Surface-Mounted Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor
SVPWM Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation
VSI Voltage Source Inverter
a, b Stationary Coordinate System
d, q Rotating Coordinate System
p Differential Operator D/Dt
s Laplace Transform Variable
d Sliding-Mode Boundary Layer
z Sliding-Mode Control Function
Rs Stator Resistance
us Stator Voltage Vector
is Stator Current Vector
ud, u q d- and q-axis Stator Voltage
i d, i q d- and q-axis Stator Current
e d, e q Extended Back EMF in d- and q-axis
ua, u b a- and b-axis Stator Voltages

xiii
xiv Nomenclature

i a, i b a- and b-axis Stator Currents

ua, u b, u c a-, b- and c-axis Stator Phase Voltages
i a, i b, i c a-, b- and c-axis Stator Phase Currents
eu, ev, ew Three-phase Grid Voltage
eg Single-phase Grid Voltage
udc DC-Link Voltage of the Drive System
udc,0 Mean Value of DC-link Voltage
wf Permanent Flux Linkage
wa, wb a- and b-axis Stator Flux Components
wd, wq d- and q-axis Stator Flux Components
Ld, Lq d- and q-axis Inductances
La, Lb, Lc a-, b- and c-axis Self-Inductances
Te Electromagnetic Torque
TL Load Torque
he Rotor Electrical Position
xe, xr Rotor Electrical And Mechanical Speeds.
Pn Pole Pairs Number
J Inertia Moment
B Coefficient of Viscous Friction
* Reference Value
^ Estimated Value
* Estimation Error
Chapter 1
Basic Knowdge of AC Motor Drives

1.1 Structure and Mathematical Model

1.1.1 PMSM Applications

Permanent magenent synchronous machine (PMSM) has been widely developed in

the industry and household applications for its high-power density, high efficiency,
high power factor, and excellent control performance. PMSM has been applied in
the following areas [1]:
(1) The aeronautic and astronautic applications. The requirements of the power
density and the control performance are very strict in the aeronautic and astro-
nautic applications. Hence the PMSM is a suitable choice for the aeronautic
applications to reduce the launching cost of the whole system.
(2) The electric vehicle (EV) applications. EV is the potential traffic solution,
which is supported by worldwide governments and companies. Due to the rapid
development of EV, PMSM is widely applied as the power supply element due
to its high-power density and high efficiency.
(3) The industry applications. For high-performance equipments, the excellent
control performance of PMSM could satisfy the requirements, such as the
computer numerical control (CNC), the robot drives, and the servo systems.
(4) The domestic appliance. The high-power density and high efficiency of PMSM
could reduce the power cost of the drive system effectively, which is an important
concern in the household applications, such as the vacuum cleaner, the washing
machine, the air-conditioner, and the refrigerator, etc.
Hence PMSM has a promising future in the energy conversion applications, which
deserves to be studied further. However, there are also some disadvantages of PMSM
infulencing its applications:
(1) The cost of the drive system. The cost of PMSM drive system is relatively high
compared with the induction machine (IM) drive system. As for the general

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1
G. Wang et al., Reduced DC-link Capacitance AC Motor Drives,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8566-1_1
2 1 Basic Knowdge of AC Motor Drives

industry applications, the drive system cost is an important issue, hence it is

necessary to optimize the design of the PMSM to reduce the cost.
(2) Irreversible demagnetization. Irreversible demagnetization could occur when
PMSM operates in excessively high temperature and low temperature, which
could reduce the performance of the motor or even disable the normal operation.

1.1.2 PMSM Structure

According to the installation position of the permanent magnet on the rotor, PMSM
can be divided into two types: surface mounted PMSM (SPMSM) and interior PMSM
(IPMSM). The permanent magnet of SPMSM is mounted on the surface of the rotor
core, whereas the permanent magnet of IPMSM is located inside the rotor. For each
rotor structure, a sinusoidal distribution of air gap magnetic field is expected.
As shown in Fig. 1.1, the rotor magnetic circuit structure of SPMSM can be
divided into the raised type and the plug-in type. The relative permeability of
permanent magnet materials is close to 1, which leads to the symmetric orthog-
onal magnetic path of PMSM, and the impedances of the d- and q-axis are the
same (X d = X q ). SPMSM has the advantages such as simple structure, lower manu-
facturing cost, and smaller moment of inertia. Besides, the optimal design can be
achieved for SPMSM making the air gap magnetic field close to the sinusoidal distri-
bution. Therefore, the performance of the motor and the entire drive system could
be improved correspondingly.
Figure 1.2 shows the interior rotor magnetic circuit structure. Permanent magnets
in the interior rotor are protected by pole pieces. The reluctance torque generated
by the asymmetry of the rotor magnetic circuit structure can improve the overload

N N

S S

S N N S S N N S

S S

N N

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.1 Surface rotor magnetic circuit structure. a Raised type. b Plug-in type
1.1 Structure and Mathematical Model 3

Fig. 1.2 Interior rotor

magnetic circuit structure S

N S S N

capacity and the power density of the motor. Meanwhile, the d-axis inductance of
IPMSM is usually larger than that of SPMSM, so it is easy to weaken the magnetic
field and expand the operation speed. It should be noted that the X d , X q and X d /X q
(salient ratio) of IPMSM are different when the rotor magnetic circuit structure is
different. Larger salient ratio could improve the pull-in synchronization ability, the
reluctance torque and the overload capability of motor.

1.1.3 PMSM Mathematical Model in Three-Phase

Coordinate Frame

The mathematical modeling of PMSM is the key to realize vector control. To simplify
the analysis, it is necessary to make the following assumptions:
(1) The three-phase stator windings are distributed symmetrically in space and the
discrete properties of its structure are ignored. Therefore, the armature reactive
magnetomotive force generated by stator windings in the air gap is sinusoidal,
and the induced back electromotive force (EMF) is also the sinusoidal wave.
(2) The internal permeability of a permanent magnet is consistent with that of air,
and the EMF produced in the air gap is also a sinusoidal distribution.
(3) The iron loss, the terminal effect and the magnetic saturation effect are ignored.
The constant rotor permeability is infinite.
(4) Regardless of the influence of temperature and load effect on the motor
parameters, there is no damper winding on the rotor.
Figure 1.3 shows the IPMSM physical model. The voltage equation of its three-
phase windings can be presented as
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
ua Rs 0 0 ia ψa
⎣ u b ⎦ = ⎣ 0 Rs 0 ⎦⎣ i b ⎦ + p ⎣ ψb ⎦ (1.1)
uc 0 0 Rs ic ψc
4 1 Basic Knowdge of AC Motor Drives

Fig. 1.3 Physical model of

b q
PMSM is

ib
ub

β ωe
ψf
θs
d
N
θe
a
ia
Te S
ua

uc i
c

where ua , ub , and uc are the three-phase voltages, ψ a , ψ b and ψ c are flux linkages of
a-b-c three-phase windings, Rs is the stator resistance, and p is differential operator
d/dt.
The three-phase flux linkages could be presented as
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
ψa ia cos(θe )
⎣ ψb ⎦ = L abc ⎣ i b ⎦ + ψ f ⎣ cos(θe − 2π ) ⎦
3
ψc ic cos(θe + 2π 3
)
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
L a Mab Mac ia ψfa
=⎣ Mba L b Mbc ⎦⎣ i b ⎦ + ⎣ ψ f b ⎦ (1.2)
Mca Mcb L c ic ψfc

where ψ fa , ψ fb and ψ fc are the fluxes of the permanent magnet passing through a-b-c
windings, Labc is the inductance matrix, ψ f is the flux of the permanent magnet,
θ e is the rotor electrical position. Since the air gap of IPMSM is not uniform, the
self-inductances (L a , L b , and L c ) and mutual inductances (M ab , M ac , M ba , M bc , M ca ,
and M cb ) of a-b-c three-phase windings are periodic functions of the rotor position
as shown in (1.3).
⎧
⎨ L a = L s0 + L s2 cos(2θe )
L = L s0 + L s2 cos 2 θe − 2π
⎩ b 3
L c = L s0 + L s2 cos 2 θe + 2π
3
1.1 Structure and Mathematical Model 5
⎧
⎨ Mab = Mba = −Ms0 + Ms2 cos 2 θe + 3
2π

M = Mcb = −Ms0 + Ms2 cos(2θe ) (1.3)

⎩ bc
Mca = Mac = −Ms0 + Ms2 cos 2 θe − 2π
3

where L s0 , L s2 are the average magnitude and the second harmonic of the self-
inductance, M s0 , and M s2 are the average magnitude and the second harmonic of the
mutual inductance, respectively.

1.2 Space Vector and Coordinate Transformation

1.2.1 Introduction of PMSM Space Vector

Let α 1 , α 2 , …, α n be the linear independent vectors of the vector space F [2, 3],
where
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
α11 α21 αn1
⎢ α12 ⎥ ⎢ α22 ⎥ ⎢ αn2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
α1 = ⎢ .⎥, α2 = ⎢ .⎥ , . . . , αn = ⎢
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ .
⎥.
⎥ (1.4)
⎣ ..⎦ ⎣ ..⎦ ⎣ ..⎦
α1n α2n αnn

Then any vector x can be represented as

x = x 1 α1 + x 2 α 2 + · · · + x n α n . (1.5)

The vectors α 1 , α 2 , …, α n are a basis of F and (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )T is the coordinate

of x, where F is called the n-dimensional vector space. It can be seen that there are
many different bases of F, whereas the coordinate representation of x is unique in a
particular basis. Equation (1.5) could be presented as
⎡ ⎤
x1
⎢ x2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
x = (α1 , α2 , . . . αn )⎢ . ⎥. (1.6)
⎣ .. ⎦
xn

Equation (1.6) is the general expression in the three-phase PMSM drive system.
According to (1.1) and (1.2), the three-phase voltage could be generalized as
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
ua ia ia
⎣ u b ⎦ = R⎣ i b ⎦ + Labc d ⎣ i b ⎦ + ψ f f(θe ) (1.7)
dt
uc ic ic
6 1 Basic Knowdge of AC Motor Drives

where R and f (θ e ) are the resistor matrix, and the expression related to the rotor
position, respectively.
As for the three-phase SPMSM, the inductance matrix mainly contains the self-
inductance and the mutual inductance of the three phase windings. As the air gap of
the SPMSM is uniform, the self-inductance and the mutual inductance of the three
phase windings are constant values and independent of the rotor position. As for
the IPMSM, the air gap is asymmetric. Hence the self-inductance and the mutual
inductance of the three phase windings are closely related to the rotor position. The
inductance matrices of both the SPMSM and the IPMSM are coupling and dependent
of the rotor position.

1.2.2 Coordinate Transformation

The three-phase currents ia , ib , and ic of the three-phase PMSM could be presented

as
⎧
⎪
⎪ i a =Im cos ωe t
⎪
⎪  
⎪
⎨ 2π
i b =Im cos ωe t −
3 (1.8)
⎪
⎪  
⎪
⎪ 2π
⎪
⎩ i c =Im cos ωe t −
3

where I m and ωe are the magnitude of the motor current and the rotor electrical
speed, respectively. The symmetric three-phase currents could be presented in the
three-dimensional coordinate frame:

I =i a i A + i b i B + i c iC
   
2π 2π
=Im cos(ωe t)i A + Im cos ωe t − i B + Im cos ωe t − iC (1.9)
3 3

where iA , iB , and iC are the unit vector of the three-dimensional orthogonal frame,
respectively. The magnitude of the vector I could be presented as
 
 3
|I| = i a + i b + i c = Im cos ωe t + cos ωe t + cos ωe t =
2 2 2 2 2 2 Im . (1.10)
2

It can be seen that the vector I rotates around the original point of the three-
dimensional
 orthogonal frame. The magnitude and the angular frequency of I are
3 Im and ωe , respectively. The trajectory of the rotation is a circle and the projec-
2
tion of the trajectory in the frame is the three-phase current, which is shown in
Fig. 1.4.
1.2 Space Vector and Coordinate Transformation 7

Fig. 1.4 The current vector d-q plane

I in the three-dimensional
coordinate frame
b-axis

c-axis

d-axis

a-axis

q-axis

The trajectory is located in a plane in the three-dimensional coordinate frame,

which is defined as the d-q plane. All the transformation of the coordinate frame is
carried out in this plane.
It can be seen that the α-β orthogonal coordinate frame is defined as shown in
Fig. 1.5. The coordinate transformation is to transform the vector in the a-b-c frame to
the d-q orthogonal coordinate frame. According to the previous analysis, the vector
I rotates around the original point with the angular frequency ωe .
The coordinate transformation could be derived from the geometric view. The
relationship between the α-β orthogonal coordinate frame and the a-b-c coordinate
frame could be presented as

Fig. 1.5 The current vector b-axis

I in the d-q frame

q-axis

d-axis

θe
a-axis

c-axis
8 1 Basic Knowdge of AC Motor Drives
   
2π 4π
N2 i α =N1 i a + N1 i b cos + N1 i c cos
3 3
   
2π 4π
N2 i β =N1 i b sin + N1 i c sin (1.11)
3 3

where iα , iβ , N 1 , and N 2 are the currents in the α- and β- axis, the number of turns
in the windings, respectively. Hence the transformation matrix between the a-b-c
coordinate frame and the α-β orthogonal coordinate frame could be presented as
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
iα 1 − 1
√2
− 1
√2 ia
⎣ i β ⎦ = N1 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 23 − 23 ⎦⎣ i b ⎦ (1.12)
N2 √1 √1 √1
i0 2 2 2
ic

where i0 is the zero-sequence component of the three-phase current. As for the

three-phase star connected PMSM, the sum of the three-phase currents is zero and
the corresponding zero-sequence component i0 is also zero. Hence i0 can be ignored
to make the derivation process clearer. The simplified Clarke transformation could
be presented as

   ⎡ i ⎤
iα N1 1 − 1
− 1 a
⎣ i b ⎦.
= √2 √2 (1.13)
iβ N2 0 23 − 23
ic

Considering the power invariance principle, which means that the drive system
 frame and the α-β coordinate frame remains constant,
power in the a-b-c coordinate
N1 2
N2
could be obtained as 3
. And the Clarke transformation could be presented as

⎡ ⎤  ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
iα 1 −√
1
2
−√21 ia
⎣ iβ ⎦ = 2 ⎢
⎣ 0 3
− 3 ⎥⎣ ⎦
⎦ ib . (1.14)
3 √1 √21 √1 2
i0 2 2 2
ic

If considering the phase magnitude invariance method, the magnitude of the volt-
ages and currents in the a-b-c coordinate frame and the α-β coordinate frame remains
constant, whereas the torque and the power should be multiplied by 3/2 in the α-β
frame to obtain the same values in the a-b-c coordinate frame. The transformation
matrix in the α-β frame could be presented as
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
iα 1 −√
1
2
−√21 ia
⎣ i β ⎦= 2 ⎢
⎣ 0 3 3 ⎥⎣ ⎦
− ⎦ ib . (1.15)
3 √1 √21 √1 2
i0 2 2 2
ic
1.2 Space Vector and Coordinate Transformation 9

The α-β coordinate frame is the stationary frame, and the elements of the induc-
tance matrix are closely related to the rotor position, hence it is essential to eliminate
the change caused by different values of the rotor position. The Park transformation
is applied to transform the variables in the stationary α-β coordinate frame to the
rotating d-q coordinate frame. The transformation can be presented as
    
idcos θe − sin θe i α
=
iqsin θe cos θe iβ
    . (1.16)
iα cos θe sin θe id
=
iβ − sin θe cos θe i q

where id and iq are the motor currents in the d-q coordinate frame.

1.2.3 PMSM Mathematical Model in Different Coordinate

Frames

As can be seen from (1.3), since the inductances of the a-b-c three-phase windings
are the periodic functions of the rotor position, the voltage equations are the time-
varying differential forms. It is essential to apply the decoupling control method to
transform the voltage equations.
By applying the Clarke transformation, (1.1) and (1.2) are transformed into the
α-β stationary coordinate system. The voltage equation, the flux linkage and the
inductance matrix of α-β axes could be presented as
     
uα iα ψ
= Rs +p α (1.17)
uβ iβ ψβ
     
ψα i cos θe
= L αβ α + ψ f (1.18)
ψβ iβ sin θe
   
Lα Mαβ Σ L + L cos(2θe ) L sin(2θe )
Lαβ = = (1.19)
Mβα Lβ L sin(2θe ) Σ L − L cos(2θe )

where uα and uβ are the stator voltage components of α-β axes, ψ α and ψ β are the
stator flux components of α-β axes, Lαβ is the inductance matrix of α-β axes, L
= (L d + L q )/2 and L = (L d - L q )/2, L d and L q are the equivalent inductances of the
d-q axis.
As can be seen from (1.19), the inductances at α-β axes are still periodic functions
of the rotor position. By applying the Park transformation, (1.17) and (1.18) can be
transformed into the d-q coordinate frame. The voltage equation, the flux linkage
and the inductance matrix of the d-q coordinate frame could be presented as
10 1 Basic Knowdge of AC Motor Drives
       
ud id ψα −ψq
= Rs +p + ωe (1.20)
uq iq ψβ ψd
     
ψd i ψf
= L dq d + (1.21)
ψq iq 0
 
Ld 0
Ldq = (1.22)
0 Lq

where ud and uq are the stator voltage components of d-q axis, ψ d and ψ q are the
stator flux components of d-q axis, L d , and L q is the inductance of d-q axis. The
model of SPMSM is also represented by (1.20)–(1.22) with L d = L q .
As can be seen from (1.22), the inductance matrix in the d-q axis becomes the
constant matrix and is no longer the periodic function of the rotor position, thus the
decoupling of the d-q axis could be achieved. The phasor diagram of three-phase
PMSM is shown in Fig. 1.6, the stator voltage phasor U̇s could be presented as

U̇s = Rs I˙s + jωe L d I˙d + jωe L q I˙q + Ė 0 (1.23)

where I˙d , I˙q and Ė 0 are the d-q axis current phasor and the EMF phasor, the stator
current phasor I˙s is the sum of I˙d and I˙q .
The electromagnetic torque T e in d-q axis of PMSM can be expressed as

3  
Te = Pn ψ f i q + L d − L q i d i q (1.24)
2
where Pn is the pole pairs number. The electromechanical dynamic characteristics
could be presented as

Fig. 1.6 Phasor diagram of ωe

three-phase PMSM jωe Lq I q

Rs I s
jωe Ld I d
E0
Is
Us Iq
γ
φ

ψf
Id
1.2 Space Vector and Coordinate Transformation 11

dωr
Te − TL = J + Bωr (1.25)
dt
where T L is the load torque, J is the inertia moment, B is the coefficient of viscous
friction, and ωr = ωe /Pn is rotor mechanical speed.

1.3 Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM)

1.3.1 Principle and Realization of SVPWM

SVPWM is often used in AC motor drives. The main purpose of classical SVPWM is
to make the output fundamental voltage of the inverter close to the sinusoidal wave.
SVPWM technology uses the different combinations of control signals of each bridge
arm in the inverter to make the fundamental voltage vector trajectory as close to a
circle as possible. The equivalent switch model is shown in Fig. 1.7.
Usually, the 180° conduction mode is adopted in voltage source inverters (VSIs).
S A , S B and S C are used to represent the states of the three arms, respectively. State 1
indicates that the upper bridge arm is turned on, and state 0 indicates that the lower
bridge arm is turned on. Eight switching modes can be obtained with the changes
of the three arms and each switching mode corresponds to a basic voltage vector.
There are totally eight basic voltage vectors formed, including six non-zero vectors
and two zero vectors.
In order to understand the principle of SVPWM, one switching mode is selected
to describe in detail. When transistors 1, 2, 3 are in the open state, which means
S A = S B = 1, and S C = 0. Therefore, the equivalent circuit of the inverter can be
represented as shown in Fig. 1.8.

Fig. 1.7 PWM equivalent

switch model udc 1 3 5
2
N SA SB SC
A
B PMSM
udc C
2
4 6 2

Fig. 1.8 Equivalent circuit A B

diagram of inverter when S A udc
= S B = 1, and S C = 0
2
N
udc
2
C
12 1 Basic Knowdge of AC Motor Drives

Under this circumstance, the voltage drop on each phase can be denoted as

1 1 2
u AN = u dc , u B N = u dc , u C N = − u dc . (1.26)
3 3 3
The voltage vector u synthetized by uAN , uBN , and uCN is shown as in Fig. 1.9.
In the α-β axes, the voltage vector u can be expressed as
 
u = k u AN + u B N e j 3 π + uC N e j 3 π
2 4
(1.27)

where k is the transformation coefficient to transform the vector from the three-phase
stationary coordinate system to the two-phase stationary coordinate system. The
transformation can be divided into equal power transformation and equal quantity
transformation. Here, the equal quantity transformation is used, and k = 2/3.

2
(u AN + u B N e j 3 π + uC N e j 3 π )
2 4
u= (1.28)
3
Substituting (1.26) into (1.27), the voltage vector can be expressed as

2
u dc e j 3 π .
1
u= (1.29)
3
The corresponding voltage vectors of each switching state can be obtained through
the same method as shown in Table 1.1. As can be seen in Fig. 1.10, the six non-
zero voltage vectors and the two zero voltage vectors form a voltage hexagon, and
the amplitude of each voltage vector is 2udc /3. Meanwhile, the voltage hexagon is
divided into six sectors by the voltage vectors.
If only eight basic voltage vectors are used individually, a hexagonal rotating
voltage vector can be obtained. This is far away from the circular rotating fundamental
voltage vector as expected. The additional intermediate voltage vectors should be
formed to achieve the circular fundamental voltage vector trajectory. Actually, the

Fig. 1.9 Diagram of voltage β

vector when S A = S B = 1,
SC = 0 b
u
uCN
uBN

uAN
a (α )

c
1.3 Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM) 13

Table 1.1 Basic voltage vectors of SVPWM modulation strategy

SA SB SC A phase voltage B phase voltage C phase voltage Vector Vector symbol
expression
000 0 0 0 0 u0
j 43 π
001 − 31 u dc − 13 u dc 2
3 u dc
2
3 u dc e u1
j 23 π
010 − 31 u dc 2
3 u dc − 31 u dc 2
3 u dc e u2
011 − 23 u dc 1
3 u dc
1
3 u dc
2
3 u dc e
jπ u3
100 2
3 u dc − 13 u dc − 31 u dc 2
3 u dc e
j0 u4
j 53 π
101 1
3 u dc − 23 u dc 1
3 u dc
2
3 u dc e u5
1
110 1 1
− 23 u dc 2 j 3π
3 u dc 3 u dc 3 u dc e u6
111 0 0 0 0 u7

Fig. 1.10 Voltage hexagon 010 110

and sectors

011 111 000 100

001 101

intermediate vectors can be synthesized by six non-zero voltage vectors and two zero
voltage vectors.
It is impossible to realize two switching states at the same time. However, if the
switching frequency of the inverter is much higher than the frequency of its output
voltage, the desired voltage vector can be synthesized by using the basic voltage
vector based on the state-space averaging method. As shown in Fig. 1.11, where ux
and uy are the two adjacent basic voltage vectors, T s is the switching time, T x and
T y are the corresponding opening times. In one switching period, the basic voltage
vectors ux and uy act for T x and T y , respectively. Then the desired voltage vector can
be synthesized by the two vectors. Ultimately, the circular voltage vector trajectories
can be obtained.
14 1 Basic Knowdge of AC Motor Drives

Fig. 1.11 Diagram of space uy

vector constituted by
adjacent basic voltage
vectors

Ty
uy uxy
Ts

ux
Tx
ux
Ts

1.3.2 Evaluation of Maximum Voltage Vector in SVPWM

In the previous section, the circular fundamental voltage vector trajectory is deter-
mined, which means the voltage vector instruction cannot exceed the inscribed circle
of the hexagon. However, in some conditions, the utilization rate of the DC-link
voltage is desired to be increased. As shown in Fig. 1.12, the voltage hexagon is
divided into the linear modulation region and the overmodulation region. In order
to expand the output voltage of the inverter, some overmodulation strategies were
designed in past decades.
The modulation index M for Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) inverter is defined
here as
|u|
M=  . (1.30)
2 u dc π

Fig. 1.12 Region division of Overmodulation

SVPWM Region

Linear
Modulation
Region
1.3 Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM) 15

uβ

αg u*

θ1
αg
uα
O udc 2
udc
3 3

Fig. 1.13 Diagram of overmodulation strategy proposed by Bolognani

When the modulation index exceeds 0.9069, the inverter operates in the overmod-
ulation region. The maximum modulation index is 1.
The basic idea of an overmodulatin scheme is to keep the output voltage vector
fixed when the reference voltage vector exceeds the hexagonal boundary [4]. When
the reference voltage vector trajectory is within the hexagon, the linear modulation
method is used. Since the modulation methods in each sector are similar, sector 1 is
discussed here. As shown in Fig. 1.13, θ 1 is the phase of the reference voltage vector
u* . The linear modulation method is used before u* runs to the holding angle α g .
When θ 1 runs from α g to π/6, the phase of u* is limited to θ = α g . And when θ 1
runs from π/6 to π/3-α g , the phase of u* is limited to θ = π/3-α g . When θ 1 runs
from π/3-α g to π/3, a linear modulation is used again.
The phase θ linked to the phase θ 1 can be expressed as
⎧
⎪
⎪ θ1 0 ≤ θ1 ≤ αg
⎨
αg αg ≤ θ1 ≤ π/6
θ= . (1.31)
⎪
⎪ π/3 − αg π/6 ≤ θ1 ≤ π/3 − αg
⎩
θ1 π/3 − αg ≤ θ1 ≤ π/3

The holding angle α g can be derived as

π u dc
αg = − arccos( √ ). (1.32)
6 3|u∗ |

The idea of this control method is clear. The output voltage vector is limited to the
hexagon and can achieve six-step operation when |u* | reaches 2/3udc . The DC-link
voltage of the inverter can be effectively utilized. However, the phase error is bigger
than the minimum phase error overmodulation method and the minimum amplitude
error overmodulation method [5].
16 1 Basic Knowdge of AC Motor Drives

1.4 Vector Control

1.4.1 Basic Structure of Vector Control System

The magnetic field of the AC motor must be well managed when it is controlled
by closed-loop type. At present, the mainstream high-performance control tech-
nology of PMSM drives is Field Orientation Control (FOC). FOC conducts high-
performance closed-loop control based on the torque generation of the motor. Its
schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 1.14. The core of the control technology is to
control the excitation current component id and the torque current component iq of
the stator separately in the two-phase rotating coordinate frame.

1.4.2 Principle of Field Orientation Control

Speed & current closed loop is the mainstream of AC motor vector control. The speed
loop is used as the outer loop to control the speed of the motor, and its output serves
as the reference of the current regulator. The current loop is used to control the torque
current and the excitation current of the motor. The controller is usually designed
as a classical PID controller, and parameter setting can be realized by engineering
optimum method. The block diagram of the control system is shown in Fig. 1.15.
It can be seen that the sensorless control is adopted here to obtain the position and
speed information instead of using the mechanical position sensors. In this way, the
reliability and robustness could be improved and the total cost could be reduced.
The model based sensorless control using the electromotive force (EMF) will be
introduced in the following.

θe
udc
PMSM
iα ref iaref ia iα id d-q axes
idref
ωref Cont- iClark iPark ibref Three- ib Clark Park Mathe- ωe
iqref Trans- Trans phase Trans- Trans- iq matical
roller iβ ref iβ
form -form icref inverter ic form form Model of
PMSM

Fig. 1.14 Schematic diagram of vector control system

1.5 Model Based Sensorless Control 17

udc
Sabc
ref
+ PI iq* + PI uq* u*
- controller - controller SV
ˆe PWM
* + PI ud* u*
id controller
dq
-
ˆ
e
iq i ia
abc
id i ic
dq
ˆ
e
ud
Speed&position uq
Estimation id IPMSM
iq

Fig. 1.15 Block diagram of position sensorless vector control system based on EMF observer

1.5 Model Based Sensorless Control

1.5.1 Concept of Extended Electromotive Force

In the synchronous reference frame, the mathematical model of IPMSM can be

expressed as (1.17). By transforming this equation into the α-β stationary reference
frame, the mathematical model in the stationary coordinate system can be obtained
as,
      
uα Rs + pL α pMαβ iα − sin θe
= + ωe ψ f (1.33)
uβ pMβα Rs + pL β iβ cos θe

According to (1.33), the rotor position information of the IPMSM is contained

not only in the back-EMF term but also in the inductance matrix due to the rotor
saliency. In addition, the inductance matrix contains θ e term and 2θ e term, which
increases the difficulty of rotor position detection. Therefore, it is not possible for
IPMSMs to directly use the voltage equation of the α-β axes for position estimation
like SPMSMs.
In order to decouple the rotor position information of IPMSM from the voltage
equation in the α-β axes, (1.33) is rewritten to make the coefficient matrix
symmetrical. Then the following equivalent transformation is performed:
      
ud Rs + pL d −ωe L q id 0
= +
uq ωe L q Rs + pL d iq Ld − Lq ωe i d − i̇ q + ωe ψ f
(1.34)

Define E ex as Extended EMF (EEMF) [6]:

18 1 Basic Knowdge of AC Motor Drives

E ex = (L d − L q )(ωe i d − i̇ q )ωe ψ f . (1.35)

Thus, the EEMF E ex includes not only the traditional back EMF term, but also
the term generated by polarity saliency of the IPMSM. The concept of EEMF can
be extended to the entire synchronous motor category. When L d =L q , it is the back
EMF model of SPMSM. When ψ f = 0, it is the reluctance motor EMF model.

1.5.2 Sliding-Mode Observer Construction

In general, the mathematical model in α-β axes system is usually used to construct
the PMSM position observer since it is easy for implementation. Thus, (1.34) is
transformed into the α-β stationary coordinate system to obtain the voltage equations
based on the EEMF model,
      
uα Rs + pL d ωe L d − L q iα eα
= + (1.36)
uβ −ωe L d − L q Rs + pL d iβ eβ

where eα = −E ex sin θe and eβ = E ex cos θe are components of EEMF in the α-β

axes.
According to (1.36), the rotor position information can be decoupled from the
inductance matrix by means of the equivalent transformation and the introduction of
the EEMF concept. In this way, the EEMF is the only term that contains the rotor
position information. Then the phase information of the EEMF can be used to realize
the rotor position observation.
Rewrite the IPMSM voltage Eq. (1.36) as a state equation using the stator currents
as state variables,
      
i̇ α 1 −Rs −ωe L d − L q iα 1 u α − eα
= + . (1.37)
i̇ β L d ωe L d − L q −Rs iβ L d u β − eβ

Since the stator current is the only physical quantity that can be directly measured,
the stator current error is selected as the sliding surface,
   
ĩ î − i α
s(x) = α = α =0 (1.38)
ĩ β î β − i β

where the superscript “ˆ” indicates estimated value and “˜” indicates the error of
observation, which refers to the difference between the observed value and the actual
one.
The traditional second order sliding mode observer is constructed. The mathe-
matical model is shown in (1.39). And the block diagram is shown in Fig. 1.16.
1.5 Model Based Sensorless Control 19

uα iα iβ
uβ
iˆα + - iα zα êα
ωˆ e Second Order Low θˆe
Observer based iˆ
β + -i zβ Pass êβ PLL
on EEMF β Filter

Fig. 1.16 Block diagram of traditional second-order sliding mode observer

      
î˙α 1 −Rs −ω̂e L d − L q î α 1 u α − êα − z α
= + (1.39)
î˙
β
L d ω̂e L d − L q −Rs î β L d u β − êβ − z β

where superscripts “ˆ” indicates the observered value, z α and z β are sliding mode
feedback components:
⎡  ⎤
 
zα sgn î α − i α
= k⎣  ⎦ (1.40)
zβ sgn î β − i β

where k is the sliding mode gain designed by Lyapunov stability analysis.

The observered value of EEMF in α-β axes (êα , êβ ) can be obtained by a low-pass
filter (LPF) from the obtained discontinuous switching signals z α and z β ,
   
êα ωcl zα
= (1.41)
êβ s + ωcl β
z

where ωcl is the cut-off frequency of the LPF, which is usually selected according
to the fundamental frequency of the stator current to ensure that the fundamental
component is not affected while filtering out the high-frquency components.

1.5.3 Full-Order Sliding-Mode Observer

Normally, the mechanical time constant of the system is much larger than its elec-
tromagnetic time constant. In a PWM control period, the angular velocity can be
considered as a constant, i.e. ω̇e = 0. Under this circumstance, the EEMF and its
derivative satisfy the following relationship,
20 1 Basic Knowdge of AC Motor Drives
   
ėα −eβ
= ωe . (1.42)
ėβ eα

The full-order state equation of IPMSM using the stator currents and the extended
back EMFs as state variables can be derived,
      
i̇ A11 A12 i B1
= + u (1.43)
ė 0 A22 e 0

where
 T  T  T
i = i α i β , e = eα eβ , u = u α u β
 
A11 =−R L d · I + ωe L d − L q L d · J

A12 = − 1 L d · I, A22 = ωe · J

B1 =1 L d · I,

   
10 0 −1
I= , J= .
01 1 0

According to the full-order state Eq. (1.43), the full-order sliding mode observer
can be established as shown in (1.44). Figure 1.17 shows the block diagram of the
full-order sliding mode observer based on EEMF model.
      
˙ Â11 A12 î B1 1
î
= + u− Ksgn(s). (1.44)
ê˙ 0 Â22 ê 0 Ld

where

uα iα iβ
-
uβ iˆα + iα

ωˆ e Full Order ˆ -
i
Observer based β + iβ
on EEMF êα θˆe
êβ PLL

Fig. 1.17 Block diagram of full-order sliding mode observer

1.5 Model Based Sensorless Control 21

 T
î = î α î β
 T
ê = êα êβ
s =î − i

 
Â11 =−R L d · I + ω̂e L d − L q L d · J
Â22 =ω̂e · J

⎡ ⎤
k 0
⎢ 0 k ⎥
K=⎢
⎣ −m
⎥
0 ⎦
0 −m

where K is the feedback gain matrix, k and m are the sliding mode observer gains
that can be obtained from Lyapunov stability analysis.

1.5.4 Stability Analysis of Sliding-Mode Observer

A dynamic model of the current observation error can be obtained by subtracting

(1.39) from (1.37):

Ld − Lq    
ĩ˙α = −
Rs 1 1
ĩ α − ω̂e î β − ωe i β − ẽα − ksgn î α − i α
Ld Ld Ld Ld
   
˙ĩ = − Rs ĩ + L d − L q ω̂ î − ω i − 1
ẽβ −
1
ksgn î β − i β (1.45)
β β e α e α
Ld Ld Ld Ld

where ẽα = êα − eα and ẽβ = êβ − eβ are the α-β components of EEMF.
Normally, when the stator currents reach the sliding mode surface, the observed
speed can converge to the actual speed, i.e. ω̂e = ωe . Therefore, (1.45) can be further
simplified to

Ld − Lq  
ĩ˙α = −
Rs 1 1
ĩ α − ωe ĩ β − ẽα − ksgn î α − i α
Ld Ld Ld Ld
 
˙ĩ = − Rs ĩ + L d − L q ω ĩ − 1 ẽ − 1 ksgn î − i . (1.46)
β β e α β β β
Ld Ld Ld Ld

In order to analyze the stability of the second-order sliding mode observer, define
the positive definite Lyapunov function as:

1 T 1 2 
V = s s= ĩ α + ĩ β2 . (1.47)
2 2
22 1 Basic Knowdge of AC Motor Drives

In order to enhance the robustness of the observer against disturbance and param-
eter variation, and to ensure the convergence, it can be known from the conditionality
of the sliding mode variable structure that V̇ must be negative, i.e. V̇ < 0,

V̇ =sT ṡ
=ĩ α · ĩ˙α + ĩ β · ĩ˙β
  
Rs Ld − Lq 1 1
=ĩ α − ĩ α − ω̂e ĩ β − ẽα − ksgn ĩ α
Ld Ld Ld Ld
  
Rs Ld − Lq 1 1
+ĩ β − ĩ β + ω̂e ĩ α − ẽβ − ksgn ĩ β
Ld Ld Ld Ld
Rs  2  1     1    
=− ĩ α + ĩ β2 − ĩ α ẽα + ksgn ĩ α − ĩ β ẽβ + ksgn ĩ β
Ld Ld Ld
=V1 − V2 (1.48)

where
Rs  2 
ĩ α + ĩ β2 ,
V1 = − (1.49)
Ld
1     1    
V2 = ĩ α ẽα + ksgn ĩ α + ĩ β ẽβ + ksgn ĩ β
Ld Ld
        . (1.50)
1 s + 2ωcl s + 2ωcl
= ĩ α ksgn ĩ α − eα + ĩ β ksgn ĩ β − eβ
Ld s + ωcl s + ωcl

Equation (1.49) shows that V1 is always negative. The LPF cut-off frequency is
relatively high, s+2ω cl
s+ωcl
≈ 2. If k is large enough and satisfy (1.51),

1
k> max |eα |, eβ , (1.51)
2
the sliding mode convergence condition can be satisfied. When V converges to zero,
ĩ α and ĩ β will be zero and the estimated currents will converge to the actual values.
By using the idea of equivalent control, the stability of the full-order sliding mode
observer can also be analyzed.
Step 1: Refering to the stability analysis of the traditional reduced-order sliding
mode observer, as shown in (1.45)–(1.51). The difference is that the full-order sliding
mode observer does not need the low pass filter which causes the phase lag in the
rotor position observation. However, its derivation process is basically the same.
Step 2: When the stator currents reach the sliding mode region, the estimated
stator currents converge to their actual values, i.e. ĩ˙α = ĩ˙β = 0. At this time, (1.46)
can be rewritten as follows,
1.5 Model Based Sensorless Control 23
 
ẽα = −ksgn î α − i α
 . (1.52)
ẽβ = −ksgn î β − i β

Let (1.44) be subtracted from (1.43), the error dynamic equation of EEMF can be
obtained as:
1  
ẽ˙α = −ẽβ ω̂e + msgn î α − i α
Ld
1   . (1.53)
˙ẽβ = ẽα ω̂e + msgn î β − i β
Ld

According to (1.52) and (1.53), the results can be obtained,

1 
ẽ˙α = −ẽβ ω̂e − m k · ẽα
Ld
. (1.54)

˙ẽβ = ẽα ω̂e − 1 m k · ẽβ
Ld

Equation (1.54) shows that the EEMF error dynamic equations have two basic
terms: the prediction and the correction term. EEMF observation equations are
the prediction
 term, and the feedback correction composed of the gain coefficient
1
Ld
m k is the correction term. Therefore, the above-mentioned full-order sliding
mode observer can remove the LPF used in the traditional reduced-order sliding
mode observer, thereby avoiding the phase lag.
Solve the differential (1.54) and obtain its characteristic equation,
     2
α(s) = s 2 + 2 L d · m k · s + ω̂e2 + 1 L 2d · m k =0 (1.55)

where ‘s’ is Laplace operator. The eigenvalue can be given as,


−m k ± j L d ωe
s1,2 = . (1.56)
Ld

Equation (1.56) shows that the eigenvalues s1 and s2 are conjugate complex roots,
which are located on the left half plane. And the system is asymptotically stable.
Equation (1.55) can be further rewritten as the following standard form,

s 2 + 2ξ ωn s + ωn2 = 0 (1.57)

where
   2
ωn = ω̂e2 + 1 L 2d · m k
24 1 Basic Knowdge of AC Motor Drives

Fig. 1.18 Characteristic

curve of saturation function z

−δ
δ is

−k


m k
ξ =  2. (1.58)
L 2d ω̂e2 + m k

where ωn refers to the natural oscillation angular frequency, and ξ is the damping
ratio.
According to the control theory, the convergencerate ofthe EEMF observation
errors ẽsα and ẽsβ depend on ξ ωn , i.e. the value of 1 L d ·m k. The larger the value
of ξ ωn is, the faster the convergence of the EEMF observation error will be. For
ξ ∈ (0.4, 0.8), the overshoot of the system is suitable, with a shorter adjustment time
and better dynamic performance. In order to diminish the chattering phenomenon
inherently in the sliding mode observer, the saturation function is used to replace the
traditional sign function, as shown in Fig. 1.18
⎧
⎨ k, ! ĩ s ≥ δ
⎪
z α,β = k · ĩ s δ, - δ < ĩ s < δ (1.59)
⎪
⎩
−k, ĩ s ≤ −δ

where δ is the boundary layer constant of current error. The saturation function is
a quasi-sliding mode observer method, which is essentially a linear control in the
boundary layer and a non-continuous switching control outside the boundary layer.
Therefore, this method could effectively weaken the chattering phenomenon.
1.6 Summary 25

1.6 Summary

The basic knowledge of PMSM drives has been introduced in this section. The voltage
equations of the PMSM in the a-b-c coordinate frame are severely coupled, which is
mainly caused by the mutual inductances. In order to realize the decoupling control,
the α-β and the d-q coordinate frames are introduced, which aim to eliminate the
effect of the mutual inductances. The PMSM models in the α-β and d-q coordinate
frames are obtained by the coordinate transformation, which are an important tool
for PMSM drives. The control methods of PMSM based on vector control are then
introduced, including the SVPWM strategy, the corresponding maximum voltage
vector evaluation and field orientation control. Nowadays, as the expanded usage of
PMSMs in industry and home appliance, higher requirements of motor drives are
proposed, such as lower cost and higher reliability. Therefore, position sensorless
control method becomes an attractive researching area. This chapter introduces the
model-based methods to achieve sensorless control scheme for IPMSM drives. The
basic principle of sliding-mode observer based sensorless control is introduced.

References

1. T. Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power Systems, 2nd edn. (Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, 1991)
2. P.C. Krause, Analysis of Electric Machinery (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1987)
3. A.E. Fitzgerald, C. Kingslay, S.D. Umans, Electric Machinery (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1983)
4. S. Bolognani, M. Zigliotto, Novel digital continuous control of SVM inverters in the
overmodulation range. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 33(2), 525–530 (1997)
5. F. Briz, A. Diez, M. W. Degner, R. D. Lorenz, Current and flux regulation in field-weakening
operation [of induction motors]. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 37(1), 42–50 (2001)
6. Z. Chen, M. Tomita, S. Doki, S. Okuma, An extended electromotive force model for sensorless
control of interior permanent-magnet synchronous motors. IEEE Trans. Indu. Electron. 50(2),
288–295 (2003)
Chapter 2
High Power Factor Control of Grid Input
Current

Large volume electrolytic capacitors are usually utilized at the DC-link of PMSM
drives to buffer and store energy, which can stabilize the DC-link voltage and supply
power for the inverter. Meanwhile, the power factor correction (PFC) circuit is neces-
sary to improve the power factor and reduce the total harmonic distortion (THD) of
the grid input current. However, the electrolytic capacitor containing the electrolyte
results in lifetime decrease and volume increase of the drive system [1–4]. In order to
solve these problems, the reduced DC-link capacitance AC motor drive technique has
been developed [5–8]. Compared with the convensional drive system, the decreased
capacity of the DC-link capacitor can effectively reduce the drive system volume.
Meanwhile, the cost of the system can also be reduced, which is an important concern
in industry applications.
Due to the remarkably decreased capacity of the DC-link capacitor, the energy
stored in the film capacitor is difficult to maintain DC-link voltage constant. As
a result, the DC-link voltage will fluctuate with the grid voltage. However, as the
constant DC-link voltage in the traditional motor drive system leads to a narrow
conduction angle of the diode rectifier, the PFC circuit is required to broaden the
conduction angle and reduce the current harmonics. In this way, the fluctuated DC-
link voltage makes it possible to achieve higher input power factor. Therefore, the
PFC circuit can be eliminated to reduce the cost and improve the reliability of the
drive system. Hence the high power factor control strategy of the reduced DC-link
capacitance motor drive system is important.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 27
G. Wang et al., Reduced DC-link Capacitance AC Motor Drives,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8566-1_2
28 2 High Power Factor Control of Grid Input Current

2.1 Power Characteristic Analysis of Drive System

2.1.1 Topology of Single-Phase Reduced DC-Link

Capacitance Motor Drives

As shown in Fig. 2.1, the reduced DC-link capacitance single-phase PMSM drive
system consists of the diode rectifier, the DC-link film capacitor and the inverter.
The capacity of the applied DC-link electrolytic capacitor is selected from several
hundred to several thousand microfarads in the drive system using a single-phase
diode rectifier. In the electrolytic capacitor-less drive system, the capacity is usually
selected as 2–5% of the electrolytic capacitor. As a result, the DC-link voltage will
fluctuate with the grid voltage. The grid input power and the inverter output power
also fluctuate with the DC-link voltage.

2.1.2 Grid Input Power

Figure 2.2 shows the simplified block diagram of the electrolytic capacitor-less motor
drive system, the grid voltage ug can be presented as
 
ug = Ug sin ωg t + ϕg (2.1)

Fig. 2.1 Reduced DC-link

capacitance single-phase ig iinv
PMSM drive ic
Three-phase
inverter
ug udc
PMSM

Film capacitor

Fig. 2.2 Simplified block Pg Pinv

diagram of reduced DC-link
Lg Rg Pdc
capacitance PMSM drive
system
ug udc C
2.1 Power Characteristic Analysis of Drive System 29

where U g , ωg and ϕ g denote the peak amplitude, the angular velocity, and the initial
phase of the grid voltage, respectively. In order to achieve the unity power factor, the
phase of the grid current ig should be synchronous with the grid voltage. Hence the
expected grid input power Pg can be calculated as
 
Pg = ug ig = Ug Ig sin2 ωg t + ϕg (2.2)

where I g is the amplitude of the grid current.

2.1.3 Inverter Output Power

The grid input power of the drive system Pg can be divided into two parts: the film
capacitor power Pdc and the three-phase inverter power Pinv , which can be expressed
as

Pg = Pdc + Pinv . (2.3)

Compared with the traditional drive system, the small volume of the film capacitor
cannot maintain the DC-link voltage constant. The DC-link voltage will fluctuate with
twice the frequency of grid voltage and it can be expressed as
  
udc =Ug sin ωg t + ϕg 
    
=Ug sin ωg t + ϕg · sgn sin ωg t + ϕg . (2.4)

As a result, Pdc can be calculated as follows:

dudc
Pdc =udc ic = udc Cdc
dt
d     
=udc Cdc Ug sin ωg t + ϕg · sgn sin ωg t + ϕg
dt
1 2   
= Ug Cdc ωg sin 2 ωg t + ϕg (2.5)
2
where ic and C dc are the current and capacitance of the film capacitor, sgn() is the sign
function. Ignoring the switching loss of the inverter, the motor power can be regarded
as the inverter power Pinv . Therefore, the inverter power Pinv can be calculated as:
   
Pinv = 1.5 udq · idq = 1.5 ud id + uq iq (2.6)

did
ud = Rs id + Ld − ωe Lq iq (2.7)
dt
30 2 High Power Factor Control of Grid Input Current

diq
uq = Rs iq + Lq + ωe Ld id + ωe ψf , (2.8)
dt

2.2 Inverter Power Control

2.2.1 Principle of Inverter Power Control

As shown in Fig. 2.3, the grid input power Pg , the DC-link capacitor power Pdc and
the inverter output power Pinv fluctuate with twice the frequency of grid voltage.
Based on the power analysis of the drive system, the solution to achieve high power
factor and low THD of the grid current is to ensure the grid input power to be
sinusoidal. As shown in Fig. 2.3, the grid input power depends on both the power of
the film capacitor and the inverter. The film capacitor power can be calculated by the
fluctuated DC-Link voltage according to (2.5), which cannot be controlled directly.
Meanwhile, the sum of the film capacitor power per cycle is zero, and the magnitude
of the power is much smaller than the inverter power. As a result, the approach to
control the grid input power is to regulate the inverter power effectively.

ua
ig
udc
t t
t
ig

Film S1 S3 S5
D1 D2
capacitor

Lg udc Cdc Motor

ug
S2 S4 S6

D3 D4

Pg Pdc Pinv

t t t

Fig. 2.3 Power characteristics of the drive system

2.2 Inverter Power Control 31

iq* ∗
Current uqout
ωr* + T Pavg∗
Inverter +- controller
Speed e
power PR
controller u grid
- controller d-axis *
i
d
∗
Current udout
current
ωr generator +- controller
uq ud iq id id iq
udff + +
−ωr Lq iq
id uqff + +
iq ωr Ld id + ωrψ f

ud∗ uq∗
u grid uq∗∗ uq
Output
DC-link voltage Δudq voltage ∗∗
regulation modification ud ud
udc

Fig. 2.4 Block diagram of inverter power control

2.2.2 Inverter Power Control Scheme

Figure 2.4 shows the block diagram of the proposed inverter power control strategy.
The proportional resonant (PR) controller is used to regulate the inverter power,
which mainly generates the q-axis current reference. However, the inverter power
loop cannot control the inverter power perfectly. Here, a power compensation method
based on the DC-link voltage regulation is adopted to diminish the power control
error. Meanwhile, the output voltage modification block aims to impose the output of
the DC-link voltage regulation to the decoupled voltage vectors. The generation of
the current reference for flux weakening should take the DC-link voltage fluctuation
into consideration. Additionally, as the over-modulation of SVPWM distorts the
output voltage of inverter. Then the stator current will contain remarkable ripples,
which will lead to the distortions of the grid current. In order to reduce the harmonics
of the grid current, the proposed SVPWM method ensures that the magnitude of the
voltage vector satisfies the maximum output voltage circle of the inverter.

2.2.3 Inverter Power Control Loop

Figure 2.5 shows the block diagram of the inverter power controller. As shown in
(2.3), the grid input power consists of the film capacitor power and the inverter power.
According to (2.5), the average power of the film capacitor is zero, and the average
grid input power is equal to the average inverter power. The average inverter power
reference Pavg is regulated by the product between the torque reference T *e and the
angular speed ωr . The grid voltage phase θ g is detected by a phase locked loop (PLL).
32 2 High Power Factor Control of Grid Input Current

Power reference generator PR controller

1.5 ( ud id + uqiq ) + iq*

K PRP
+
Pavg Pdc
Pinv
∗ - -
Pinv + + 2ω prc K PRR s
2sin 2 θ g
s 2 + 2ω prc s + ω pr 0 2

θg 1
cos(θ g )
s + +
ωg
ug ε ki
kd kp + ko
s
Phase locked loop(PLL)

Fig. 2.5 Block diagram of the inverter power controller

Then Pavg is regulated by a sinusoidal waveform to generate the grid input power
reference P*inv , which fluctuates with twice the frequency of the grid voltage.
Actually, the DC-link voltage cannot decrease to zero when the load is not large
enough, and the typical waveform of the DC-link voltage is shown in Fig. 2.6. The
film capacitor power Pdc is related to the DC-link voltage and can be calculated as
follows:

Pdc =
0   θ ∈ [0 , θm ) ∪ (π −θm , π ] (2.9)
U C ω
1 2
2 g dc g
sin 2θg θ ∈ [θm , π −θm ]

where θ g and θ m denote the phase of the grid voltage and the initial conduction phase
of the grid current, respectively.
The inverter power control loop is established by regarding the calculation of the
motor output power as the power feedback Pinv , which also represents the mechanical
load of the motor. It can be seen that the power signals in the inverter power control
loop are the periodic sinusoidal signals. Hence both the repetitive controller and PR
controller can achieve better performance than the PI controller which is effective

Fig. 2.6 Typical waveform udc

of the DC-link voltage

udcmax
Pdc udcmin
0 θm π 2π θ
2.2 Inverter Power Control 33

to the DC signals. The repetitive controller and the PR controller are based on the
internal model theory, which can realize high precision control for the feedback
system by specific controllers combined with the internal model of input signal or
disturbance signal. The repetitive controllers are applied successfully to track the
periodic input signal or reject the periodic disturbance. As for the sinusoidal signals,
the PR controller containing the corresponding internal model is applied to optimize
the control performance.
Both the repetitive controller and the PR controller are fit for the periodic signals.
The repetitive controller needs several periods to learn the signal model and elimi-
nate the errors by the sum of errors in the previous periods. As for the PR controller,
the signal model has been previously set based on the internal model of the sinu-
soidal signal. Therefore, as for the sinusoidal signals, the control performance of PR
controller can be better than that of the repetitive controller. Meanwhile, the repet-
itive controller should be combined with a PI controller to satisfy the basic system
requirements on closed-up bandwidth, loop gain, etc. More parameters need to be
designed than that of PR controller. As a result, the parameter determination and
system stability consideration applying repetitive controller will be trivial compared
to the PR controller. Hence the PR controller is applied in the proposed inverter
power control loop to achieve better performance and a simple control block, which
is easy to determine the parameters.

2.3 Parameter Determination of Inverter Power Controller

2.3.1 Mathematical Model of Inverter Power Control Loop

The PR controller can be expressed as follows:

2ωprc s
GPR (s) = KPRP + KPRR (2.10)
s2 + 2ωprc s + ωpr0
2

where K PRP and K PRR are the proportional and the resonant gains, respectively,
ωpr0 is the resonant frequency, and ωprc is the cut-off frequency. The output of PR
controller depends on the error between the reference and the actual values of inverter
power, which can be regarded as the q-axis current reference. For the steady state, the
average q-axis current is proportional to the load torque and the instantaneous value
will fluctuate with twice the frequency of the grid voltage. Therefore, the output
of PR controller contains the twice frequency component and the high frequency
component for the stator current regulation. The values of K PRP and K PRR can be
determined as follows [9–11].
The power control loop using the PR controller can be shown in Fig. 2.7, where
T prd is the time delay of the control loop and the motor can be simplified as a RL
circuit. The open loop transfer function can be expressed as
34 2 High Power Factor Control of Grid Input Current

*
pinv + 2 prc s pinv
Tprd s
K PRP K PRR e Motor
s2 2 prc s
2

pinv- pr 0

Fig. 2.7 Power control loop of PR controller

⎛ ⎞
2ωprc s 1
GPRL (s) = KPRP ⎝1 +   ⎠ · e−Tprd s ·  
TPRP s2 + 2ωprc s + ωpr0
2 Rprr 1 + sTpri
(2.11)

where TPRP = KPRP /KPRR and Tpri = Lprl /Rprr .

2.3.2 Parameters Design of PR Controller

The phase angle of the open loop transfer function GPRL (s) at the cross over frequency
ωprf is given by
⎧ ⎛ ⎞ ⎫
  ⎨K −jωprf Tprd ⎬
PRP ⎝ 2jωprf ωprc e
∠GPRL jωprf =∠ 1+    ⎠
⎩ Rprr TPRP ωpr02 − ω2 1 + jωprf Tpri ⎭
prf + 2jωprf ωprc
 
= −π + ϕprm
   
≈ tan−1 ωprf TPRP /2ωprc − π/2 − ωprf Tprd − tan−1 ωprf Tpri (2.12)

where ϕ prm represents the required stability phase margin which is usually taken as
40° in theory. The phase margin can be represented as
 
ϕprm ≈ tan−1 ωprf TPRP /2ωprc − ωprf Tprd . (2.13)

The maximum value of ωprf for a given ϕ prm can be represented as

π/2 − ϕprm
ωprf (max) = . (2.14)
Tprd

The maximum magnitude of K PRP can be achieved by setting the open loop gain
at this frequency ωprf (max) to unity, which gives

  2
1 + ωprf (max) Tpri
KPRP = Rprr ωprf (max) TPRP  2  2 . (2.15)
ωprf (max) TPRP + 2ωprc
2.3 Parameter Determination of Inverter Power Controller 35

Therefore, the magnitude of K PRP can be represented as

KP = ωf (max) L. (2.16)

The magnitude of K PRR can be maximized by making

 
tan−1 ωprf (max) TPRP /2ωprc ≈ π/2 (2.17)

which gives

20ωprc
TPRP = . (2.18)
ωprf (max)

The values of K PRP and K PRR are determined by the above method when the
equivalent RL circuit of the power control loop is regarded as the q-axis RL circuit.
In the drive system, the coupled inverter power between d- and q-axis leads the d-
axis inductance to affect the accuracy of the equivalent RL circuit. The parameters
of PR controller need to be tuned in practical applications to optimize the control
performance. Fortunately, the tuning is relatively simple since the values of the d-
and q-axis inductances are in the same order of magnitude.

2.3.3 Parameters Determination

As the frequency of the grid voltage is 50 Hz and the DC-link voltage rectified by
the single-phase diode rectifier fluctuates with 100 Hz, the resonant frequency ωpr0
should be set as 100 Hz. Meanwhile, the PR controller can achieve better performance
when the cut-off frequency ωprc is set lower to obtain a higher gain for the inverter
power reference. However, it should be noted that the lower value of ωc may result in
the instability of the drive system for the sharper phase distortion. The Bode diagram
of the PR controller is shown in Fig. 2.8.

2.4 Inverter Power Compensation Based on DC-Link

Voltage Control

2.4.1 Performance Evaluation of Inverter Power Control

The inverter power controller is introduced in Sect. 2.2. While the error between
the power reference P*inv and the actual feedback power Pinv is difficult to be elimi-
nated only by adopting the PR controller in the inverter power control loop. The PR
controller can obtain better performance for the fluctuated inverter power component.
36 2 High Power Factor Control of Grid Input Current

Fig. 2.8 Bode diagram of 50

PR controller of different ωc ω pr 0

Magnitude [dB]
40
values
30

20
ω prc = 0.05π
10 ω prc = 0.02π
ω prc = 0.005π
0
90

45

Phase [deg]
0

-45

-90
80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120
Frequency [Hz]

However, as for the fluctuated current signals, the traditional PI current controllers
limit the control performance. Meanwhile, the inverter power is coupled between d-
and q-axes.
As the feedback of the inverter power only has an effect on iq reference and the
regulation of id does not depend on the inverter power control loop, the reference
of iq generated from the PR controller is not the optimal matching. Once taking
the relationship of the coupled inverter power in the d-q axis reference frame into
consideration, the accurate regulation of id is not easy to realize. As a result, it is also
difficult to separate the coupled power between the d- and q-axis completely.
Therefore, it is necessary to adopt an additional inverter power compensation
block to reduce the inverter power control error, which can realize the actual power
feedback tracking the power reference better. Meanwhile, the bandwidth of current
PI controllers can be set lower, which benefits the stability of the drive system.

2.4.2 Closed Loop Control of DC-Link Voltage Control

A novel power compensation method based on the DC-link voltage regulation is

illustrated in this section. The traditional drive system needs a PFC circuit to ensure
that the grid current can satisfy the standard requirements of EN-61000-3-2. The
PFC circuit also blocks the grid input side and the inverter output side. Due to
the elimination of the PFC circuit in the reduced DC-link capacitance motor drive
system, the grid input side and inverter output side have been connected by the DC-
link directly. The distorted grid input current caused by the distorted inverter output
power is reflected by the DC-link voltage. Hence the distorted inverter power can
be detected by the DC-link voltage and the additional power compensation can be
realized by the DC-link voltage regulation.
2.4 Inverter Power Compensation Based on DC-Link Voltage Control 37

According to the circuit topology of Fig. 2.1, the inverter power can be calculated
as:
 
dudc
Pinv = udc iinv = udc ig − Cdc (2.19)
dt

where iinv represents the input current of the inverter.

Generally, the DC-link voltage can be calculated as shown in (2.4). However, if
the inverter power cannot be controlled precisely, the irregular inverter power will
distort the DC-link voltage. The Fourier analysis of the actual DC-link voltage can
be expressed as:


n
 
udc = udc,0 + udc,k sin 2kωg t + ϕdc (2.20)
k=1

where udc,0 , udc,k and ϕ dc are the offset value, the amplitudes, and the phases of the
k th harmonic components of DC-link voltage, respectively.
Therefore, the inverter power control error can be detected by the distortion of
the DC-link voltage as shown in Fig. 2.9a. The power compensation method based
on the DC-link voltage regulation is applied to improve the inverter power control
performance, which is shown in Fig. 2.9b. The DC-link voltage reference is generated
by the sine calculation of the estimated phase of the grid voltage. A PI controller is
applied to regulate the DC-link voltage. The output of the PI controller represents
the power error P that can be calculated as follows:

Fig. 2.9 Scheme of the

inverter power udc*
Voltage

compensation. a The
DC-link voltage reference udc
and the actual distorted
DC-link voltage. b The block
diagram of the DC-link
voltage regulation 0 2
(a)

ug udc* P udq
PLL sin( ) + Kcom
g PI
-
udc

id2 iq2

(b)
38 2 High Power Factor Control of Grid Input Current

Fig. 2.10 Small signal block udc* K com udc

+ K dcvI 1
diagram of the DC-link K dcvP +
udc ,0 id2 + iq2 sCdc
voltage control u-
dc
s

 
KdcvI  ∗ 
P = KdcvP + udc − udc (2.21)
s

where K dcvP and K dcvI represent the proportional gain and the integral gain of the
∗
DC-link controller, udc and udc represent the DC-link voltage reference and the actual
DC-link voltage, respectively.
Then, P is divided by the magnitude of the current vector, which represents the
magnitude of the modified voltage udq in the d-q axis reference frame. Actually,
the modified voltage udq will lead to the additional motor power P, which can
affect iinv . The relationship can be given by

P
iinv = . (2.22)
udc,0

A reactor is applied to improve the quality of the grid current in the reduced
DC-link capacitance motor drive system, which can stabilize the grid current and
reduce the impact caused by iinv . As a result, the current of the film capacitor ic
is regulated by iinv , which can shape the DC-link voltage udc ,

1
udc = ic (t)dt. (2.23)
Cdc

Therefore, the small signal block diagram of the DC-link voltage regulation can
be simply expressed as Fig. 2.10. The establishment of the DC-link control loop can
explain the relationship between the motor power and the DC-link voltage, which can
shape the DC-link voltage effectively. Meanwhile, the control loop can be regarded as
a first-order system, and it is easy to design the parameters of PI controller. Therefore,
the DC-link voltage regulation can effectively eliminate the distorted inverter power
and improve the power control performance.

2.4.3 DC-Link Voltage Reference Generation

It can be seen from Fig. 2.11 that the minimum DC-link voltage udc_min is closely
related to the conduction angle of the diode rectifier, which has an important effect on
the grid current harmonics. The maximum DC-link voltage udc_max is determined by
the grid voltage. The grid current shown in Fig. 2.11 can be approximately represented
as:
2.4 Inverter Power Compensation Based on DC-Link Voltage Control 39

Fig. 2.11 Relationship

between the grid current and
udc / ig
the fluctuated DC-link udc _ max
voltage
udc _ min

0θm π 2π θ

Ig sin θ, θ ∈ [θm , π − θm ] ∪ [π + θm , 2π − θm ]
ig = . (2.24)
0, θ ∈ [0, θm ] ∪ [π − θm , π + θm ] ∪ [2π − θm , 2π ]

As the function of ig can be regarded as an odd one, the Fourier analysis of ig is

the sinusoidal series, which can be calculated as:
∞

ig = bn sin(nx)
n=1
 π−θm
2
bn = Ig sin θ sin(nθ )d θ , n = 1, 3, 5, 7, · · · (2.25)
π θm

The Fourier coefficients bn can be presented as:

 
Ig 1 1
bn = sin((n + 1)θm ) − sin((n − 1)θm ) . (2.26)
π n+1 n−1

It can be seen that bn is related to I g . For example, if the value of I g is unit, the
grid current harmonics with respect to θ m can be shown in Fig. 2.12.
The other orders of the grid current harmonics can be calculated by (2.26). As a
result, the value of θ m can be obtained to satisfy the harmonic standards, which are
shown in Table 2.1. Hence udc_min can be determined according to the value of grid
currents, which can make the system satisfy the harmonic standards. The detailed
values under different amplitude of grid currents can be shown in Fig. 2.13. It can be
seen that the DC-link voltage reference udc_min decreases as the grid current increases.

2.4.4 DC-Link Voltage Control Realization

As shown in Fig. 2.4, the outputs of the current controllers are decoupled by the feed-
∗
forward voltage udff and uqff to generate the voltage vector reference udq . Whereas
the output of the DC-link voltage regulation shown in Fig. 2.9 needs to be imposed
to the final voltage vector reference. The purpose of the output signal udq is to
40 2 High Power Factor Control of Grid Input Current

Fig. 2.12 Harmonics of grid

current with respect to the
0.4 3rd Harmonics
initial conduction phase θ m

Harmonics/p.u.
0.3
5th Harmonics

0.2 7th Harmonics

0.1

9th Harmonics
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
θm

Table 2.1 Harmonic Standards of EN61000-3-2

Harmonics[nth] Standards[A] Harmonics[nth] Standards[A]
2 1.08 3 2.30
4 0.43 5 1.14
6 0.3 7 0.77
8 0.23 9 0.40
10 0.18 11 0.33
12 0.15 13 0.21
Even harmonics (14 ≤ n≤40) 1.84/n Odd harmonics (15 ≤ n≤39) 2.25/n

Fig. 2.13 Determination of 350

DC-link voltage reference
DC-link voltage reference udc_min /V

with respect to the altitude of 300

grid current
250

200

150

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Grid current/A
2.4 Inverter Power Compensation Based on DC-Link Voltage Control 41

modify the inverter power, which also can be regarded as a voltage disturbance for
the closed-loop control system.
Therefore, the smaller the magnitude of the imposed voltage vector is, the less
the effect of the voltage disturbance will be on the drive system. The additional
effect of the voltage vector on the motor current has been considered in the voltage
modification module in [7]. Hence the optimized voltage modification vectors are the
ones with the shortest distance between the final voltage vector and the feedforward
voltage vector. In the proposed output voltage modification method, the feed-forward
voltage vector and the output of current controller are treated as a whole voltage vector
∗
udq , which owns the smallest magnitude for certain power modification, because the
effect of the additional voltage vector on the motor current is not obvious. Hence the
compromise between the consideration of the effect on the motor current in [7] and
the reduced calculation of the proposed method is tolerable.
The imposed voltage vector in the d-q reference frame is shown in Fig. 2.14a, and
the possible direction of voltage vector is infinite, which means the value of K com as
shown in Fig. 2.10 is various. However, the direction paralleled to the current vector
is the optimization, because the magnitude of the voltage is the smallest one to the

∗
Pinv
ΔP
q Pinv
Δudq

idq
udq∗

d
∗
Pinv (a)
ΔP
q Pinv q Pinv
∗∗
udq Δudq ΔP ∗
Pinv
uq∗∗ Δuq Δudq
udq∗
idq u ∗ idq uq∗ Δuq
∗ q
udq
∗∗
udq uq∗∗

ud∗∗ ud∗ d ud∗ ud∗∗ d

Δud (b) Δud (c)

Fig. 2.14 Scheme of the output voltage modification. a Selection of the modified voltage direction.
∗ .cP
b Pinv < Pinv ∗
inv > Pinv
42 2 High Power Factor Control of Grid Input Current

same inverter power modification. Meanwhile, K com can be regarded as a unity gain.
Figure 2.14b shows the scheme of the synthetic voltage vector modification when the
∗
inverter power error P > 0. It means that Pinv is smaller than Pinv . In the figure, ud
and uq are the d- and q-axis modification voltages, respectively. By applying the
∗∗
voltage modification block, the final voltage reference udq can decrease the inverter
power error effectively. Figure 2.14c shows the situation that P < 0 and the direction
of udq is opposite to the one in Fig. 2.14b in order to decrease the inverter power.
As a result, the performance of inverter power control can be improved by applying
the modified voltage.

2.4.5 Analysis of Maximum Motor Speed

The motor speed limitation is related to the grid voltage, the DC-link voltage, and
the load torque. The drive system should meet the voltage and current constraint to
guarantee the normal motor operation. As for the reduced DC-link capacitance motor
drive system, the maximum operating speed will be determined by the fluctuated
DC-link voltage for the remarkably reduced DC-link capacitance compared to the
traditional drive system. The DC-link voltage fluctuates with the grid voltage as
shown in Fig. 2.6. The inner diameter of the voltage hexagon is synchronous with
the fluctuated DC-link voltage, which limits the average inverter output voltage and
the maximum operating speed.
The attenuation coefficient λ of the average inverter output voltage can be
represented as follows:
 π−θm
θm udc_max sinθ d θ + 2udc_min θm
λ= (2.27)
udc_max π

where the initial conduction phase θ m can be calculated as

 
udc_min   
θm = arcsin , θm ∈ 0, π 2 . (2.28)
udc_max

It can be easily proved that the grid voltages with different frequencies almost
provide the same average inverter output voltage because of the characteristic of the
sine function. Generally, because of the voltage and current rating of the inverter
and the motor itself, the maximum operation speed of the machine is limited by the
voltage and current constraint. The voltage and current constraint can be presented
as (2.30), where is represents the maximum current and it can be simplified as:

 2  2 u2
Lq iq + Ld id + ψf ≤ dc2
3ωr
id2 + iq2 ≤ is2 (2.29)
2.4 Inverter Power Compensation Based on DC-Link Voltage Control 43

for the condition ignoring the voltage drop caused by the stator resistance and
assuming the steady-state operation. As for the drive system, the voltage constraint
can be presented as:
 2
 2  2 u2 λ
Lq iq + Ld id + ψf ≤ dc_max . (2.30)
3 ωr

It can be seen that the maximum operating speed is proportional to the attenuation
coefficient λ and the reduced percentage of the operating speed is consistent with λ.
The reduced percentage of the speed can be shown in Fig. 2.15. It can be concluded
that the operating speed reduces with the decrease of udcmin /udcmax and the minimum
percentage is 63.7% when the DC-link voltage decreases to zero.
The constraints and current trajectory with different loads are shown in Fig. 2.16.
The solid curves represent the determined voltage constraint and the dotted curves
represent the voltage constraint corresponded to the current constraint. The inter-
section points of the determined voltage constraint and current trajectory represent
actual motor operating points. The magnitude of d- and q-axis current will increase
to supply the motor torque for the loads as the d-axis current increases. It can be
seen that the intersection of the voltage constraint and the current constraint is the
motor operating region. As for the reduced DC-link capacitance motor drive system,
the voltage constraint will determine the maximum operating speed because of the
remarkably reduced DC-link capacitance. The operating points can be obtained by
the combination of the determined voltage constraint and the current trajectory with
different loads as shown in Fig. 2.16.

Fig. 2.15 Relationship 100

speed (%) with the reduced DC-link voltage
Reduced percentage of the motor operating

between the DC-link voltage

and the reduced percentage
of the motor operating speed
90

80

70

60
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
u
dc _ min
udc _ max
44 2 High Power Factor Control of Grid Input Current

Fig. 2.16 The voltage

iq
current constraint of motor Voltage constraint
operation with different Current constraint
loads
C
B
A

O id

Current trajectory

2.5 Experimental Results

For the purpose of demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed inverter control
method, experiments are performed on an air conditioner drive platform without
electrolytic capacitors in the DC-link. Figure 2.17 shows the experimental platform,
and the parameters of platform are shown in Table 2.2.
The whole control algorithm is realized with a digital signal processor (DSP)
TMS320F28034. As the mechanical sensors cannot be installed on the compressor,
the motor is operated by the sensor-less control. The bandwidth of current PI
controllers is selected as 200 Hz to ensure the stability of the system, the proportional
gain K PRP , the resonant gain K PRR and the cut-off frequency ωprc of the PR controller

Fig. 2.17 Experimental platform (Air-Conditioner)

2.5 Experimental Results 45

Table 2.2 Parameters of the

Parameter Value Parameter Value
experimental platform
Grid voltage 220 Vrms Rated speed 3000 r/min
Grid 50 Hz Stator resistor 1.48
frequency
Film 20 μF d-axis inductance 7.9 mH
capacitor
Line filter 5 mH q-axis inductance 11.7 mH
inductor
Switching 10 kHz Flux linkage 0.11 Wb
frequency
Sampling 10 kHz pole pairs 3
frequency
Rated 1.0 kW
power

Fig. 2.18 Load torque of the TL

single rotary compressor
TLMAX

0 θ LMAX 2π 4π 6π θ

are 1.0, 0.1 and 0.02π, respectively. The power meter WT1600 is used to measure
the harmonics of the grid current. The mechanical load characteristic of the single
rotary IPMSM compressor air conditioner is shown in Fig. 2.18, and it can be seen
that the load torque has a large variation per mechanical cycle, which is determined
by the operational principle of the single rotary compressor.
Figure 2.19 shows the experimental results with and without the inverter power
control loop adopting PR controller and the DC-link voltage control strategy when
the compressor operates at 3000r/min. The left waveforms from top to bottom show
the DC-link voltage, the actual inverter power, the grid current, and the motor current,
respectively.
Meanwhile, the Fourier analysis of the DC-link voltage and grid current are shown
in the right part. In Fig. 2.19a, without the inverter power control loop and the DC-
link voltage control strategy, it can be seen that the inverter power is not under
control and the resonance between the inductor of input filter and the DC-link film
capacitor is obvious that cannot be effectively suppressed. The resonant frequency
of the drive system is approximately 500 Hz when the line inductor is 5mH and the
film capacitor is 20μF. It can be seen that the DC-link voltage fluctuates severely
and the harmonics of grid current far exceed the standards of EN61000-3-2, and the
harmonics around the resonant frequency are obviously serious. At the same time, the
compressor is unable to operate at high speed because the irregular inverter power and
46 2 High Power Factor Control of Grid Input Current

250
Fourier analysis of DC-link voltage

udc[200V/div] udc [V]

Pinv [1000W/div] 0
0 500 1000
f [Hz]
5 Fourier analysis of grid current
ig [10A/div]
ig [A]
im [10A/div]
00 500 1000
[10ms/div]
f [Hz]
(a)
250
Fourier analysis of DC-link voltage

udc[200V/div] udc [V]

Pinv [1000W/div] 0
0 1000
500
f [Hz]
5 Fourier analysis of grid current
ig [10A/div]
ig [A]
im [10A/div]
00 500 1000
[10ms/div]
f [Hz]
(b)
250
Fourier analysis of DC-link voltage

udc[200V/div] udc [V]

Pinv [1000W/div] 0
0 1000
500
f [Hz]
5 Fourier analysis of grid current
ig [10A/div]
ig [A]
im [10A/div]
00 500 1000
[10ms/div]
f [Hz]
(c)

Fig. 2.19 Experimental waveforms when the compressor operates at 3000 r/min. a without the
inverter power control loop (power factor = 0.891, THD = 51.3%). b Only using the inverter power
control loop with PR controller (power factor = 0.912, THD = 37.8%). c Combining the proposed
DC-link voltage control strategy with the inverter power control loop adopting PR controller (power
factor = 0.981, THD = 16.0%)

the severe resonance will lead the drive system unstable. In Fig. 2.19b, the inverter
power control loop with PR controller is applied and the power factor and THD of
the grid side are 0.912 and 37.8%. It can be seen that the grid side performance
is improved compared to that in Fig. 2.19a. Combined with the proposed DC-link
voltage control strategy, the inverter power control loop with PR controller is applied
in Fig. 2.19c. It can be seen that the grid side performance is obviously improved and
2.5 Experimental Results 47

also the harmonics of grid current can be obviously suppressed. The power factor
and THD of the grid side are 0.981 and 16.0%. It can be concluded from Fig. 2.19
that only using the inverter power control loop is difficult to effectively control the
inverter power and suppress the harmonics of the grid current. The fluctuation of
the DC-link voltage is not under control, which reduces the conduction angle of the
diode rectifier and limits the improvement of the power factor. The resonance can be
suppressed whereas the performance is limited. Based on the inverter power control
loop, better performance can be achieved by applying the proposed DC-link voltage
control, which can also shape the DC-link voltage effectively despite the large load
variation of the compressor. Meanwhile, the resonance can be effectively suppressed
for the enhanced inverter power control performance. As a result, it can be seen from
the Fourier analysis that the harmonics of DC-link voltage and grid current can be
obviously suppressed.
In order to compare the control performance of PR controller and repetitive
controller, in Fig. 2.20a, the repetitive controller is applied in the inverter power
control loop and the power factor and THD of the grid side are 0.903 and 38.9%.
The corresponding power factor and THD of the PR controller are 0.912 and 37.8%.
Combined with the proposed DC-link voltage regulation strategy, the inverter power

250
Fourier analysis of DC-link voltage

udc[200V/div] udc [V]

Pinv [1000W/div] 0
0 500 1000
f [Hz]
5 Fourier analysis of grid current
ig [10A/div]
ig [A]
im [10A/div]
0 0 500 1000
[10ms/div]
f [Hz]
(a)
250
Fourier analysis of DC-link voltage

udc[200V/div] udc [V]

Pinv [1000W/div] 0
0 1000
500
f [Hz]
5 Fourier analysis of grid current
ig [10A/div]
ig [A]
im [10A/div]
0 0 500 1000
[10ms/div]
f [Hz]
(b)

Fig. 2.20 Experimental waveforms adopting repetitive controller when the compressor operates at
3000 r/min. a Only using the inverter power control loop with repetitive controller (power factor
= 0.903, THD = 38.9%). b Combining the proposed DC-link voltage regulation strategy with the
inverter power control loop adopting repetitive controller (power factor = 0.973, THD = 17.5%)
48 2 High Power Factor Control of Grid Input Current

control loop with repetitive controller is applied in Fig. 2.20b. The power factor and
THD of the grid side are 0.973 and 17.5% and the corresponding power factor and
THD of the PR controller are 0.981 and 16.0%. It can be seen that the control perfor-
mance of PR controller is better than the applied repetitive controller, because the
PR controller is more effective to the sinusoidal signals than the repetitive controller
as described in the previous section.
Figure 2.21 shows the experimental results applying the inverter power control
loop with PR controller and the proposed DC-link voltage regulation strategy when
the compressor operates at 5000r/min. It can be seen that the control performance
becomes better as the compressor speed increases. The motor current becomes more
regular than that of the motor operates at 3000r/min, which means that the effect
of the load torque fluctuation on the drive system is reduced and it can benefit the
control performance.
In order to compare the efficiency, the grid input power is measured by a power
meter WT1600, which is calculated by the root mean square (RMS) values of the grid
voltage and current. The measured values are 569 W, 571 W and 573 W by applying
the conventional methods (in Fig. 2.19a) and the proposed method (in Fig. 2.19b and

250
Fourier analysis of DC-link voltage

udc[200V/div] udc [V]

Pinv [1000W/div] 0
0 500 1000
f [Hz]
10 Fourier analysis of grid current
ig[10A/div]
ig [A]
im [10A/div]
0 0 500 1000
[10ms/div]
f [Hz]
(a)
250
Fourier analysis of DC-link voltage

udc[200V/div] udc [V]

Pinv [1000W/div] 0
0 500 1000
f [Hz]
10
ig [10A/div] Fourier analysis of grid current

ig [A]
im [10A/div]
0 0 500 1000
[10ms/div]
f [Hz]
(b)

Fig. 2.21 Experimental waveforms when the compressor operates at 5000 r/min. a Only using the
inverter power control loop with PR controller (power factor = 0.964, THD = 26.3%). b Combining
the proposed DC-link voltage regulation strategy with the inverter power control loop adopting PR
controller (power factor = 0.991, THD = 10.7%)
2.5 Experimental Results 49

udc [200V/div] udc[200V/div]

udq [200V/div] udq [200V/div]

id [10A/div] iq [5A/div] id [10A/div] iq [10A/div]

[10ms/div] [10ms/div]
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.22 Experimental waveforms of the magnitude of voltage vector, d- and q- axis current
components using the proposed inverter power control method. a 3000 r/min. b 5000 r/min

c), respectively. It can be seen that the efficiency of the proposed method is slightly
lower because of the fluctuated motor power, which can motivate high-order power
ripple. As a result, the power ripple will increase the harmonic iron loss compared
to the drive system that outputs constant motor power. Meanwhile, the high-order
power ripple will increase the eddy current loss, which can also reduce the motor
drive efficiency. It can be concluded that the desired fluctuated inverter power can
benefit the grid side quality, whereas the caused power ripple will slightly reduce the
drive system efficiency and it can be compensated by the optimized design of the
motor.
Figure 2.22 shows the voltage and current waveforms when the compressor oper-
ates at 3000 and 5000 r/min. The waveforms from top to bottom are the DC-link
voltage, the magnitude of the voltage vector, and the d- and q- axis current compo-
nents, respectively. The magnitude of the voltage vector is lower than the DC-link
voltage, which guarantees the stable operation of the electrolytic capacitor-less
compressor drive system. The q-axis current fluctuates with the DC-link voltage.
Although the tracking performance of the d-q axis currents is limited by the band-
width of the current PI controllers, the inverter power of the reduced DC-link capac-
itance motor drive system can be effectively controlled. As a result, the harmonics of
the grid current can satisfy the standards of EN61000-3-2, and the detailed harmonics
measured by WT1600 are shown in Fig. 2.23. It can be seen that the harmonics are
far lower than the required values of the standard.
Figure 2.24 shows the grid voltage and current waveforms when the compressor
operates at 3000 and 5000 r/min. The harmonic analysis of the current waveforms has
been operated based on a longer time interval. It can be seen that the grid current is
approximate to be the sinusoidal waveform and the harmonics within entire frequency
range can greatly satisfy the standards of EN61000-3-2. The experimental results of
the power factor and the THD at different operating speeds are shown in Fig. 2.25. The
proposed inverter power control method can effectively maintain high power factor
and low THD in the wide speed range. The maximum power factor is 0.992. The
harmonics can satisfy EN61000-3-2 and the minimum THD is 10.2%. The perfor-
mance of the electrolytic capacitor-less drive system can meet the requirement of the
50 2 High Power Factor Control of Grid Input Current

10 10
EN61000-3-2 EN61000-3-2
Grid Input Current

Current [A]
Grid Input Current

Current [A]
1 1

0.1 0.1

0.01 0.01
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Order of Current Harmonics Order of Current Harmonics
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.23 Comparison with the EN61000-3-2 limits and the grid current harmonics applying the
proposed inverter power control method. a 3000 r/min. b 5000 r/min

1.0 2.30 Harmonic analysis of

ug [100V/div] ig [10A/div] 1.14
grid current
1.08 Harmonic
standards [A]
ig [A]

0 0 500 1000
[10ms/div]
f [Hz]
(a)
1.0 2.30 Harmonic analysis of
ug [100V/div] ig [10A/div] 1.14
grid current
1.08 Harmonic
standards [A]
ig [A]

0 0 500 1000
[10ms/div]
f [Hz]
(b)

Fig. 2.24 Experimental waveforms of the grid voltage and grid current and the harmonic analysis
of grid current. a 3000 r/min. b 5000 r/min

air conditioner applications. It benefits the cost reduction and reliability improvement
of the system by using the proposed control method.
2.6 Summary 51

Fig. 2.25 Power factor and 1.0 25

THD in the overall speed
range of the compressor 0.99 20

Power Factor

THD [%]
0.98 15

0.97 10

0.96 5

0.95 0
2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500
Speed(r/min)

2.6 Summary

This chapter presents an inverter power control strategy based on the DC-link voltage
control applied in the reduced DC-link capacitance drive system for PMSM. For the
reduced capacity of the DC-link capacitor and the elimination of the PFC circuit,
the inverter power closely affects the power factor and the THD of the grid side.
The inverter power control loop with PR controller is established to regulate the
inverter power, which can achieve a high gain at the fluctuation frequency of the
DC-link voltage. Besides, the parameters of PR controller are easy to design. Only
applying the inverter power control loop, the actual inverter power is difficult to
totally track the inverter power reference because of the low bandwidth of the PI
current controllers and the power coupled within the d-q reference frame. Therefore,
a power compensation method based on the DC-link voltage control is applied to
diminish the inverter power error, which does not depend on the precise calculation
and is easy to realize. By using the proposed inverter power control strategy based
on the DC-link voltage regulation, the power factor of the drive system can reach
0.992, and the THD of the grid current can greatly satisfy the regulations of the
EN61000-3-2 without the PFC circuit. The effectiveness of the proposed method is
verified by experimental results.

References

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IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 61(4), 1784–1787 (2014)
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topology with high frequency pulsating output current. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 30(2),
943–955 (2015)
3. Y. Yang, X. Ruan, L. Zhang, J. He, Z. Ye, Feed-forward scheme for an electrolytic capacitor-
less AC/DC LED driver to reduce output current ripple. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 29(10),
5508–5517 (2014)
52 2 High Power Factor Control of Grid Input Current

4. Y. Shi, R. Li, Y. Xue, H. Li, High-frequency-link-based grid-tied PV system with small DC link
capacitor and low-frequency ripple-free maximum power point tracking. IEEE Trans. Power
Electron. 31(1), 328–339 (2016)
5. N. Zhao, G. Wang, D. Xu, L. Zhu, G. Zhang, J. Huo, Inverter power control based on DC-
link voltage regulation for IPMSM drives without electrolytic capacitors. IEEE Trans. Power
Electron. 33(1), 558–571 (2018)
6. K. Inazuma, H. Utsugi, K. Ohishi, H. Haga, High power factor single-phase diode rectifier
driven by repetitively controlled IPM motor. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 60(10), 4427–4437
(2013)
7. Y. Son, J.I. Ha, Direct power control of three phase inverter for grid input current shaping of
single phase diode rectifier with small DC-link capacitor. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 30(7),
3794–3803 (2015)
8. P. Magne, D. Marx, B. Nahid-Mobarakeh, S. Pierfederici, Large-signal stabilization of a DC-
link supplying a constant power load using a virtual capacitor: impact on the domain of
attraction. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 48(3), 878–887 (2012)
9. A. Kuperman, Proportional-resonant current controllers design based on desired transient
performance. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 30(10), 5341–5345 (2015)
10. D.G. Holmes, T.A. Lipo, B.P. McGrath, W.Y. Kong, Optimized design of stationary frame three
phase AC current regulators. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 24(11), 2417–2426 (2009)
11. T. Ye, N. Dai, C. Lam, M. Wong, J. Guerrero, Analysis, design and implementation of a quasi-
proportional-resonant controller for a multi-functional capacitive-coupling grid-connected
inverter. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl 52(5),4269–4280 (2016)
Chapter 3
Resonance Suppression Between Line
Inductor and DC-Link Capacitor

The harmonic of the grid current is an important issue in the reduced DC-link capac-
itance motor drive system. An input inductor has been applied in the grid side to
improve the grid current quality. Whereas the LC resonance between the line inductor
and the DC-link film capacitor leads to the additional harmonics at the resonant
frequency [1–4]. It will stimulate the grid current distortion and pollute the power
grid. Meanwhile, the drive system behaving the negative impedance characteristic is
the constant power loads (CPLs) system. As the DC-link voltage increases/decreases,
the DC-link current will decrease/increase, which is contrary to the DC-link voltage.
The interaction between the negative impedance characteristic and the LC reso-
nance may cause the instability of the drive system [5–7]. The general solution is
to increase the system damping to suppress the resonance phenomenon by applying
passive damping or active damping methods. As for the actual application, active
damping methods are preferred considering the power loss, the system size and the
cost [8–10].

3.1 Analysis of LC Resonance

3.1.1 Drive System Model Construction

As shown in Fig. 2.1, the grid current ig can be calculated as

ig = iinv + ic (3.1)

The equivalent source voltage ug can be calculated as

dig
ug = Lg + Rg ig + udc (3.2)
dt

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 53
G. Wang et al., Reduced DC-link Capacitance AC Motor Drives,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8566-1_3
54 3 Resonance Suppression Between Line Inductor …

where L g and Rg are the line inductance and the equivalent resistance, respectively.
Actually, the equivalent current source iinv can be presented by

PL PL
iinv = = (3.3)
udc udc,0 + ũdc

where PL and ũdc are the load of the motor and the deviation of the DC-link voltage,
respectively. The linearized equation of (3.3) can be presented as

PL PL
iinv = − 2 ũdc . (3.4)
udc,0 udc,0

Meanwhile, the current of DC-link capacitor ic meets

dudc
ic = Cdc (3.5)
dt
Combining (3.1), (3.2), (3.4) and (3.5), the small signal equivalent model of the
drive system can be obtained and the characteristic polynomial of the drive system
can be presented as

Rg PL 1 PL Rg
s2 + ( − 2
)s + (1 − 2 ) = 0. (3.6)
Lg Cdc udc,0 Lg Cdc udc,0

3.1.2 Stability Analysis of Drive System

According to the Routh criterion, the stability conditions of the drive system can be
obtained as follows:
⎧
⎨ 1 − PL2 Rg > 0
udc,0
(3.7)
⎩ RLg − PL2 > 0.
g C u dc dc,0

The negative input-impedance shown in (3.4) leads to the negative parts of

(3.7), which causes the instability as load power PL increases. Assuming the input-
impedance is positive, the drive system will be stable regardless of PL . As a typical
constant load power system, the motor drive system is deeply affected by the charac-
teristic of the negative input-impedance. The stability issue will be more serious as
the DC-link capacitance reduces. Generally, the mean value of the equivalent voltage
source meets
2
udc,0  PL Rg (3.8)
3.1 Analysis of LC Resonance 55

Cdc Lg
> 2
. (3.9)
PL Rg udc,0

3.1.3 Influence of DC-Link Capacitance on Drive System

According to the above analysis, it can be seen that the stability of the drive system
is related to the whole components of the drive circuit. If the conventional DC-link
electrolytic capacitor is replaced by the film capacitor, the capacity will be remarkably
decreased. The pole distribution as C dc reduces is shown in Fig. 3.1. It can be seen
that poles of the drive system moves from the left half plane to the right half plane
as C dc reduces, and the drive system becomes unstable when poles reach the right
half plane.
Hence the stability of the drive system will be reduced. Meanwhile, the DC-link
voltage and the grid current will be resonant due to the line inductor and the reduced
DC-link capacitor. The resonant frequency can be calculated as:

1
ωres =  . (3.10)
Lg Cdc

Harmonics of the grid current caused by the resonance will exceed the stan-
dard requirements of EN61000-3-2 easily. Therefore, it is necessary to improve the

4000

3000

2000 Cdc = 20μF

Cdc = 940μF
1000
Imaginary Axis

Cdc reduces Cdc reduces

0
Cdc = 940μF
- 1000
Cdc = 20μF
- 2000

- 3000

- 4000
-250 -200 -150 -100 50 0 50 - 100 150
Real Axis

Fig. 3.1 Pole distribution of the drive system as C dc reduces

56 3 Resonance Suppression Between Line Inductor …

stability of the drive system and suppress the resonant DC-link voltage and the grid
current. A stabilization method based on the direct damping current will be introduced
in the next section.

3.2 DC-Link Voltage Feedback Based Active Damping

Control Method

3.2.1 Principle of Active Damping Control

The instability of the reduced DC-link capacitance motor drive system is caused by
the unexpected characteristic equation as presented in the previous discussion. It is
necessary to add an active damping part to reconstruct the poles of characteristic
equation for the drive system. As shown in Fig. 3.2a, the active damping part can be
regarded as a damping current source idamp parallel to the inverter. Hence the solution
is to superpose the direct damping current upon the inverter current. However, it is
not easy to regulate the current flowing from DC-link to the inverter in the reduced
DC-link capacitance motor drive system. Meanwhile, the resonant frequency ωres is
usually higher than the bandwidth of the current controller. As a result, it is difficult
to directly generate the direct damping current. Fortunately, the effect of the direct
damping current can be achieved by the damping power Pdamp shown in Fig. 3.2b.
The generation of Pdamp can be directly realized by the voltage command instead

Lg Rg ig
icap iinv idamp

ug udc Cdc

(a)
Lg Rg ig
icap

ug udc Cdc M PL + Pdamp

(b)

Fig. 3.2 Drive system with damping method. a Stabilizing the drive system with direct damping
current. b Equivalent damping power
3.2 DC-Link Voltage Feedback Based Active Damping Control Method 57

of the current command, which can overcome the delay effect of the relatively low
bandwidth current controller in the reduced DC-link capacitance drive system.

3.2.2 Direct Damping Current to Stabilize Drive System

As the PFC circuit is eliminated in the reduced DC-link capacitance motor drive
system, the resonance between the line inductor and the film capacitor will affect the
DC-link voltage. Hence the resonance can be detected by the DC-link voltage and
idamp is achieved by the operation of the DC-link voltage. Applying three different
basic control laws, i.e. the proportional, integral and differential, the grid current ig
can be presented as:

ig = iinv + ic + KdampP ũdc , P - type (3.11)


ig = iinv + ic + KdampI ũdc dt, I - type (3.12)

d ũdc
ig = iinv + ic + KdampD , D - type (3.13)
dt
where K dampP , K dampI , and K dampD are gains of control laws, which are the propor-
tional, integral and differential, respectively. The drive system damped by idamp is
shown in Fig. 3.3. It can be seen obviously that idamp has an influence on the current of
DC-link capacitor ic , which can shape the DC-link voltage to suppress the resonance.

Active damping method

Equation(3.11)~(3.13)

idamp
ug 1 ig ic 1 udc
Lg s + Rg sCdc
iinv
PL
udc2 ,0

Fig. 3.3 Block diagram of the drive system with idamp

58 3 Resonance Suppression Between Line Inductor …

3.2.3 Stability Analysis Using Routh-Hurwitz Criterion

As shown in Fig. 3.4, the transfer function of the equivalent model with different
control laws can be obtained and the new characteristic polynomial could be evaluated
by the Routh-Hurwitz criterion. The typical third-order characteristic polynomial in
the Laplace variable s is represented as:

a0 s3 + a1 s2 + a2 s + a3 = 0 (3.14)

where a0 , a1 , a2 and a3 are coefficients of the polynomial. The stability criterion is

that all the coefficients are positive and the relationship should meet:

a1 a2 > a0 a3 . (3.15)

Hence the stability criterions with different control laws of DC-link voltage could
be obtained by the Routh-Hurwitz criterion. The stability constraints of K dampP ,
K dampI , and K dampD are inferred as follows:
 
Rg PL − udc,0
2
Lg PL − Rg Cdc udc,0
2
KdampP > Max 2
, 2
(3.16)
Rg udc,0 Lg udc,0
2
udc,0 − Rg PL Rg Cdc udc,0
2
− Lg PL
KdampI < 2
(3.17)
L2g PL udc,0
Lg PL − Rg Cdc udc,0
2
KdampD > 2
. (3.18)
Rg udc,0

It should be noticed that stability criterions of differential and integral control

laws also have other constant constraints except the stability constraint of K dampI and
K dampD as shown in (3.17) and (3.18). In order to evaluate the drive system stability
directly, the pole distributions with different control laws are depicted in Fig. 3.4.
It can be seen that pole distribution is adjusted as the values of K dampP , K dampI and
K dampD increase and both the proportional and differential operation of the DC-link
voltage can stabilize the drive system effectively. However, the integral operation
will increase the system order and lead to the instability. Compared with the differ-
ential operation, the proportional operation of the DC-link voltage can achieve better
performance and easier realization, because the differential operation is sensitive to
the noise of the drive system. Meanwhile, once combining the proportional operation
with the differential operation or the integral operation, the performance is not better
and parameters are difficult to be optimized. Hence the proportional operation of the
DC-link voltage is applied to generate the direct damping current in the proposed
method.
Comparing (3.16) with (3.7), It can be seen that numerators of (3.16) are equivalent
to the ones in (3.7). It proves the stability condition for K dampP closely related to the
3.2 DC-Link Voltage Feedback Based Active Damping Control Method 59

Fig. 3.4 Pole distribution of 4000

the drive system with
3000
different control laws.
a Proportional operation of KdampP =0.02
2000
the DC-link voltage. KdampP =0.10
b Integral operation of the 1000

Imaginary Axis
KdampP increases
DC-link voltage. 0
c Differential operation of
KdampP =0.15 (-3442,0)
the DC-link voltage -1000
KdampP =0.10

-2000
KdampP =0.02

-3000

-4000
-8000 -7000 -6000 -5000 -4000 -3000 -2000 -1000 0
Real Axis
(a)
6000

4000
KdampI increases
KdampI =80
2000
Imaginary Axis

KdampI =80 KdampI increases

-2000
KdampI =80
KdampI increases
-4000

-6000
-1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Real Axis

(b)
2000

1500

1000 KdampD =0.0001

KdampD =0.0002
500
Imaginary Axis

KdampD increases
0

KdampD =0.01 (-139,0)

-500 KD=0.0002

-1000 KdampD =0.0001

-1500

-2000
-250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0
Real Axis
(c)
60 3 Resonance Suppression Between Line Inductor …

undamped system characteristics. The Routh-Hurwitz criterion applied in (3.16)

determines the minimum value of K dampP when the system becomes stable. It can be
seen from Fig. 3.4a that the system becomes stable when K dampP is larger than 0.02.

3.2.4 Realization of Direct Damping Current

The direct damping current is parallel to the DC-link capacitor and it is difficult to
be accurately generated and controlled. The solution to realize the direct damping
current can be transformed to generate the equivalent damping power Pdamp , which
is generated by the inverter power and it can be calculated as follows:

Pdamp = udc idamp . (3.19)

Ignoring the switching loss of the inverter, the motor power can be regarded as
the inverter power, which can be presented as follows:

Pinv = 1.5 uα iα + uβ iβ . (3.20)

The generation of the damping power can be achieved by the additional current
or voltage command. Compared with the current command, the solution based on
the voltage command can overcome the limited bandwidth of the current controller
and accurately generate the damping power based on the inverter power, which can
be presented as

Pinv + Pdamp = 1.5 (uα + uα )iα + uβ + uβ iβ (3.21)

where uα and uβ are voltage commands for modification in the stationary frame.
The overall block diagram of the active damping control method is depicted
in Fig. 3.5. Generally, the outputs of current controllers will be decoupled by the
feedforward voltage and transformed by the Park transformation as the stationary
voltage reference vector uαβ . The damping current idamp can be generated by the
DC-link voltage, which is processed by a high pass filter (HPF) and the proportional
operation. Meanwhile, Pdamp can be generated by the multiplication of idamp and udc ,
which is based on (3.19), and the voltage command uα and uβ should be added
to uαβ . However, the voltage command can also be regarded as a disturbance to the
motor drive system. Hence the distribution of uα and uβ as presented in (3.21) is
an important issue. In order to solve it, the minimum effect of the voltage command
on the drive system should be considered in the voltage command generator and the
magnitude of the voltage command vector should be as small as possible.
The damping power can be presented as follows:

Pdamp = uαβ · iαβ (3.22)

3.2 DC-Link Voltage Feedback Based Active Damping Control Method 61

Fig. 3.5 Overall diagram of the active damping control method

where uαβ and iαβ are the additional voltage command and current vector in the
stationary frame, respectively. As shown in Fig. 3.6, the possible direction of the
voltage command is infinite, all of which could generate the same damping power
Pdamp . The minimum magnitude of voltage command vector is located in the direction
which is parallel to the current vector, which can reduce the impact of the voltage
commands on the drive system. Hence voltage commands of the active damping
method are generated based on the damping power Pdamp .

Fig. 3.6 Realization of

voltage command generator Pinv + Pdamp
Pdamp
β Pinv
Δuαβ

Δuβ
iαβ
uαβ

Δuα α
62 3 Resonance Suppression Between Line Inductor …

3.2.5 Parameters Determination of Direct Damping Current

Generator

A HPF is applied to obtain the deviation of DC-link voltage by eliminating the

fundamental component. With ωdcB the bandwidth, ũdc can be presented as
s
ũdc = udc . (3.23)
s + ωdcB

The determination of ωdcB mainly depends on the resonant frequency that can
be calculated according to (3.10), and it should be low enough to guarantee that
harmonics of the DC-link voltage can be totally detected. Meanwhile, the exces-
sive low bandwidth will extract the fundamental component. Hence the HPF cutoff
frequency is set as 250 Hz as a compromise. The magnitude attenuation around the
resonant frequency is about 0.9, which can effectively extract the resonant compo-
nent of the DC-link voltage. The magnitude attenuation is an important concern of
the bandwidth determination of the HPF.
The closed loop transfer function after adopting the damping method can be
presented as:

1
Gdampb (s) = (3.24)
s2 + bdamp0 s + bdamp1

where
2
1 KP Lg udc,0 + Rg Cdc udc,0
2
− Lg PL
bdamp0 = 2
,
Lg Cdc udc,0
2
1 KP Rg udc,0 + udc,0
2
− Rg PL
bdamp1 = 2
. (3.25)
Lg Cdc udc,0

It is well known that the resonant peak is closely related to the system damping.
Generally, as for a typical second-order system, the resonant peak will disappear
when the system damping is higher than 0.707. Hence the damping performance
will be effective when the system damping reaches 0.707. Actually, the overshoot of
the drive system plays an important role in the dynamic performance. The DC-link
voltage fluctuates around its mean value in the reduced DC-link capacitance motor
drive system, which can be regarded as a dynamic process. As K P increases, the
drive system becomes a critical damping system, and the damping performance will
be improved when the overshoot is completely eliminated. The value of K P for the
critical damping of the drive system is presented as:

b2damp0 − 4bdamp1 = 0. (3.26)

3.2 DC-Link Voltage Feedback Based Active Damping Control Method 63

50
KdampP =0
Resonant peak value KdampP =0.02
KdampP increases KdampP =0.04
KdampP =0.06
Magnitude(dB)
0
KdampP =0.10
KdampP =0.15
KdampP =0.20
KdampP =0.25
-50

Resonant frequency
-100
0
KdampP increases
-90
KdampP increases
Phase(deg)

-180

-270 Without active damping method

-360
101 102 103 104 105 106
Frequency(rad/s)

Fig. 3.7 Bode diagrams of the drive system as K P increases

Bode diagrams with different values of K dampP are shown in Fig. 3.7. It can be
seen that the resonant peak value is damped gradually as K dampP increases and the
proper value of K dampP occurs when the system becomes a critical damping system,
which is consistent with the breakaway point of the pole distribution shown Fig. 3.4a.

3.2.6 Experimental Results

Figure 3.8 shows the system performance comparison without and with the active
damping control method when the motor operates at 3000 rpm. The waveforms in
left from top to bottom are the grid voltage, the DC-link voltage, the grid current,
and the motor current, respectively. The waveforms in right are the Fourier analysis
of the DC-link voltage and the grid current.
It can be seen from Fig. 3.8a that the resonance between the line inductor and the
DC-link capacitor leads to the significant distortions of the DC-link voltage and grid
current, which are consistent with the simulation results. Harmonics around the reso-
nant frequency exceed the harmonics standards of EN61000-3-2, which pollute the
power grid and reduce the stability of the drive system. In Fig. 3.8b and c, the proposed
active damping control method has been applied with different values of K dampP to
suppress the resonance and enhance the system stability. It can be seen that the
suppression performance of the resonant grid current and DC-link voltage is obvious
when K dampP is 0.05. Harmonics of the grid current satisfy the standards of EN61000-
3-2. The performance can be optimized as shown in Fig. 3.8c when K dampP is 0.15.
It can be seen from Fig. 3.8 that the peak value of the resonant frequency is high
64 3 Resonance Suppression Between Line Inductor …

[200V/div] [200V/div]
u grid
udc
[5A/div]
igrid
[20A/div]
im

250
Fourier analysis of DC-link voltage

udc [V]

0
0 500 1000
f [Hz]
4
Fourier analysis of grid current

Around resonant frequncy

igrid [A]
Harmonic standards [A]

0 1000
0 500
f [Hz]
(a)
[200V/div]
u grid
[5A/div] [200V/div]
udc
igrid
[20A/div]
im

Fig. 3.8 Experimental waveforms of the grid voltage, DC-link voltage, grid current and motor
current. a Without the proposed method. b With the proposed method, K dampP = 0.05. c With the
proposed method, K dampP = 0.15
3.2 DC-Link Voltage Feedback Based Active Damping Control Method 65

Fig. 3.8 (continued) 250

Fourier analysis of DC-link voltage

udc [V]

0
0 500 1000
f [Hz]
4
Fourier analysis of grid current

Around resonant frequncy

igrid [A]
Harmonic standards [A]

0
0 500 1000
f [Hz]
(b)
[200V/div]
u grid
[5A/div] [200V/div]
udc
igrid
[20A/div]
im

250
Fourier analysis of DC-link voltage

udc [V]

0
0 500 1000
f [Hz]
4
Fourier analysis of grid current

Around resonant frequncy

igrid [A]
Harmonic standards [A]

0
0 500 1000
f [Hz]
(c)
66 3 Resonance Suppression Between Line Inductor …

without the proposed active damping method. As a result, harmonics around resonant
frequency are severe in Fig. 3.8a. The effect of the active damping method mainly
focuses on the frequency domain around the resonant frequency. Hence magnitudes
of harmonics around the resonant frequency are reduced in Fig. 3.8b than the ones
in Fig. 3.8a, which are reduced further as K dampP increases in Fig. 3.8c. It means
that the performance can be improved by adjusting the direct damping current to the
drive system. Meanwhile, according to the previous parameter determination, the
optimized value of K dampP is set as 0.15, which is consistent with breakaway point
of the pole distribution shown in Fig. 3.4a.
The stationary frame voltage and current waveforms with the proposed method
are shown in Fig. 3.9a. Waveforms from top to bottom are the stationary frame
voltage uαβ and current iαβ , respectively. The motor current is irregular due to the
fluctuated DC-link voltage and motor load, which is also periodic fluctuated with
the rotor mechanical angle. The motor torque with the active damping method is

Fig. 3.9 Experimental a

waveforms with the uα
proposed method, K P = 0.15.
a The stationary frame
voltage and current. b The
DC-link voltage, motor uβ [200V/div]
torque and motor current

iα

iβ

[5ms/div]
b

udc
Te

im [20A/div]

[10ms/div]
3.2 DC-Link Voltage Feedback Based Active Damping Control Method 67

shown in Fig. 3.9b. Experimental waveforms from top to bottom are the DC-link
voltage, the motor torque, and the motor current, respectively. It can be seen that
the instantaneous torque is fluctuated, and the average value is determined by the
fluctuated load torque.
In order to evaluate the effect of voltage commands on the motor current, the
Fourier analysis of the motor current without and with the proposed active damping
method is shown in Fig. 3.10. It can be seen that harmonics around the resonant
frequency (500 Hz) without and with the active damping method are almost the
same. Hence the grid harmonic current is suppressed by stabilizing the drive system.
Harmonics of the grid current (around the resonant frequency) are not transferred
to the motor control. The effect of voltage commands on the motor current around
the resonant frequency is critically limited, because the impedance of the motor
is high around the resonant frequency. The aim of the active damping method is
to stabilize the drive system and damp the resonance by generating the inverter
damping power Pdamp , which is closely related to the instantaneous inverter power.
The average inverter power is determined by the motor load, which is closely related
to the effective value of the motor current. Hence the fundamental motor current is
almost the same and harmonics around the fundamental frequency change slightly
for the modified transient inverter power, which are affected by voltage commands.

8
Fourier analysis of motor current

im [A]

0
0 500 1000
f [Hz]
(a)
8
Fourier analysis of motor current

im [A]

0
0 500 1000
f [Hz]
(b)

Fig. 3.10 Fourier analysis of the motor current. a Without the proposed method. b With the proposed
method, K dampP = 0.15
68 3 Resonance Suppression Between Line Inductor …

In order to validate the impact of the line impedance change on the active damping
effect, experimental results are shown in Fig. 3.11 when the line impedance is 2.5
mH. Experimental waveforms from top to bottom are the grid voltage, the DC-link
voltage, the grid current, and the motor current, respectively. The resonance between
the line inductor and the DC-link capacitor is obvious. The resonant frequency is
710 Hz, which is higher than the one when the line impedance is 5mH. The DC-link
voltage distortion is reduced, which can be seen from Fig. 3.11a. The determination
of K dampP can be realized by the method presented in Sect. 3.2.5, and the optimized
value of K dampP is 0.20. It can be seen from Fig. 3.11 that the proposed active damping
method can effectively suppress the resonance as the line impedance changes.

Fig. 3.11 Experimental

[200V/div] [200V/div]

waveforms of the grid

u grid

voltage, DC-link voltage,

grid current and motor
current when the input
inductance filter is 2.5 mH.
udc

a Without the proposed

method. b With the proposed
method, K dampP = 0.2
[5A/div]
igrid
[20A/div]
im

[10ms/div]
(a)
[200V/div] [200V/div]
u grid
udc
[5A/div]
igrid
20A/div]
im

[10ms/div]
(b)
3.3 Virtual Resistor Based Active Damping Control 69

3.3 Virtual Resistor Based Active Damping Control

3.3.1 Different Configurations of Virtual Damping Resistor

The virtual damping resistor could increase the system damping and suppress the
LC resonance. Possible configurations of the virtual damping resistor are shown in
Fig. 3.12. It can be seen that the damping resistor can be set in series with or in
parallel to the line inductor and the film capacitor. Transfer functions under different
locations of the damping resistor could be obtained and the Routh-Hurwitz criterion
could be used to analyze the drive system stability. All the possible locations of the
virtual damping resistor can change the coefficient of the characteristic polynomial
and stabilize the drive system.

3.3.2 Stability Analysis of Virtual Resistor Based Active

Damping Control

In order to evaluate the damping performance of the virtual damping resistor, Bode
diagrams corresponding to the configurations in Fig. 3.12 are shown in Fig. 3.13 to
analyze the drive system further. It can be seen from Fig. 3.13 that the LC resonance
can be effectively suppressed by all the four possible solutions, and the resonant
peak values are reduced by applying the virtual damping resistor. The damping
performance is different with the four possible solutions. In Fig. 3.12a, the virtual
damping resistor is parallel to the line inductor, and the impedance reduces in the
high-frequency domain compared with the one without the virtual damping resistor,
which decreases the attenuation of the magnitude when the frequency is higher than
ωres as shown in Fig. 3.13a. In Fig. 3.12b, the damping resistor is in series with
the line inductor and the performance of the drive system in the high-frequency
domain is the same regardless of the damping resistor, because the impedance of
the damping resistor is relatively small compared with the line inductor when the
frequency is higher than ωres . The magnitude of Bode diagrams in Fig. 3.13b becomes
higher when the frequency is lower than ωres , which could improve the drive system
performance. In Fig. 3.12c, the damping resistor is in parallel to the film capacitor,
and the magnitude of Bode diagrams reduces when the frequency is lower than ωres
in Fig. 3.13c, which is not preferred to the ones in Fig. 3.13b. In Fig. 3.12d, the
damping resistor is in series with the film capacitor, and the magnitude of Bode
diagrams increases when the frequency is higher than ωres in Fig. 3.13d, which
decreases the drive system performance.
It can be concluded that the performance of the drive system in Fig. 3.13b is
better than other three configurations, because the magnitude of Bode diagram owns
the higher gain in the low-frequency domain and the higher attenuation in the high-
frequency domain, which benefits the drive system performance. Generally, as for the
damping resistor in series with the line inductor, the magnitude in the high-frequency
70 3 Resonance Suppression Between Line Inductor …

Rdamp

Lg Rg ig
ic iinv

ug udc Cdc

(a)

Lg Rg Rdamp ig
ic iinv

ug udc Cdc

(b)

Lg Rg ig
ic Rdamp iinv

ug udc Cdc

(c)

Lg Rg ig
Rdamp iinv

ug ic

udc Cdc

(d)
Fig. 3.12 Configurations of the virtual damping resistor of the drive system. a In parallel to the
line inductor. b In series with the line inductor. c In parallel to the film capacitor. d In series with
the film capacitor
3.3 Virtual Resistor Based Active Damping Control 71

40 Rdamp = ∞Ω
Resonant peak value Rdamp = 50Ω
20 Rdamp decreases
Rdamp = 40Ω
Magnitude(dB)
Rdamp = 30Ω
0

-20

-40
Resonant frequency
-60
0

-90
Phase(deg)

-180 Rdamp decreases

Without damp Rdamp = 20Ω

-270 resistor Rdamp = 10Ω
Rdamp = 5Ω
-360 2
10 103 104 105
Frequency(rad/s)
(a)
40 Rdamp = 0Ω
Resonant peak value Rdamp = 4Ω
20 Rdamp increases
Rdamp = 6Ω
Magnitude(dB)

Rdamp = 8Ω
0 Rdamp = 10Ω
3
Rdamp = 15Ω
-20 2 Rdamp = 20Ω
1
-40 0
Resonant frequency
-60
0
Rdamp increases
-90
Phase(deg)

Rdamp increases
-180

-270
Without damping
resistor
-360 2
10 103 104 105
Frequency(rad/s)
(b)

Fig. 3.13 Bode diagram of the drive system with different configurations of the virtual damping
resistor. a In parallel to the line inductor. b In series with the line inductor. c In parallel to the film
capacitor. d In series with the film capacitor
72 3 Resonance Suppression Between Line Inductor …

40 Rdamp = ∞Ω
Resonant peak value Rdamp = 50Ω
20 Rdamp decreases Rdamp = 40Ω
Magnitude(dB) 0
Rdamp = 30Ω
Rdamp = 20Ω
1 Rdamp = 10Ω
0 Rdamp = 5Ω
-20
-1
-2
-40 -3
Resonant frequency
-60
0
Rdamp decreases
-90
Phase(deg)

Rdampdecreases
-180

-270
Without damping
resistor
-360
102 103 104 105
Frequency(rad/s)
(c)
40
Rdamp = 0Ω
Resonant peak value Rdamp = 4Ω
20 Rdamp increases
Rdamp = 6Ω
Rdamp = 8Ω
Magnitude(dB)

-20

-40
Resonant frequency
-60
0

-90
Phase(deg)

-180 Rdamp increases

Without damp
-270 resistor Rdamp = 10Ω
Rdamp = 15Ω
Rdamp = 20Ω
-360
102 103 104 105
Frequency(rad/s)
(d)

Fig. 3.13 (continued)

3.3 Virtual Resistor Based Active Damping Control 73

domain will increase when the load owns the positive input-impedance. However, the
magnitude in the high-frequency domain decreases because the load is the specified
CPL, which owns the negative input impedance. Hence the virtual damping resistor
in series with the line inductor is applied to suppress the LC resonance and stabilize
the drive system.

3.4 Inductor Current Feedback Based Active Damping

Control Method

3.4.1 Realization of Inductor Current Feedback Control

As analyzed above, the optimal solution is to add the virtual damping resistor in series
with the line inductor. Hence the inductor current, i.e., the grid current ig , is applied
to establish the feedback loop in Fig. 3.14a, where K vrc represents the coefficient of
ũdc in (3.4). The inductor current feedback (ICF) method could effectively emulate
the damping performance the same as the virtual damping resistor.
As shown in Fig. 3.14a, the block diagram is difficult to be realized in actual
application, because the summing point of the damping resistor in Fig. 3.14a cannot
be realized by the control algorithm. Hence it is essential to make the ICF method to
be achievable in the actual application. It can be seen from Fig. 3.14a that the possible
feedback signals to replace the inductor current ig include the capacitor current ic ,
the DC-link voltage udc , and the inverter current iinv . The solution is to replace the
ICF loop by the DC-link voltage feedback loop, because the DC-link voltage sensor
is a general part in the conventional drive system for the voltage protection, and it
does not need additional sensors or operations compared with iinv and ic .
The equivalent block diagram of Fig. 3.14a is shown in Fig. 3.14b, and the DC-link
voltage feedback loop is established in Fig. 3.14c. It can be seen that the summing
point of the DC-link voltage feedback loop is between the grid voltage and the
line inductor, which is also difficult to be realized in actual application. Hence the
summing point is moved backward as shown in Fig. 3.14d, and the feedback loop can
be regarded as adding a specific damping current idamp to the branch of the inverter.
The realization of idamp could be emulated by the motor voltage command and it will
be introduced in the last part in this section.

3.4.2 Compensation of Distorted Grid Voltage

In actual applications, the grid voltage usually contains the background harmonics
of the power grid, and the grid current is closely related to the grid voltage in the
reduced DC-link capacitance motor drive system. Hence it is essential to compensate
the effect of the distorted grid voltage on the grid current.
74 3 Resonance Suppression Between Line Inductor …

Rdamp

ug 1 ig ic 1 udc iinv
K vrc
Lg s + Rg sCdc

(a)

1
K vrc

Cdc s + K vrc
Rdamp
K vrc

ug 1 ig K vrc iinv
Lg s + Rg Cdc s + K vrc

(b)

1
K vrc

Rdamp Cdc s + K vrc

ug 1 ig ic 1 udc iinv
K vrc
Lg s + Rg sCdc

(c)

1
K vrc

( Cdc s + K vrc ) Rdamp

Lg s + Rg
idamp
ug 1 ig ic 1 udc iinv
K vrc
Lg s + Rg sCdc

(d)

Fig. 3.14 Equivalent transformation of the ICF loop

3.4 Inductor Current Feedback Based Active Damping Control Method 75

1
K vrc

( Cdc s + K vrc ) Rdamp

Lg s + Rg
idamp
ug 1 ig ic 1 udc iinv
K vrc
Lg s + Rg sCdc
i ffcom
PLL sin ( ⋅)
Feedforward compensation
K ffcom

Fig. 3.15 Feedforward compensation of the grid voltage distortion

The feedforward compensation method is applied on the basis of the ICF-based

active damping method, which is shown in Fig. 3.15. It can be seen that harmonics
of the grid voltage are detected by the difference of the ideal grid voltage, which
is generated by the PLL and the actual grid voltage. The grid voltage is regarded
as a particular voltage source with the absolute value. Hence the absolute operation
is applied in the feedforward compensation method. The coefficient K ffcom of the
feedforward compensation current iffcom is presented as

Kvrc
Kffcom = . (3.27)
Lg Cdc s2 + Rg Cdc + Rdamp Cdc + Kc Lg s + Kc Rdamp + Rg + 1

The feedforward compensation current iffcom is directly added to iinv , which will
be generated by the inverter based on the normal motor operation. The application of
the feedforward compensation method can overcome the effect of the harmonics of
the grid voltage on the drive system, and the performance of the grid current could
be improved further.

3.4.3 Experimental Results

Figure 3.16 shows the experimental results of the reduced DC-link capacitance motor
drive system without and with the proposed ICF-based active damping method and
the feedforward compensation method. Waveforms from up to bottom are the grid
voltage, the grid current, the DC-link voltage and the motor current, respectively. The
Fourier analysis of the grid current is also shown to demonstrate the performance
comparison. Without the proposed control method, it can be seen from Fig. 3.16a that
harmonics of the DC-link voltage and the grid current are obvious, which are caused
by the LC resonance between the line input inductor and the film capacitor. The
76 3 Resonance Suppression Between Line Inductor …

Fig. 3.16 Experimental

waveforms of the grid

[200V/div] [5A/div] [200V/div]

voltage, the grid current, the

ug
DC-link voltage, and the
motor current when the
motor speed is 3000 rpm.

ig
a Without the proposed
method. b With the
ICF-based active damping

udc
method. c With the
ICF-based active damping
method and the feedforward
compensation of grid voltage im
distortion [10ms/div]

4
Fourier analysis of grid current

Harmonic standards [A]

ig [A]

Around resonant frequncy

0
0 500 1000
f
(a)
[200V/div] [5A/div] [200V/div]
ug
ig
udc
im

[10ms/div]
3.4 Inductor Current Feedback Based Active Damping Control Method 77

Fig. 3.16 (continued) 4

Fourier analysis of grid current

Harmonic standards [A]

ig[A]

Around resonant frequncy

0
0 500 1000
f
(b)
[200V/div] [5A/div] [200V/div]
ug
ig
udc
im

[10ms/div]

4
Fourier analysis of grid current

Harmonic standards [A]

ig [A]

Around resonant frequncy

0
0 500 1000
f
(c)
78 3 Resonance Suppression Between Line Inductor …

Fourier analysis of the grid current cannot meet the requirements of the EN61000-3-
2. Harmonics around the resonant frequency are severe due to the peak value as shown
in Fig. 3.13, and amplitudes of harmonics at 450 Hz, 500 Hz, and 550 Hz are 0.5A,
0.4A, and 0.18A, respectively. Hence it is essential to be suppressed considering its
pollution to the power grid. With the ICF-based active damping method, it can be
seen from Fig. 3.16b that harmonics of the DC-link voltage and the grid current are
reduced due to the suppression of the LC resonance. The Fourier analysis of the grid
current at 450 Hz, 500 Hz, and 550 Hz are 0.35A, 0.02A, and 0.12A, respectively,
which are far lower than that in Fig. 3.16a. It can be seen from Fig. 3.16a and b
that the grid voltage contains the background harmonics of the power grid, which
could cause additional harmonics of the grid current. The feedforward compensation
method is applied in Fig. 3.16c. Harmonics of the grid current at 450 Hz, 500 Hz,
and 550 Hz are 0.08A, 0.01A, and 0.09A, respectively, which are reduced further
compared with the ones in Fig. 3.16b. Hence the negative effect of the distorted grid
voltage can be compensated, and the Fourier analysis of the grid current can meet
the requirements of the EN61000-3-2.
The feedforward compensation method is realized by the error of the ideal grid
voltage generated by the PLL and the actual grid voltage. Meanwhile, the sum of the
active damping current idamp and the feedforward current iff is also shown in Fig. 3.17,
which is emulated by the motor voltage. Waveforms of the motor voltage and current
in the stationary frame are shown in Fig. 3.18 to show the performance of the drive
system (the motor operates at 3000 rpm). Compared with the conventional motor
drive system, the voltage and current are not ideal sinusoidal, which are affected by
the fluctuated DC-link voltage, the motor load, and the additional voltage command
generated by the proposed control method.
In order to verify the effectiveness of the proposed method further, the experi-
mental results are shown in Fig. 3.19 when the motor speed is 4000 rpm. Due to the
instability caused by the LC resonance, the drive system is unable to operate normally

Fig. 3.17 Experimental

Actual grid voltage [360V/div]
waveforms of the actual grid
voltage, the ideal grid
voltage, the voltage error,
and idamp + iffcom when the
motor operates at 3000 rpm

Ideal grid voltage [360V/div] Voltage error [180V/div]

idamp + i ffcom[0.5A/div]

[10ms/div]
3.4 Inductor Current Feedback Based Active Damping Control Method 79

Fig. 3.18 Experimental

waveforms of the voltage uα [100V/div]
and current in the stationary
frame when the motor
operates at 3000 rpm
uβ [100V/div]

iα [10A/div]

iβ [10A/div]

[10ms/div]

when the motor speed is higher than 4000 rpm, and harmonics of the grid current
extremely exceed the requirements of EN61000-3-2. It can be seen from Fig. 3.19
that harmonics of the grid current are reduced with the application of the proposed
ICF-based active damping method and the feedforward compensation of the distorted
grid voltage. The performance of the proposed method at different operation points
is shown in Fig. 3.20. It can be seen that magnitudes of harmonics around the reso-
nant frequency are reduced obviously by applying the ICF-based active damping
method and the feedforward compensation method, which benefit the application of
the reduced DC-link capacitance motor drive system.

3.5 Summary

The active damping control method for the reduced DC-link capacitance IPMSM
drive system is proposed in this chapter. The LC resonance between the line inductor
and the DC-link capacitor is obvious due to the reduced DC-link capacitance. Mean-
while, the negative input-impedance weakens the drive system stability. The proposed
DC-link voltage feedback based active damping control method can suppress the
resonance and improve the stability of the drive system. Meanwhile, all possible
configurations of the damping resistor are analyzed and the optimal solution is equiv-
alent to the virtual damping resistor in series with the line inductor. A feedforward
compensation scheme is proposed to attenuate the negative effect of the distorted
grid voltage, which could reduce harmonics of the grid current further. The applica-
tion of the proposed control method could reduce harmonics of the grid current to
meet the standard requirements and benefit the application of the reduced DC-link
capacitance motor drive system.
80 3 Resonance Suppression Between Line Inductor …

Fig. 3.19 Experimental

waveforms of the grid

[20A/div][200V/div] [5A/div] [200V/div]

voltage, the grid current, the

ug
DC-link voltage, and the
motor current when the
motor speed is 4000 rpm.
a Without the proposed

ig
method. b With the
ICF-based active damping

udc
method. c With the
ICF-based active damping
method and the feedforward
compensation of the grid im
voltage distortion
[10ms/div]

4.5
Fourier analysis of grid current

ig [A] Harmonic standards [A]

Around resonant frequncy

0
0 500 1000
f [Hz]
(a)
[20A/div][200V/div] [5A/div] [200V/div]
ug
ig
udc
im

[10ms/div]
3.5 Summary 81

Fig. 3.19 (continued) 4.5

Fourier analysis of grid current

Harmonic standards [A]

ig [A]

Around resonant frequncy

0
0 500 1000
f [Hz]
(b)
[20A/div][200V/div] [5A/div] [200V/div]
ug
ig
udc
im

[10ms/div]

4.5
Fourier analysis of grid current

Harmonic standards [A]

ig [A]

Around resonant frequncy

0
0 500 1000
f [Hz]
(c)
82 3 Resonance Suppression Between Line Inductor …

Fig. 3.20 Experimental 0.80

results of grid current 0.70
harmonics at different
0.60
operating points. a Without

Harmonic current/A
the proposed method. b With 0.50

the ICF-based active 0.40

damping method. c With the 0.30
ICF-based active damping
0.20
method and the feedforward
compensation of the grid 0.10

voltage distortion 0

3000
3250
3500
3750 550
4000 450 500
Harmonic frequency/Hz

(a)
0.80

0.70

0.60

0.50
Harmonic current/A

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

3000
3250
3500
3750 550
4000 500
450
Harmonic frequency/Hz

(b)

0.80

0.70

0.60
Harmonic current/A

0.50

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

0
3000
3250
3500
3750
4000 500 550
450
Harmonic frequency/Hz

(c)
References 83

References

1. D. Wang, K. Lu, P.O. Rasmussen, L. Mathe, Y. Feng, F. Blaabjerg, Voltage modulation using
virtual positive impedance concept for active damping of small DC-link drive system. IEEE
Trans. Power Electron. 33(12), 10611–10621 (2018)
2. L. Mathe, L. Török, D. Wang, D. Sera, Resonance reduction for AC drives with small
capacitance in the DC link. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl 53(4),3814–3820 (2017)
3. R. Maheshwari, S. Munk-Nielsen, K. Lu, An active damping technique for small DC-link
capacitor based drive system. IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform. 9(2), 848–858 (2013)
4. L. Mathe, H.R. Andersen, R. Lazar, M. Ciobotaru, DC-link compensation method for slim
DC-link drives fed by soft grid, in IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics
(2010), pp. 1236–1241
5. W. Lee, S. Sul, DC-link voltage stabilization for reduced DC-link capacitor inverter. IEEE
Trans. Ind. Appl. 50(1), 404–414 (2014)
6. A.B. Awan, S. Pierfederici, B. Nahid-Mobarakeh, F. Meibody-Tabar, Active stabilization of
a poorly damped input filter supplying a constant power load, in IEEE Energy Conversion
Congress and Exposition (2009), pp. 2991–2997
7. S.D. Sudhoff, K.A. Corzine, S.F. Glover, H.J. Hegner, H.N. Robey, DC link stabilized field
oriented control of electric propulsion systems. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 13(1), 27–33
(1998)
8. N. Zhao, G. Wang, D. Xu, D. Xiao, An active damping control method for reduced DC-link
capacitance IPMSM drives. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 65(3), 2057–2068 (2018)
9. N. Zhao, G. Wang, R. Zhang, B. Li, Y. Bai, D. Xu, Inductor current feedback active damping
method for reduced DC-link capacitance IPMSM drives. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 34(5),
4558–4568 (2019)
10. K. Pietilainen, L. Harnefors, A. Petersson, H.P. Nee, DC-Link Stabilization and Voltage Sag
Ride-Through of Inverter Drives. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 53(4), 1261–1268 (2006)
Chapter 4
Impedance Model Based Stability
Control

The instability of the drive system is caused by the interaction of the LC resonance and
the constant power load (CPL), hence the active damping methods have been applied
to damp the resonance and stabilize the drive system. In the previous chapter, the
grid current harmonics suppression methods and the active damping methods could
effectively improve the grid current performance and stabilize the drive system.
However, the relationship between the system stability and the suppression of grid
current harmonics needs to be explained comprehensively. Hence the impedance
model of the reduced DC-link capacitance motor drive system is applied in this
chapter to evaluate the relationship between the drive system stability and the grid
current performance.

4.1 Impedance Modeling of PMSM

The reduced DC-link capacitance PMSM drives could be simplified as the block
diagram shown in Fig. 4.1. The small signal of the motor voltage is applied to
evaluate the DC-link voltage fluctuation on the actual d-q axis voltages [1–3], which
could be presented as
     
u d u dc u d,0 u dr e f
= + (4.1)
u q u dc,0 u q,0 u qr e f

where ud , uq , udref , uqref , udc , ud,0 , and uq,0 are the small signals of the
actual d-q axis motor voltages, the small signal of the d-q axis voltages reference
generated by the current controllers, the small signal of the DC-link voltage, the
average d-q axis voltages, respectively. It means that the small signals of the actual
d-q axis voltages are equal to the small signals of the d-q axis voltages reference
when the DC-link voltage is constant. Meanwhile, the effect of udc on ud and
uq is influenced by ud,0 /udc,0 and uq,0 /udc,0 , respectively.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 85
G. Wang et al., Reduced DC-link Capacitance AC Motor Drives,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8566-1_4
86 4 Impedance Model Based Stability Control

Rs Ld
ud id ωe Lq iq
Lg ig Rg iinv
ug udc
Rs Lq
iq ωeψ f
uq
ωe Ld id

Fig. 4.1 Impedance model of the drive system

The motor voltages in the synchronous frame are presented as

      
ud R + L d s −ωe L q id 0
= s + (4.2)
uq ωe L d Rs + L q s i q ωe ψ f

Hence the small signals of (4.2) are presented as

    
u d R + L d s −ωe L q i d
= s (4.3)
u q ωe L d Rs + L q s i q

where id and iq are the small signals of the actual d-q axis currents, respectively.
The relationship between the actual motor currents and the actual motor voltages is
shown in (4.3).
The voltage references of d-q axis in the synchronous frame are generated by the
current controllers, which are presented as
      
u ∗d −G d −ωe L q i d G d i d∗
= + (4.4)
u q∗ ωe L d −G q iq G q i q∗ + ωe ψ f

where Gd and Gq are the current controllers of the d-q axis in the synchronous frame,
respectively. The current controllers could be presented as

K id I K iq I
G d = K id P + , G q = K iq P + (4.5)
s s
where K idP , K iqP , K idI , and K iqI are the proportional and integral gain of Gd , and Gq ,
respectively.
4.1 Impedance Modeling of PMSM 87

The small signal of (4.4) could be presented as

    
u ∗d −G d −ωe L q i d
= (4.6)
u q∗ ωe L d −G q i q

Combing (4.1), (4.3), and (4.6), the relationship between id , iq and udc could
be presented as
   u d,0

i d u dc Rs +L d s+G d
= u q,0 . (4.7)
i q u dc,0 Rs +L q s+G q

Ignoring the power loss of the inverter, the inverter power is equal to the motor
power, which could be presented as

3 
u dc i inv = u d id + u q iq . (4.8)
2
The small signal of (4.8) is presented as

3 
u dc i inv,0 + u dc,0 i inv = u d i d,0 + u d,0 i d + u q i q,0 + u q,0 i q (4.9)
2
where idc,0 , id,0 , and iq,0 are the average value of idc , id and iq , respectively. Hence
the input admittance Y m (s) of PMSM in the reduced DC-link capacitance could be
presented as

i inv,0 3 u d,0 u d,0 + ωe L d i q,0 + L d i d,0 s + i d,0 Rs

Ym (s) = − +
u dc,0 2 u 2dc,0 Rs + L d s + G d
3 u q,0 u q,0 − ωe L q i d,0 + L q i q,0 s + i q,0 Rs
+ 2 . (4.10)
2 u dc,0 Rs + L q s + G q

Bode diagrams of Y m (s) with different bandwidths of the current controller

(200 Hz and 800 Hz) are shown in Fig. 4.2. It can be seen that the motor input
admittance decreases rapidly when the current controller is with lower bandwidth.
It means the drive system is less sensitive to the disturbance signals with a lower
bandwidth current controller, which could enhance the drive system stability. The
proposed motor input admittance model is consistent with the motor input admittance
models applied in [4–6].
88 4 Impedance Model Based Stability Control

Fig. 4.2 Bode diagram of -30

Magnitude (dB)
the motor input admittance
-40
Ym(s) with different
bandwidth of current -50
controllers. a The bandwidth
-60
of the current controller is
200 Hz. b The bandwidth of -70
the current controller is -80
800 Hz 180

Phase (deg) 135

90
100 101 102 103 104 105
Frequency (rad/s)
(a)
-30
Magnitude (dB)

-40

-50

-60

-70

-80
180
Phase (deg)

135

90
100 101 102 103 104 105
Frequency (rad/s)
(b)

4.2 System Performance Evaluation

4.2.1 System Stability Analysis

The drive system could be regarded as a cascade system. The first stage is the LC input
filter and the second stage is the PMSM drive. The stability of the cascade system
could be evaluated by the ratio of the input admittance of the PMSM and the output
admittance of the LC filter (Y LC (s)/Y m (s)). Meanwhile, the grid current harmonics
caused by the LC resonance could also be analyzed by the input impedance from the
grid side.
4.2 System Performance Evaluation 89

Fig. 4.3 Nyquist plots of 8

Y LC (s)/Y m (s) with different Cdc = 20 μ F
6 Cdc = 50 μ F
values of C dc
Cdc decreases
4

Imaginary Axis
2
Cdc = 100 μ F
0
Cdc = 200 μ F

-2

-4
Cdc decreases
-6 Cdc = 500 μ F
Cdc = 1000 μ F
-8
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis

The output admittance of the LC filter Y LC (s) could be presented as

L g Cdc s 2 + Rg Cdc s + 1
Y LC (s) = . (4.11)
L g s + Rg

Nyquist plots of Y LC (s)/Y m (s) with different values of the DC-link capacitance
C dc are shown in Fig. 4.3. It can be seen that the drive system stability reduces
with the decrease of C dc . Hence the stability issue is essential to be concerned in the
reduced DC-link capacitance motor drive system, because of the remarkably reduced
DC-link capacitance of the applied film capacitor.

4.2.2 Analysis of Grid Current Harmonics

The input impedance from the grid side Zg (s) is applied to evaluate the grid current
performance of the drive system, which can be presented as

1
Z g (s) = L g s + Rg + . (4.12)
sCdc + Ym (s)

Bode diagrams of Z g (s) with different values of C dc are shown in Fig. 4.4. It can
be seen that the resonant frequency increases as C dc decreases and the impedance
changes sharply around the resonant frequency, which could stimulate remarkable
harmonics of the grid current. Hence it is essential to compensate the sharply change
of the impedance value to improve the grid current performance.
90 4 Impedance Model Based Stability Control

Fig. 4.4 Bode diagrams of 60

Z g (s) with different values of
40

Magnitude (dB)
C dc
20
Cdc = 1000 μ F
0 Cdc decreases Cdc = 500 μ F
Cdc = 200 μ F
Cdc = 100 μ F
-20 Cdc = 50 μ F
Sharply change Cdc = 20 μ F
-40
360

180 Cdc decreases

Phase (deg)
Resonant frequency
0 increases

-180 0
10 101 102 103 104 105
Frequency (rad/s)

4.3 DC-Link Voltage Feedback Stability Control Method

4.3.1 DC-Link Voltage Feedback Based Stability Control

Method

The conventional stabilization control method based on the DC-link voltage feedback
is widely applied in the cascade drive system [4–6]. The DC-link voltage is processed
by a band-pass filter M dcv (s) and applied to the motor voltage. The band-pass filter
could be presented as

2ξdcv ωdcvc s
Mdcv (s) = (4.13)
s2 + 2ξdcv ωdcvc s + ωdcvc
2

where ξ dcv and ωdcvc are the damping ratio and the operating frequency, respectively.
ωdcvc is equal to the resonant frequency of the LC filter ωres .
After applying the conventional DC-link voltage feedback based stabilization
control method, the q-axis voltage reference could be presented as
 
u q∗ = G q i q∗ − i q + K vv Mdcv (s)u dc + ωe L d i d + ωe ψ f (4.14)

where K vv is the gain of the conventional stabilization control method.

4.3.2 System Stability Analysis

According to the previous analysis, iq could be derived as

4.3 DC-Link Voltage Feedback Stability Control Method 91

Fig. 4.5 Nyquist plots of 40

K vv = 0 K vv increases
Y LC (s)/Y mv (s) with different K vv = 0.1
values of K vv 30 K vv = 0.3

20

Imaginary Axis
10

-10

-20

-30 K vv = 0.5
K vv = 0.7
K vv = 0.9 K vv increases
-40
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Real Axis

u dc u q,0 K vv Mdcv (s)u dc

i q = + . (4.15)
u dc,0 Rs + L q s + G q Rs + L q s + G q

Hence the input admittance of the PMSM Y mv (s) after applying the conventional
stabilization control method could be presented as

i dc,0 3 u d,0 u d,0 + ωe L d i q,0 + L d i d,0 s + i d,0 Rs

Ymv (s) = − +
u dc,0 2 u 2dc,0 Rs + L d s + G d
3 u q,0 u q,0 − ωe L q i d,0 + L q i q,0 s + i q,0 Rs
+
2 u 2dc,0 Rs + L q s + G q
3 K vv Mdcv (s) u q,0 − ωe L q i d,0 + L q i q,0 s + i q,0 Rs
+
2 u dc,0 Rs + L q s + G q
= Ym (s) + Yvv (s) (4.16)

where Y vv (s) is the additional admittance caused by the conventional stabilization

control method.
Nyquist plots of Y LC (s)/Y mv (s) with different values of K vv are shown in Fig. 4.5.
It can be seen that the drive system stability is enhanced by the stabilization control
method, and the system becomes stable when K vv is higher than 0.3.

4.3.3 Analysis of Grid Current Harmonics

The grid current performance is another important issue in the reduced DC-link
capacitance motor drives, and the effect of the stabilization control method on the
grid current is essential to be analyzed. The input impedance from the grid side after
92 4 Impedance Model Based Stability Control

Fig. 4.6 Bode diagrams of 60

Z gv (s) with different values

Magnitude (dB)
of K vv 40 K vv increases

20 K vv = 0.9
K vv = 0.7
K vv = 0.5
0 Sharply change K vv = 0.3
K vv = 0.1
K vv = 0
-20
270
180 K vv = 0

Phase (deg) 90

0
K vv increases
-90

-180
100 101 102 103 104 105
Frequency (rad/s)

applying the conventional stabilization control method Z gv (s) could be presented as

1
Z gv (s) = L g s + Rg + . (4.17)
sCdc + Ymv (s)

In order to evaluate the grid current performance, Bode diagrams of Z gv (s) are
shown in Fig. 4.6. It can be seen that the performance of the LC resonance suppression
is limited by applying the conventional stabilization control method. The sharply
change of the impedance value caused by the LC resonance also exists, which is not
the optimal suppression performance of the grid current harmonics.

4.4 Grid Current Feedback Based Stabilization Control

Method

4.4.1 Principle of the Grid Current Feedback Based

Stabilization Control Method

As analyzed in the previous section, the stability issue of the reduced DC-link capac-
itance motor drive system needs to be concerned, which is caused by the interaction
between the LC resonance and the CPL. Meanwhile, the grid current harmonics
caused by the LC resonance are also important concerns in actual applications. In
this section, according to the impedance model, a grid current feedback based stabi-
lization control method is introduced to stabilize the drive system and improve the
grid current performance [7], which is shown in Fig. 4.7. The grid current is processed
by a band-pass filter and applied to the q-axis stator voltage. The proportional gain
4.4 Grid Current Feedback Based Stabilization Control Method 93

Fig. 4.7 Stabilization

control method of reduced
DC-link capacitance motor D1 D2
INVERTER
drives Lg Rg
ug Cdc IPM

D3 D4
ig

LC resonant
ig frequency

K vi M dcv ( s ) Proposed
Nyquist stability criterion stabilization
uvi method
and impedance analysis
+
iq* + Current +
αβ S abc
controller +
+
iq uα
ωe Ld id + ωeψ f
uβ
+ Current
id* controller + dq
+
id ωe Lqiq udc ,0

K vi is determined by the combination of the drive system stability evaluation and the
grid current performance improvement, which are realized by the Nyquist stability
criterion and the grid input impedance analysis, respectively.

4.4.2 System Stability Analysis

As for the grid current feedback based stabilization control method, the grid current
ig in (3.1) is applied to establish the feedback loop, which could be presented as

i g = Cdc u dc s + i c . (4.18)

The q-axis voltage reference after applying the stabilization control method could
be presented as
 
u q∗ = G q i q∗ − i q + K vi Mdcv (s)i g + ωe L d i d + ωe ψ f (4.19)

where K vi is the gain of the proposed stabilization control method. Then iq could
be derived as
u dc u q,0 K vi Mdcv (s)i g
i q = + . (4.20)
u dc,0 Rs + L q s + G q Rs + L q s + G q
94 4 Impedance Model Based Stability Control

Hence the input admittance of the PMSM after applying the proposed stabilization
control method Y mi (s) could be presented as

3 K vi Mdcv (s)Cdc s u q,0 −ωe L q i d,0 +L q i q,0 s+i q,0 Rs

Ym + 2 u dc,0 Rs +L q s+G q
Ymi (s)= . (4.21)
3 K vi Mdcv (s) u q,0 −ωe L q i d,0 +L q i q,0 s+i q,0 Rs
1 − 2 u dc,0 Rs +L q s+G q

Nyquist plots of Y LC (s)/Y mi (s) with different values of K vi are shown in Fig. 4.8.
The overall Nyquist plots are shown in Fig. 4.8a and enlarged ones are shown in
Fig. 4.8b. It can be seen that the stabilization control method could stabilize the drive
system when K vi is higher than 100.

Fig. 4.8 Nyquist plots of 150

Y LC (s)/Y mi (s) with different K vi = 100
values of K vi . a Overall 100
Nyquist plots. b Detailed
ones K vi = 20
50 K vi = 150
Imaginary Axis

K vi = 50 K vi = 0
0

Fig. 4.8(b)
-50

-100

-150
-250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50
Real Axis
(a)
8

6 K vi = 20
Unstable Unstable
4
Unstable K vi = 100

K vi = 150
Imaginary Axis

2
Stable

0 K vi = 50 Stable

-2
K vi = 100
-4 K vi = 150 K vi = 20
-6 K vi = 0
K vi = 50
-8
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Real Axis
(b)
4.4 Grid Current Feedback Based Stabilization Control Method 95

It can be seen that the drive system without the stabilization control method is
unstable, and both the DC-link voltage feedback based stabilization control method
and the grid current feedback based stabilization control method could stabilize the
drive system by adjusting the values of K vi and K vv . As for the DC-link voltage
feedback based stabilization method, the drive system becomes stable when K vv is
larger than 0.3. Meanwhile, the drive system also becomes stable with the grid current
feedback based stabilization control method when K vi is larger than 80. The range
of K vi is larger than K vv , which means the drive system is less sensitive to the variety
of K vi .

4.4.3 Analysis of Grid Current Harmonics

As for the grid current feedback based stabilization control method, the input
impedance from the grid side after applying the stabilization control method Z gi (s)
could be presented as

1
Z gi (s) = L g s + Rg + . (4.22)
sCdc + Ymi (s)

Bode diagrams of Z gi (s) are shown in Fig. 4.9. Different from the conventional
stabilization control method, the sharply change of the impedance value could be
effectively suppressed by the proposed stabilization control method and the grid
current performance could also be improved. Hence the proposed stabilization control
method could stabilize the drive system and improve the grid current performance

Fig. 4.9 Bode diagrams of 60

Z gi (s) with different values
Magnitude (dB)

K vi increases
of K vi 40

20
K vi = 150
K vi = 100
0 Without sharply change K vi = 50
K vi = 20
K vi =0
-20
270
225
Phase (deg)

180

135
K vi increases
90

45 0
10 101 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
Frequency (rad/s)
96 4 Impedance Model Based Stability Control

simultaneously, which is the preferred stabilization control method for the reduced
DC-link capacitance motor drives.

4.4.4 Experimental Results

The DC-link voltage udc and the grid voltage ug before and after applying the proposed
method are shown in Fig. 4.10. The PMSM operates at 3000 rpm. It can be seen
that the peak value and the valley value of the DC-link voltage before applying
the proposed stabilization control method are 325 V and 85 V, respectively. After
applying the proposed stabilization control method, the peak value and the valley
value change to 311 V and 100 V, respectively. Hence the DC-link voltage fluctuation
is suppressed and the drive system stability is enhanced by applying the proposed
stabilization control method.

Fig. 4.10 Experimental

udc 325V
waveforms of the DC-link
voltage and the grid voltage
when the compressor
[50V/div]

operates at 3000 rpm.

udc

a Without the proposed

stabilization control method.
b With the proposed
stabilization control method
udc 85V
[350V/div]
ug

[50ms/div]

(a)

udc 311V
[50V/div]
udc

udc 100V
[350V/div]
ug

[50ms/div]

(b)
4.4 Grid Current Feedback Based Stabilization Control Method 97

[200V/div] [200V/div]
[200V/div] [200V/div]

ug
ug

udc
udc

[5A/div]
[5A/div]

ig
ig

[20A/div]
[20A/div]

im
im

[10ms/div] [10ms/div]

250 250
Fourier analysis of DC-link voltage Fourier analysis of DC-link voltage

udc [V] udc [V]

0 0
0 500 1000 0 500 1000
f [Hz] f [Hz]
4 4
Fourier analysis of grid current Fourier analysis of grid current

ig [A] LC resonant frequency ig [A] LC resonant frequency

Harmonic standards [A] Harmonic standards [A]

0 0
0 500 1000 0 500 1000
f [Hz] f [Hz]
(a) (b)

Fig. 4.11 Experimental waveforms of the grid voltage, DC-link voltage, grid current and motor
current when the compressor operates at 3000 rpm. a Without the proposed stabilization control
method. b With the proposed stabilization control method

Figure 4.11 shows the drive system performance before and after applying the
proposed stabilization control method, corresponding to Fig. 4.11a and b, respec-
tively. The compressor also operates at 3000 rpm. Waveforms from top to bottom
are the grid voltage, the DC-link voltage, the grid current, and the motor current,
respectively. Meanwhile, the Fourier analysis is carried out to analyze harmonics
of the DC-link voltage and the grid current. It can be seen from Fig. 4.11a that the
resonant components of the DC-link voltage and the grid current are obvious, which
could weaken the drive system stability and stimulate the additional harmonics to
the power grid. As shown in the Fourier analysis of the grid current, harmonics
around the resonant frequency (500 Hz, L g = 5mH and C dc = 20µF) could not meet
the requirement of the IEC-61000-3-2, which limits the application of the reduced
DC-link capacitance motor drive system. In order to stabilize the drive system and
improve the grid current performance, the proposed stabilization control method is
applied in Fig. 4.11b. It can be seen that the resonant component of the DC-link
voltage is suppressed compared with the one in Fig. 4.11a. Meanwhile, harmonics
of the grid current are suppressed remarkably as shown in the Fourier analysis.
98 4 Impedance Model Based Stability Control

In order to verify the effectiveness of the proposed stabilization control method,

the compressor speed is set as 4000 rpm, and the experimental results are shown in
Fig. 4.12. Waveforms from top to bottom are the grid voltage, the DC-link voltage,
the grid current, and the motor current, respectively. It can be seen that the DC-link
voltage could also be stabilized and harmonics of the grid current could be suppressed.
Hence the proposed method could stabilize the drive system and suppress the grid
current harmonics in a wide speed range.
Figure 4.13 shows the experimental results without and with the proposed stabi-
lization control method. Waveforms from top to bottom are the q-axis voltage, the
grid current, the absolute value of the grid current, and the voltage command gener-
ated by the proposed stabilization control method as shown in Fig. 4.7, respectively.
It can be seen that the voltage command contains the resonant components, which
are injected to the motor drive system. According to the classical control theory,
the proper feedback signal could stabilize the system, and it is consistent with the

Fig. 4.12 Experimental

[200V/div] [200V/div]

waveforms of the grid

voltage, DC-link voltage,
ug

grid current and motor

current when the compressor
operates at 4000 rpm (With
udc

the proposed stabilization

control method)
[5A/div]
ig
[20A/div]
im

[10ms/div]

250
Fourier analysis of DC-link voltage

udc [V]

0
0 500 1000
f [Hz]
4
Fourier analysis of grid current
5.9A

ig [A] LC resonant frequency

Harmonic standards [A]

0
0 500 1000
f [Hz]
4.4 Grid Current Feedback Based Stabilization Control Method 99

Fig. 4.13 Experimental uq [100V/div]

waveforms of the q-axis
voltage, grid current,
absolute value of grid
current, and voltage
ig [5A/div]
command generated by the
proposed stabilization
control method when the
compressor operates at
3000 rpm. a Without the
ig [5A/div]
proposed stabilization
control method. b With the
proposed stabilization uvi [100V/div]
control method

[10ms/div]
(a)

uq [100V/div]

ig [5A/div]

ig [5A/div]

uvi [100V/div]

[10ms/div]
(b)

proposed stabilization control method, which constructs the feedback loop by the
feedback of the resonant component of the grid current.
Figure 4.14 shows the drive system performance without and with the proposed
stabilization control method when the motor operates at 3000 rpm. Waveforms from
top to bottom are the speed control error ωer , the d-q axis currents, and the motor
current, respectively. The d-q axis currents fluctuate with the DC-link voltage fluctu-
ation because of the insufficient voltage margin in the current control loop when the
DC-link voltage fluctuates around the valley values. Hence the motor torque could
not be maintained constant, which leads to the motor speed fluctuation. Meanwhile,
the load torque of the single rotary compressor fluctuates with the rotor position from
zero to the maximum value, and the fluctuation becomes more obvious as the motor
speed increases. Hence the speed control error in Fig. 4.14a is the combination of the
100 4 Impedance Model Based Stability Control

Fig. 4.14 Experimental

er [20rpm/div]
waveforms of the speed
control error ωer , the
d-q axis currents, and the
motor current when the
compressor operates at iq [10A/div]
3000 rpm. a Without the
proposed stabilization
control method. b With the
proposed stabilization id [10A/div]
control method

im [20A/div]

[10ms/div]
(a)

er [20rpm/div]

iq [10A/div]

id [10A/div]

im [20A/div]

[10ms/div]
(b)

fluctuated DC-link voltage and the load torque. It can be seen that the speed error in
Fig. 4.14b after applying the proposed stabilization control method is slightly larger
than the one in Fig. 4.14a, because the frequency of the voltage command uvi gener-
ated by the stabilization control method is around the resonant frequency (503 Hz)
and the sum of uvi is zero. The effect of the proposed stabilization control method
on the motor current is little for the high impedance value of the stator windings
around the resonant frequency (503 Hz). However, the severely fluctuated DC-link
voltage leads to the unavoidable negative effect on the motor control performance,
including the torque and speed fluctuation. Hence the reduced DC-link capacitance
4.4 Grid Current Feedback Based Stabilization Control Method 101

motor drives are suitable to the applications interested in the low cost and high relia-
bility, which are more tolerant to the torque and speed ripple, such as the household
appliances, the fan and pump applications.

4.5 Summary

The stability issue and the grid current harmonics issue are important concerns in the
reduced DC-link capacitance motor drives. The impedance model of the reduced DC-
link capacitance motor drive system is established in this chapter to analyze the drive
system stability, which is realized by the Nyquist stability criterion of the cascade
drive system. The grid input impedance model is used to analyze the harmonics of
the grid current. Compared with the conventional DC-link voltage feedback based
active damping method, the grid current feedback based active damping method could
formulate the Nyquist plots of the drive system and suppress the sharply change value
of the grid input impedance. Hence the stability of the drive system could be enhanced
and the grid current performance could be improved simultaneously. Experimental
results are provided to verify the effectiveness of the proposed method.

References

1. A. Awan, S. Pierfederici, B. Nahid-Mobarakeh, F. Meibody-Tabar, Active stabilization of a

poorly damped input filter supplying a constant power load, in IEEE Energy Conversion Congress
and Exposition (2009), pp. 2991–2997
2. Y. Feng, L. Mathe, K. Lu, F. Blaabjerg, W. Xiongfei, P. Davari, Analysis of harmonics suppression
by active damping control on multi slim dc-link drives, in IECON Annual Conference of the
IEEE Industrial Electronics Society (2016), pp. 5001–5006
3. X. Liu, A.J. Forsyth, A.M. Cross, Negative input-resistance compensator for a constant power
load. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 54(6), 3188–3196 (2007)
4. Y.A.I. Mohamed, A.A.A. Radwan, T.K. Lee, Decoupled reference-voltage-based active DC-link
stabilization for PMSM drives with tight-speed regulation. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 59(12),
4523–4536 (2012)
5. K. Pietilainen, L. Harnefors, A. Petersson, H.-P. Nee, DC-link stabilization and voltage sag
ride-through of inverter drives. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 53(4), 1261–1268 (2006)
6. X. Song, S. Zheng, B. Han, C. Peng, X. Zhou, Active damping stabilization for high-speed
BLDCM drive system based on band-pass filter. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 32(7), 5438–5449
(2017)
7. N. Zhao, G. Wang, D. Ding, G. Zhang, D.G. Xu, Impedance based stabilization control method
for reduced DC-link capacitance IPMSM drives. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 34(10), 9879–
9890 (2019)
Chapter 5
Analysis and Suppression of Beat
Phenomenon

The beat phenomenon is an important issue in the reduced DC-link capacitance motor
drive system and other power electronic converters, including the resonant switching
converter, the inverter with low switching frequency, the distributed power systems,
and the matrix converter [1–3]. The beat phenomenon is caused by the interaction of
signals with different frequencies, which leads to the low frequency fluctuation. The
power electronic converters usually own high gains in the low frequency domain.
Hence the beat phenomenon could motivate the large ripple response, which increases
the voltage and current stress, weakens the control performance, and causes additional
noise [4–7].
As for the reduced DC-link capacitance motor drive system, a specific beat
phenomenon is generated by the fluctuated DC-link voltage and the severely fluctu-
ated load torque, which is seldom mentioned in previous researches. In this chapter,
the analysis of the beat phenomenon is presented, which is caused by the interac-
tion of two signals with specific frequencies (the frequency of the DC-link voltage
and the frequency of the fluctuated load torque). The effect of the beat phenomenon
on the grid current and the motor speed is investigated, which fluctuate with low-
frequency oscillation. Hence the suppression method based on the power balancing
controller and the fluctuated torque suppression method is applied to improve the
control performance of the drive system.

5.1 Beat Phenomenon Simply Caused by DC-Link Voltage

According to the PWM theory, the three-phase voltages ua , ub and uc can be simplified
as

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 103
G. Wang et al., Reduced DC-link Capacitance AC Motor Drives,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8566-1_5
104 5 Analysis and Suppression of Beat Phenomenon
⎡ ⎤
⎡ ⎤
ua (t)  sin(ωe t + ϕe ) 
mu ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ub (t) ⎦ = dc ⎢ sin ωe t + ϕe − 2π 3 ⎥ (5.1)
2 ⎣   ⎦
uc (t) sin ωe t + ϕe + 2π 3

where m and ϕ e are the modulation index and the initial phase of the phase voltage,
respectively. Ignoring harmonics of the DC-link voltage except the mean value and
the fundamental one, the a-phase voltage ua (t) can be derived as
mudc,0 mudc,1
ua (t) = sin(ωe t + ϕe ) + sin(ωe t + ϕe ) sin 2ωg t + ϕdc,1
2 2
mudc,0 mudc,1 
= sin(ωe t + ϕe ) − cos ωe + 2ωg t + ϕe + ϕdc,1 . (5.2)
2 4
mudc,1 
+ cos ωe − 2ωg t + ϕe − ϕdc,1
4
It can be seen that the last term of ua (t) is a low frequency disturbance to the
drive system when ωe gets close to 2ωg . The low frequency component of the phase
voltage is defined as the beat phenomenon, which could stimulate the periodically
fluctuation of the drive system, increase the power loss and reduce the stability.
The solution to this beat phenomenon is to apply the DC-link voltage feedforward
method. The modified index modulation mi can be written as
m
mi = . (5.3)
udc

Substituting (5.3) into (5.1), the DC-link voltage fluctuation is compensated and
the beat phenomenon will be eliminated. The type of the beat phenomenon is caused
by the interaction of two signals (i.e., the fluctuated DC-link voltage and the motor
phase voltage) with close frequencies, which could be compensated by the DC-link
voltage feedforward method [8].
Another beat phenomenon in the reduced DC-link capacitance motor drive system
will appear when the motor load is with severely periodic fluctuation. Hence the
conventional compensation method in [8] is not suitable for this type of the beat
phenomenon, which is seldom mentioned in previous researches.

5.2 Beat Phenomenon of Reduced DC-Link Capacitance

IPMSM Drives

5.2.1 Effect of Fluctuated DC-Link Voltage on Motor Current

Due to the DC-link voltage fluctuation in the reduced DC-link capacitance motor
drive system, the motor phase voltages are influenced by the combination of the
5.2 Beat Phenomenon of Reduced DC-Link Capacitance IPMSM Drives 105

conventional motor phase voltage and the fluctuated DC-link voltage. The three-
phase voltages ua , ub and uc are presented as
⎡ ⎤
⎡ ⎤
ua (t)  sin(ωe t + ϕe ) 
mu ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ub (t) ⎦ = dc,0 ⎢ sin ωe t + ϕe − 2π 3 ⎥
2 ⎣   ⎦
uc (t) sin ωe t + ϕe + 2π 3
⎡ ⎤. (5.4)
 sin(ωe t + ϕe ) 
mudc,1 ⎢ ⎥
+ sin 2ωg t + ϕdc,1 ⎢ sin ωe t + ϕe − 2π 3 ⎥
2 ⎣   ⎦
sin ωe t + ϕe + 2π 3

Hence the motor voltages on the d-q synchronous frame ud and uq could be
presented as
    
ud cos(ωe t) sin(ωe t) ua
= √1 (ua + 2ub )
. (5.5)
uq − sin(ωe t) cos(ωe t) 3

Substituting (5.4) to (5.5), ud and uq could be simplified as

   mudc,0  
ud + mu2dc,1 sin 2ωg t + ϕdc,1 sin ϕe
= 2 . (5.6)
uq − mu2dc,0 + mu2dc,1 sin 2ωg t + ϕdc,1 cos ϕe

It can be seen from (5.6) that the d-q axis voltages ud and uq are influenced by
udc fluctuation. Taking the q-axis current control loop as an example, the modulation
signal m and the actual q-axis current iq could be presented as

diq (t) m(t) Rs iq (t)

= Ku udc − ωe ψf − ωe Ld id −
dt Lq Lq
 ∗ 
dm(t) diq (t) diq (t) 
= KiqP − + KiqI iqref (t) − iq (t) (5.7)
dt dt dt

where K u is –cos(ϕ e )/2.

As for the severely fluctuated dc-link voltage in the reduced dc-link capacitance
motor drive system, the voltage margin of the current control loop reduces as the
back electromotive force increases. Hence iq could be maintained constant by the
regulation of PI controller when the motor operates at low speed, and it fluctuates
with udc fluctuation when the motor speed increases, because the voltage margin of
the current control loop is not able to regulate iq to be constant [9, 10]. Hence the
d-q axis currents id and iq under udc fluctuation are presented as
   
id Kd 0 + Kd 1 sin 2ωg t + ϕdc,1
= (5.8)
iq Kq0 + Kq1 sin 2ωg t + ϕdc,1
106 5 Analysis and Suppression of Beat Phenomenon

where K d0 , K d1 K q0 and K q1 are the mean value and the fundamental component of
the d-q axis currents, respectively.

5.2.2 Interaction Between DC-Link Voltage Fluctuation

and Load Torque Fluctuation

Besides the fluctuated DC-link voltage, the mechanical load also affects the d-q axis
currents. The load torque of the single rotary IPMSM compressor air conditioner
fluctuates with the mechanical rotor angle, which is determined by the operational
principle of the single rotary compressor. The maximum load torque per cycle is
determined by the motor speed and the operation state of refrigeration cycle, which
becomes larger as the motor speed increases. The load torque T L can be presented
as


n
TL = TL,0 + TL,k sin kωr t + ϕr,k (5.9)
k=1

where T L,0 , T L,k and ϕ r,k are the mean value, the amplitude, and the phase of kth
harmonic component of the load torque, respectively.
Based on the above analysis, the motor electromagnetic torque T e is determined by
two factors in the reduced DC-link capacitance motor drive system, the load torque T L
and the fluctuated DC-link voltage. Different from the constant value in the conven-
tional motor drive system, id and iq contain two sinusoidal components (2ωg and
ωr corresponding to the DC-link voltage fluctuation and the load torque fluctuation)
in the steady state of the proposed motor drive system. The condition that causes
the beat phenomenon is the interaction of two different frequency signals, hence
the beat phenomenon will occur when the d-q axis currents contain the components
with the frequency of DC-link voltage fluctuation and the load torque fluctuation,
respectively.
Ignoring high order harmonics, id and iq can be presented as

id = id ,0 + ad ,0 sin 2ωg t + ϕdc,1 + bd ,0 sin ωr t + ϕr,1

(5.10)
iq = iq,0 + aq,0 sin 2ωg t + ϕdc,1 + bq,0 sin ωr t + ϕr,1

where ad,0 , aq,0 , bd,0 and bq,0 are the amplitude of the component caused by the
fluctuated DC-link voltage and the fluctuated load torque, respectively. As iq is closely
related to T e , which determines the drive system performance. Hence iq is used
to analyze the beat phenomenon of the reduced DC-link capacitance motor drive
system. Assuming ωg is 50 Hz, iq is shown in Fig. 5.1 to directly illustrate the beat
phenomenon under different operation frequencies of ωr (49 Hz, 50 Hz, and 51 Hz).
It can be seen from Fig. 5.1a and c that iq fluctuates with the low frequency when
ωr is around 50 Hz, and the low-frequency oscillation is with the same frequency
5.2 Beat Phenomenon of Reduced DC-Link Capacitance IPMSM Drives 107

10 100
0Hz 100Hz
8
80

Fourier analysis
6
Current /A
60
4
40
2
49Hz
0 20

-2 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 50 100 150 200 250
Time/s (a) Frequency/Hz
10 100
0Hz 100Hz
8
80

Fourier analysis
6
Current /A

60
4
40
2
50Hz
0 20

-2 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 50 100 150 200 250
Time/s (b) Frequency/Hz

10 100
0Hz 100Hz
8
80
Fourier analysis

6
Current /A

60
4
40
2
51Hz
0 20

-2 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 50 100 150 200 250
Time/s (c) Frequency/Hz

Fig. 5.1 Waveforms of iq in the reduced DC-link capacitance motor drive system with different
operation frequencies of ωr . a 49 Hz. b 50 Hz. c 51 Hz

when ωr is 49 and 51 Hz. In Fig. 5.1b, iq is constant when ωr is 50 Hz. Meanwhile,

id is the same situation as iq , which also fluctuates with the low frequency when ωr
is around 50 Hz. The frequency of the low-frequency oscillation increases as the
frequency of motor speed diverges from 50 Hz. The low-frequency oscillation is the
beat phenomenon of the drive system, which could stimulate the additional audible
noise and possible resonance with the mechanical structure.
108 5 Analysis and Suppression of Beat Phenomenon

5.3 Drive System Performance Analysis Influenced by Beat

Phenomenon

5.3.1 Effect of Beat Phenomenon on Grid Current

The grid input power Pg can be presented as

Pg = Pinv + Pdc . (5.11)

Pinv could be presented as

Pinv = Te ωr , (5.12)

and Pdc is calculated by (2.5). It can be seen from (2.5) that the sum of Pdc per cycle is
zero. Hence the grid input power Pg is equal to the inverter power Pinv when ignoring
the instantaneous effect. Pg fluctuates with twice the frequency of the grid voltage.
Pinv is closely related to T L , which fluctuates with the same frequency of ωr .
The grid input power Pg is also presented in (2.2). According to the analysis of
(5.10) in Fig. 5.1, the beat phenomenon of Pg in (5.11) will be caused by the fluctuated
inverter power. As the grid voltage ug is determined by the power grid, the effect of
the beat phenomenon on ug is negligible. Hence the low-frequency oscillation of ig
will be caused by the beat phenomenon.

5.3.2 Effect of Beat Phenomenon on Motor Speed

Besides the grid current, the actual motor speed is also affected by the beat
phenomenon, which fluctuates with the same low-frequency oscillation. The motor
voltages in the synchronous frame ud and uq can be presented as
      
ud Rs + sLd −ωe Lq id 0
= + . (5.13)
uq ωe Ld Rs + sLq iq ωe ψf

In order to evaluate the effect of the beat phenomenon on the drive system, the
motor voltage, current and speed can be regarded as two parts: the mean value X 0
and the deviation to its mean value X. Hence (5.13) can be presented as:
   
ud ,0 + ud Rs + sLd − ωe,0 +ωe Lq
= ·
uq,0 + uq ωe,0 +ωe Ld Rs + sLq
   . (5.14)
id ,0 + id 0
+
iq,0 + iq ωe,0 +ωe ψf
5.3 Drive System Performance Analysis Influenced by Beat Phenomenon 109

The derivate operation s could be ignored in the steady state. The motor voltages
are generated by the current controllers, which are presented as:
   
KidI KiqI
ud = KidP + id , uq = KiqP + iq (5.15)
s s

As the beat phenomenon is with the periodic fluctuation, the integral operation of
id and i could be assumed as zero. Hence (5.14) can be simplified as:q

Lq iq,0 ωe = Rs − Kpd id − Lq ωe,0 iq

. (5.16)
Ld id ,0 + ψf ωe = Kpq − Rs iq − Ld ωe,0 id

It can be seen from (5.16) that ωe is closely related to id and iq , which are
influenced by the disturbance with the frequencies corresponding to the DC-link
voltage fluctuation and the load torque fluctuation (2ωg and ωr ). The PI controller is
applied in the speed control loop to maintain the motor speed constant. However, as
for the component of ωe with the frequency of 2ωg , the speed PI controller is invalid
when the voltage margin of the speed control loop is insufficient due to the increased
back electromotive force, which leads to the unavoidable control errors with the
frequency of 2ωg . Meanwhile, as for the component of ωe with the frequency of
ωr , the control error of the speed control loop is also caused by the periodically
fluctuated load torque, because it is difficult to achieve a sufficient high bandwidth
in actual applications to totally suppress the periodic control errors [11].

5.4 Beat Phenomenon Suppression Method

5.4.1 Principle of Beat Phenomenon Suppression Method

According to the above analysis, the proposed control method is shown in Fig. 5.2.
The power balancing control method aims to shape Pinv to be synchronous with the

idref ∗
Current ud
ωr∗ id controller
Speed
ωr controller Δud ++ ud αβ u∗
Fluctuated αβ uαβ
iq* Torque
Suppression +
Power iqref Δuq ++ uq dq Δuαβ+
Balancing Current
iq
controller controller u ∗
q

Fig. 5.2 Block diagram of power balancing and fluctuated torque suppression
110 5 Analysis and Suppression of Beat Phenomenon

fluctuated DC-link voltage. Hence the interaction of power signals in (5.10) will be
changed, which could suppress the low-frequency oscillation of the grid current. The
input of the drive system is the speed reference and load torque. The PI controllers
are applied in the current and speed control loops to regulate the actual d-q axis
currents and the motor speed. Due to the motor speed fluctuation caused by the
beat phenomenon of id and iq , the fluctuated torque suppression method is applied
to eliminate the component of the d-q axis currents with the same frequency of ωr .
According to (5.10) and (5.16), the suppression of the signal with the same frequency
of the fluctuated load torque (ωr ) could improve the performance of id and iq . Hence
the low-frequency oscillation of the motor speed could also be suppressed.

5.4.2 Beat Phenomenon Suppression of Grid Current

The block diagram of the power balancing control method is shown in Fig. 5.3. The
power balancing controller is realized by the inverter power regulation, and voltage
commands are applied to modify the voltage vector in the stationary frame directly.
A resonant controller is applied to regulate the inverter power, because the inverter
power fluctuates with twice the frequency of the grid voltage. Meanwhile, the q-
axis current reference is modulated to be synchronous with the phase of the inverter
power reference Pref , which contributes to improving the performance of the power
balancing strategy.
In Fig. 5.3, the phase of the grid voltage θ g is detected by the PLL, which is
used to generate the inverter power reference Pref and modulate the q-axis current
reference iq∗ . Pref is determined by the load torque T L and the actual motor speed
ωr . The DC-link capacitor power Pdc is ignored, because the sum of Pdc per cycle is
zero and the frequency of the beat phenomenon shown in Fig. 5.1 is much lower than
the one of Pdc . According to (5.11), Pref is set as the inverter power reference and
the actual inverter power Pinv is the feedback, which is obtained by the production
of the motor voltage and current. Assuming the grid voltage is 50 Hz, the frequency
of Pref and Pinv is set as 100 Hz. Hence the resonant controller is applied to regulate
the fluctuated power signals, which could be presented as

2ωpbc s
GPBC (s) = KPBCR (5.17)
s2 + 2ωpbc s + ωpbc0
2

where K PBCR is the resonant gain, which determines the amplitude of the resonant
controller, and ωpbc0 is the resonant frequency, which is with the same frequency of
Pinv (100 Hz), and ωpbc is the cut-off frequency. The gain of the resonant controller
increases as ωpbc reduces. However, the decrease of ωpbc reduces the robustness for
the frequency shift of Pinv . Hence the compromise should be considered for the value
determination of ωpbc .
5.4 Beat Phenomenon Suppression Method 111

The output of the resonant controller Pmod can be transformed as the voltage
command umod , which is presented as

Pmod Pmod
umod =  =  . (5.18)
iαβ 
iα + iβ
2 2

As for the normal motor drive system, the voltage command umod is a disturbance.
Hence it is necessary to generate an optional way to reduce the impact on the drive
system. The smallest amplitude of umod is applied, which is parallel to the current
vector iαβ in the stationary frame. The voltage command in the stationary frame can
be presented as

umod iα umod iβ
uα =   , uβ =   . (5.19)
iαβ  iαβ 

Meanwhile, the mean value of the DC-link voltage is applied as the voltage refer-
ence of the SVPWM module, which could avoid the unnecessary inverter satura-
tion when the DC-link voltage fluctuates severely. As for the application of the
power balancing strategy, the inverter output power will be synchronous with the
grid input power, which could suppress the low-frequency oscillation of the grid
current effectively.

5.4.3 Beat Phenomenon Suppression of Motor Speed

The performance of the grid current can be improved by the proposed power
balancing control strategy. However, as analyzed previously, the motor speed fluctu-
ates with the low frequency oscillation, which is caused by the beat phenomenon of id
and iq . The motor speed control performance is deeply affected by the severely fluc-
tuated load torque T L . Hence it is necessary to suppress the low frequency oscillation
of the motor speed caused by the fluctuated torque.
According to (5.10), the beat phenomenon of id and iq is generated by the
interaction of two different frequency signals.
The periodic components of d-q axis currents with the frequency of ωr could
be extracted and eliminated to improve the motor speed performance. The block
diagram is shown in Fig. 5.4. The closed loop is only sensitive to the fluctuated load
torque, which is parallel to the normal operation of motor control. Hence harmonics
of id and iq caused by the fluctuated load torque could be effectively suppressed and
the low frequency oscillation of the speed regulation will be eliminated.
The notch filters in Fig. 5.4 can be presented as

anf s2 + cnf s + 1
H (s) = , (5.20)
anf s2 + bnf s + 1
112 5 Analysis and Suppression of Beat Phenomenon

θg iβ
ug PLL 2sin 2 (θ g ) 1.5 ( uα iα + uβ iβ )
iαβ
Pinv
3Pλ f + Resonant Pmod 1 iα
ωr Pref controller iαβ umod iαβ
4
Power Balancing Controller Δuα Δuβ

iqref ud uα ++ uα∗
∗
Current ud
iq* αβ
+ controller +
iq
Current uq
∗
uq uβ ++ uβ∗
idref dq
+ controller +
id Drive System Without
Fluctuated Torque
−ωe Lq iq ωe Ld id + ωeψ f
Suppression

Fig. 5.3 Block diagram of power balancing controller

and

1 knf 1 knf 2
anf = , bnf = 2 , cnf = 2 (5.21)
ωnf 0
2
ωnf 0 ωnf 0

where ωnf 0 , k nf 1 and k nf 2 are the central frequency and coefficients of the notch
filters, respectively. k nf 1 determines the bandwidth of notch filter, and the attenuation
is determined by k nf 1 and k nf 2 .
In this chapter, ωnf 0 and k nf 2 are set as 50 Hz and 0.001, and the determination
of k nf 1 (bandwidth of the notch filter) is an important issue in the actual realization,
because the frequency of the beat phenomenon changes with the motor speed. The
beat frequency increases as the frequency of motor speed diverges from 50 Hz, and
the beat phenomenon will also be mitigated. Hence the determination of k nf 1 should
satisfy the requirement for the shift of the motor speed around 50 Hz when the beat
phenomenon affects the drive system significantly, and the range of the frequency
fluctuation is set as 4 Hz.

5.4.4 Experimental Results

As analyzed in the previous section, the beat phenomenon occurs when the motor
speed gets close to the frequency of the grid voltage (50 Hz, 3000 rpm), hence
the motor speed is set at 2960 rpm in experimental results. Figure 5.5 shows
5.4 Beat Phenomenon Suppression Method 113

Notch Filter
+
Fluctuated Torque
KP
Suppression
Δud −ωe Lq iq
∗
idref + Current u d
ud id
controller
IPMSM
iqref Current uq∗ uq iq
+ controller

Δuq ωe Ld id + ωeψ f
Fluctuated Torque
KP Suppression
+ Notch Filter

Fig. 5.4 Block diagram of fluctuated torque suppression

the system performance before and after applying the proposed beat phenomenon
suppression method, and the bandwidth of the current controller is set as 200 Hz.
Waveforms from top to bottom are the error of the motor speed control, the grid
current, the inverter power, and the DC-link voltage, respectively. It can be seen
from Fig. 5.5a that the motor speed and the grid current fluctuate with the low-
frequency oscillation. The high frequency fluctuation (100 Hz) of the motor speed
is caused by the fluctuated DC-link voltage, which is inevitable in the reduced DC-
link capacitance drive system, and it is not considered in this chapter. The proposed
method focuses on eliminating the low frequency oscillation generated by the beat
phenomenon. The grid current fluctuation is obvious, and the motor speed also
synchronously fluctuates with it (+16 rpm, −13 rpm), which weakens the drive
system stability. The low frequency oscillation of the grid current is caused by the
low frequency oscillation of the inverter power (+1150 W ~ +1400 W). In Fig. 5.5b,
the power balancing controller is applied and the low frequency oscillation of the
inverter power is suppressed effectively. Hence the performance of the grid current
performance is also improved. However, as the power balancing controller only
focuses on improving the performance of the grid current, the performance of the
speed fluctuation is not improved in Fig. 5.5b (+17.5 rpm, −11.5 rpm) compared
with the one in Fig. 5.5a. Combined with the power balancing controller, the fluc-
tuated torque suppression method is applied in Fig. 5.5c. It can be seen that the
low-frequency oscillation of the motor speed (+10 rpm, −10 rpm) decreases signifi-
cantly and the drive system stability is enhanced. Hence the low-frequency oscillation
caused by the beat phenomenon can be suppressed by the proposed method.
114 5 Analysis and Suppression of Beat Phenomenon

Fig. 5.5 Experimental

waveforms of the error of the
speed control, the grid
current, the inverter power
and the DC-link voltage.
a Without the proposed
method. b Only with the
power balancing controller.
c Combining the fluctuated
torque suppression and the
power balancing controller

[2s/div]

+16rpm

-13rpm +7.5A

-8.5A +1400W +1150W

[200ms/div]

r
[20rpm/div]

ig [5A/div]

Pinv [1400W/div]

[20ms/div] udc[200V/div]
(a)

The motor phase current, the d-q axis currents are shown in Fig. 5.6. Meanwhile,
the effect of the proposed method on the motor phase current could be obtained by the
Fourier analysis in Fig. 5.6. Waveforms in Fig. 5.6a, b and c correspond to the system
performance without the proposed method, only with the power balancing controller,
and combining the fluctuated torque suppression method and the power balancing
controller. It can be seen that the low-frequency oscillation of the q-axis current in
5.4 Beat Phenomenon Suppression Method 115

Fig. 5.5 (continued)

[2s/div]

+17.5rpm

-11rpm +6A

-6.5A +1250W

[200ms/div]

Δωr [20rpm/div]

ig [5A/div]

Pinv [1400W/div]

[20ms/div] udc[200V/div]
(b)

Fig. 5.6a (9A ~ 10.5A) is palpable, hence the motor speed fluctuation in Fig. 5.5a is
serious. After applying the power balancing controller, the grid current fluctuation
is suppressed, whereas the motor speed fluctuation is not improved as shown in
Fig. 5.5b. It can be seen that the beat phenomenon of the q-axis current is also not
effectively weakened in Fig. 5.6b (9.5A~10.5A). After applying the fluctuated torque
suppression method, the low frequency fluctuation of the q-axis current in Fig. 5.6c
116 5 Analysis and Suppression of Beat Phenomenon

Fig. 5.5 (continued)

[2s/div]

+10rpm

-10rpm +6.5A

+1250W -6.5A

[200ms/div]

Δωr [20rpm/div]

ig [5A/div]

Pinv [1400W/div]

[20ms/div] udc[200V/div]
(c)

(10A~10.25A) is remarkably reduced compared with the ones in Fig. 5.6a and b.
The suppression of the low-frequency oscillation of q-axis current could improve
the motor speed performance, which is consistent with the experimental results in
Figs. 5.5 and 5.6. The proposed power balancing controller and the fluctuated torque
suppression affect the instantaneous performance of the motor phase current. As
shown in Fig. 5.6, the main frequency of the motor current is 148 Hz, which is
5.4 Beat Phenomenon Suppression Method 117

Fig. 5.6 Experimental

waveforms of the d-axis id [5A/div]
current, the q-axis current,
and the motor phase current.
a Without the proposed
method. b Only with the
power balancing controller.
c Combining the fluctuated
torque suppression and the
iq [5A/div] im[10A/div]
power balancing controller

[2s/div]

iq 10.5A iq 9A

[50ms/div]

4.5
Fourier analysis of motor current
148Hz

48Hz

im [A] 248Hz

0
0 250 500
f [Hz]
(a)

modulated by udc . Hence the additional harmonics are 48 and 248 Hz when the
frequency of udc is 100 Hz. The application of the proposed method affects the
percentage of harmonics distribution, whereas the additional DC component of the
motor phase current is not generated by the proposed method.
118 5 Analysis and Suppression of Beat Phenomenon

Fig. 5.6 (continued)

id [5A/div]

iq [5A/div] im[10A/div]

[2s/div]

iq 10.5A iq 9.5A

[50ms/div]

4.5 Fourier analysis of motor current

148Hz
48Hz

im [A] 248Hz

0
0 250 500
f [Hz]
(b)

The effect of the fluctuated DC-link voltage on the motor current is affected by the
parameters of the current controller. Hence experimental results are performed with a
higher valley value in Fig. 5.7a varies from 0A~2.5A. The performance improvement
of the current control loop applying a higher bandwidth current controller is limited,
because the control loop is also affected by both the DC-link voltage fluctuation
and the beat phenomenon. In Fig. 5.7b and c, the beat phenomenon of the d-q axis
5.4 Beat Phenomenon Suppression Method 119

Fig. 5.6 (continued)

id [5A/div]

iq [5A/div] im [10A/div]

[2s/div]

iq 10A iq 10.25A

[50ms/div]

4.5
Fourier analysis of motor current

148Hz
48Hz

im [A] 248Hz

0
0 250 500
f [Hz]
(c)

currents could be effectively regulated with the proposed beat suppression method.
However, it can be seen that the noise of the phase current and the d-q axis currents
increases in Fig. 5.7b and c, because the interaction of the normal current control
and the proposed beat phenomenon method will generate the additional noise issue
when applying a higher bandwidth current controller. Hence a relatively conservative
120 5 Analysis and Suppression of Beat Phenomenon

Fig. 5.7 Experimental

waveforms of the d-axis id [5A/div]
current, the q-axis current,
and the motor phase current iq 9.5A iq 10.5A iq [5A/div]
when the bandwidth of the
current controller is 400 Hz.
a Without the proposed
im [10A/div] iq 2.5A
method. b Only with the
power balancing controller.
iq 0A
c Combining the fluctuated
torque suppression and the
power balancing controller
[20ms/div]
(a)

id [5A/div]

iq 9.5A iq 10.5A iq [5A/div]

im [10A/div] iq 1.5A iq 0A

[20ms/div]
(b)

id [5A/div]

iq 10A iq 10.5A iq [5A/div]

im [10A/div] iq 1.0A iq 0A

[20ms/div]
(c)

value of the bandwidth (200 Hz) is preferred to enhance the drive system stability,
and the effectiveness of the proposed method could be verified by the experimental
results with both high bandwidth (400 Hz) and low bandwidth (200 Hz) of the current
controller.
5.5 Summary 121

5.5 Summary

A beat phenomenon suppression method for the reduced DC-link capacitance motor
drive system is introduced in this chapter. The beat phenomenon is generated by the
fluctuated DC-link voltage and the severely fluctuated load torque. The impact of the
beat phenomenon on the drive system leads to the low-frequency oscillation of the
grid current and the motor speed, which increases the audible noise and motivates
the potential resonance with the mechanical system. The beat phenomenon of the
grid current can be suppressed by the power balancing controller, and the fluctuated
torque suppression method could improve the motor speed control performance.
Experimental results with different bandwidth of the current controller are performed,
and the relatively conservative bandwidth is preferred to prevent the drive system
noise. Regardless of the current controller bandwidth, experimental results verify
the effectiveness of the proposed method for the reduced DC-link capacitance motor
drive system.

References

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Chapter 6
Flux-Weakening Control Method

Reduced DC-link capacitance permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) drives

have many advantages, such as longer lifetime, reduced cost and higher power
density. However, due to the DC-link voltage fluctuation, the DC-link voltage utiliza-
tion rate and the torque ripples are two major issues in flux-weakening operation
region. Solutions for the torque ripples reduction and the DC-link voltage utiliza-
tion improvement in flux-weakening region is important. Many flux-weakening
control methods for motor drives with large-volume electrolytic capacitors have
been proposed during the last decades [1–7]. However, the flux-weakening control
for reduced DC-link capacitance motor drives should consider the fluctuation of
DC-link voltage to ensure the operation performance [8].

6.1 Conventional Flux-Weakening Control

The voltage closed-loop flux-weakening scheme (VCFS) has been regarded as a

practical method as shown in Fig. 6.1. In the conventional motor drive, the maximum
voltage usmax can be easily determined by the constant DC-link voltage and the
modulation scheme. In fact, the maximum current ismax should also be limited by
the rated current. Therefore, the motor voltage and current are always subject to the
following limits,

u 2d + u q2 ≤ u 2smax (6.1)

i d2 + i q2 ≤ i smax
2
(6.2)

Combining (6.1) and (6.2), the voltage boundary can be denoted as

u 2smax
(i d L d + ψ f )2 + (i q L q )2 ≤ . (6.3)
ωe2
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 123
G. Wang et al., Reduced DC-link Capacitance AC Motor Drives,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8566-1_6
124 6 Flux-Weakening Control Method

udc usmax + PI
id _ ref
1/ 3 regulator

−
us

Fig. 6.1 Block diagram of the voltage closed-loop flux-weakening scheme

The voltage boundary expressed by (6.3) is an ellipse that is a function of ωe . When

the speed increases, the ellipse will shrink. If |us | oversteps usmax , the PI regulator
will work to weaken the d-axis current.
However, usmax is not easy to be determined due to the fluctuation of the DC-link
voltage in the reduced DC-link capacitance drives.

6.2 Torque Ripple Analysis Caused by DC-Link Voltage

Fluctuation

6.2.1 Introduction of Three-Phase Reduced DC-Link

Capacitance PMSM Drives

The three-phase diode rectifier PMSM drive with reduced DC-link capacitance is
shown in Fig. 6.2. It contains a three-phase diode rectifier bridge, film capacitors and
an PMSM driven by a three-phase inverter. The volume of the DC-link capacitors
has been largely reduced compared with the conventional drive.
Due to the use of film capacitors, the energy stored in the DC-link capacitors
is relatively low. The energy coupling between the grid side and the motor side is
aggravated. The energy required on the motor side will be higher than the energy
stored in the film capacitors in most cases, so the energy will be transmitted from the
grid side to the motor side directly. Generally, the frequency of the DC-link voltage
is six-time that of the grid, as shown in Fig. 6.3.

u ab

uuvw u a
v udc b PMSM
c
w

Fig. 6.2 Three-phase diode rectifier PMSM drive with reduced DC-link capacitance
6.2 Torque Ripple Analysis Caused by DC-Link Voltage Fluctuation 125

Fig. 6.3 Relationship 600

between the DC-link and the
grid-side phase voltages 400 eu ev ew udc

Voltage [V]
200

-200

-400
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Time [s]

The maximum and the minimum DC-link voltages are expressed in (6.4) and
(6.5), respectively. The maximum DC-link voltage drop is about 72 V when the AC
input of the inverter is 380-Vrms (50 Hz). The fluctuation of the DC-link voltage
brings some difficulties in the control of motor drive, which will be discussed in the
next section.
√
u dc_max = 3u u_ peak (6.4)

√ π
u dc_min = 3u u_ peak cos( ) (6.5)
6
where udc_max , udc_min , uu_peak , uu , uv , and uw are the maximum DC-link voltage,
the minimum DC-link voltage, the peak voltage of phase u, and the grid-side phase
voltage of uvw, respectively.

6.2.2 Analysis of Influence on Stator Voltage

In the flux-weakening region, the reduction of DC-link capacitance will cause fluc-
tuation in the stator voltages. Moreover, the overmodulation will aggravate this fluc-
tuation. In this section, the stator voltage fluctuation will be analyzed. Further, the
torque ripples caused by the DC-link fluctuation and the overmodulation will be
discussed.
The Fourier expression of the DC-link voltage can be given as
∞
 2
u dc = u d N [1 − cos(6nωg t + ϕg )] (6.6)
n=1
(6n) 2−1

√
3 3
ud N = u u_ peak (6.7)
π
126 6 Flux-Weakening Control Method

Fig. 6.4 Stator voltage uβ Hexagonal

vector and its average value voltage limit
in the minimum phase error
overmodulation
ωe
us Average
ϕ0 value

uα

where n = 1, 2, 3 …, and udN is the DC component of udc .

Only considering the fundamental frequency, the DC-link voltage can be
re-expressed as

2
u dc = u d N [1 − cos(6ωg t + ϕg )]. (6.8)
35
In this control system, applying the minimum phase error overmodulation in the
SVPWM modulation strategy [9], the trajectory of the stator voltage vector us can
be extended to the hexagon. Therefore, the average value of the stator voltage vector
can be represented as the dash line in Fig. 6.4, assuming that the DC-link voltage is
a constant value.
The stator voltage vector amplitude can be denoted as

|us | = mu dc [1 − A sin(6ωe t+ϕo )], (6.9)

√
2/π
m= √4
(6.10)
3

where us , |us |, A, ωe and ϕ o are the stator voltage vector, the amplitude of the stator
voltage vector, the fluctuation coefficient of the stator voltage in overmodulation, the
electrical speed, and the overmodulation initial angle, respectively.
Substituting (6.8) into (6.9), the amplitude of the stator voltage vector considering
the fluctuated DC-link voltage and the overmodulation can be yielded,

2
|us | = mu d N [1 − cos(6ωg t + ϕg )][1 − A sin(6ωe t+ϕo )]. (6.11)
35
In order to reveal the harmonic frequencies, (6.11) is further expressed as
6.2 Torque Ripple Analysis Caused by DC-Link Voltage Fluctuation 127

|us | =mu d N − Amu d N sin(6ωe t + ϕo )

2
− mu d N cos(6ωg t + ϕg )
35
1 . (6.12)
− Amu d N sin[6(ωg − ωe )t + ϕg − ϕo ]
35
1
+ Amu d N sin[6(ωg + ωe )t + ϕg + ϕo ]
35
As shown in (6.12), in flux-weakening region, the fluctuated DC-link voltage and
the overmodulation will lead to lots of harmonics. The frequency of the harmonics
caused by the DC-link voltage fluctuation is 6ωg , and the one regarding to overmod-
ulation is 6ωe . The fluctuation of DC-link voltage and the overmodulation will cause
a low-frequency oscillation at the frequency of 6(ωg −ωe ) and a high-frequency
harmonic at the frequency of 6(ωg + ωe ). In fact, the high-frequency harmonic at
6(ωg + ωe ) can be ignored, due to the limited bandwidth of the current control loop.
In the dq synchronous rotating coordinate frame, the stator voltage vector can be
expressed as

us = |us |e j (ωe t+ϕu ) (6.13)

where ϕ u is the angle between the d-axis and the stator voltage vector.
In the flux-weakening region, the stator voltage vector will remain between its
maximum amplitude |us_max | and the minimum amplitude |us_min | in the second quad-
rant as shown in Fig. 6.5. The amplitude and the angle of stator voltage vector
are determined by the electromagnetic torque (T 1 < T 2 ) and the motor operating
frequency. The voltage hexagon rotates at the motor operating frequency and varies
according to the DC-link voltage.

Fig. 6.5 Stator voltage uq

vector in flux-weakening T1
region T2

Rotating
hexagonal
voltage limit us

ud
us_max us_min
128 6 Flux-Weakening Control Method

6.2.3 Analysis of Torque Ripple

At steady state, the relationship between the stator current and the stator voltage can
be denoted as
u q − ωe ψ f
id = , (6.14)
ωe L d
ud
iq = (6.15)
−ωe L q

Combining (6.14) and (6.15), the electromagnetic torque can be expressed as a

function of ud and uq ,
 
ud   ud uq ud ψ f
Te = 1.5Pn ψ f + Ld − Lq + . (6.16)
−ωe L q −ωe2 L d L q ωe L d L q

According to (6.13), the expression can be obtained,

u d u q = |us |2 cos(ϕu )sin(ϕu ). (6.17)

As shown in (6.12), |us | has harmonic components at some specific frequen-

cies. In fact, |us |2 is very complicated, since it contains superposition of every
harmonic component in |us |. However, the main harmonic components in |us |2 are
those multiplied by the relatively large DC part. Here, |us |2 is simplified as

|us |2 = mu d N |us |. (6.18)

The torque ripples at different harmonic frequencies can be derived as

3 Amu d N ψ f cos(ϕu )
Te1 = − Pn
2 35ωe L q
3 Am 2 u 2d N cos(ϕu )sin(ϕu )
+ Pn (L d − L q )[
2 −35ωe2 L d L q
Amu d N ψ f cos(ϕu )
+ ] (6.19)
35ωe L d L q
3 Amu d N ψ f cos(ϕu )
Te2 = − Pn
2 ωe L q
3 Am 2 u 2d N cos(ϕu )sin(ϕu )
+ Pn (L d − L q )[
2 −ωe2 L d L q
6.2 Torque Ripple Analysis Caused by DC-Link Voltage Fluctuation 129

Amu d N ψ f cos(ϕu )
+ ] (6.20)
ωe L d L q
3 2mu d N ψ f cos(ϕu )
Te3 = − Pn
2 35ωe L q
3 2m 2 u 2d N cos(ϕu )sin(ϕu )
+ Pn (L d − L q )[
2 −35ωe2 L d L q
2mu d N ψ f cos(ϕu )
+ ] (6.21)
35ωe L d L q

where T e1 , T e2 and T e3 are the torque ripples at the frequencies of 6(ωg −ωe ), 6ωe
and 6ωg , respectively.
As can be seen in (6.19), (6.20) and (6.21), the torque ripples are mainly deter-
mined by ωe and ϕ u . When the speed varies from 890 to 1210 r/min and ϕ u varies
in [π /2, π ], the quantitative analysis of torque ripples can be acquired as shown in
Fig. 6.6 (motor parameters are given in Table 6.1).
Considering the parameters of the experimental PMSM listed in Table 6.1, the
simulation results of the torque ripples without the flux-weakening control are shown
in Fig. 6.7 when the speed is 980 r/min (49 Hz) and the load torque is 20 N·m. As
can be seen in Fig. 6.7e, the torque ripples at the frequencies of 6 Hz, 306 Hz and
300 Hz are 0.04 N·m, 0.92 N·m and 1.12 N·m, respectively.
The stator voltage vector under this condition is given in Fig. 6.8. As can be
seen, the amplitude of the stator voltage vector is 299 V, while the AC input of the
inverter is 380-Vrms (50 Hz). Therefore, by using ϕ u = 0.61π rad and ωe = 980 r/min,
the torque ripples can be obtained from Fig. 6.6, where at the frequencies of 6 Hz,
306 Hz and 300 Hz are about 0.05 N·m, 1.4 N·m and 1.7 N·m, respectively. The
theoretical results are close to the simulation results described above, especially the
low-frequency component.
Considering (6.19), (6.20), (6.21) and Fig. 6.6, the following conclusions in flux-
weakening region can be obtained:

(1) As ϕ u increases, the torque ripple will increase.

(2) The torque ripple at the frequency of 6(ωg −ωe ) is relatively small compared with
the ripples at the frequencies of 6ωe and 6ωg as shown in Fig. 6.6. However, the
motor is more sensitive to the low-frequency oscillation in practical applications.

In order to reduce the torque ripple and increase the utilization rate of the DC-link
voltage, the proposed adjustable maximum voltage based VCFS will be discussed in
next section.
130 6 Flux-Weakening Control Method

Fig. 6.6 Torque ripples at

different frequencies.
a Torque ripple at the 0.25

Torque ripple[N.m]
frequency of 6(ωg -ωe ). 0.2
b Torque ripple at the 0.15
frequency of 6ωe . c Torque
0.1
ripple at the frequency of
6ωg 0.05
0
1210
1146 7
1082 3
1019 5 8
Speed[r/min] 955 4
890
2 8
u [rad]
(a)

6
Torque ripple[N.m]

0
1210
1146 7
1082 3
1019 5 8
Speed[r/min] 955 4
890
2 8
u [rad]
(b)

8
Torque ripple[N.m]

6
4
2
0
1210
1146 7
1082 3
1019 5 8
955 4
Speed[r/min] 890
2 8
u [rad]
(c)
6.3 Adjustable Maximum Voltage Based Flux-Weakening Control 131

Table 6.1 PMSM parameters

Parameters Value
Rated power 2.2 kW
Rated speed 1000 r/min
Rated current 5.6 A
Stator resistance 2.75 
d-axis inductance 35 mH
q-axis inductance 54 mH
Flux linkage of rotor 0.86 Wb
Number of pole pairs 3

6.3 Adjustable Maximum Voltage Based Flux-Weakening

Control

6.3.1 Principle of the Control Method

The effective value of the DC-link voltage can be obtained as

u dc_max − u dc_min
u dc_L P F = √ + u dc_min (6.22)
2

where udc_LPF is the DC-link voltage after the LPF.

Considering the relationship between udc_min and udc_max , udc_min can be expressed
as

u dc_min = Cm u dc_L P F , (6.23)

√
2 3
Cm = √ √ √ (6.24)
2 2+2 3 − 6

where C m is the ratio of udc_min to udc_LPF .

Using (6.23), the minimum DC-link voltage can be obtained as shown in Fig. 6.9.
In the whole flux-weakening region, the principle of the proposed adjustable
maximum voltage based VCFS can be concluded as follows:
(1) Initially, udc_min is used to generate usmax . Since the fluctuation component of
the DC-link voltage is not used, the torque ripple can be eliminated effectively
with the minimum time delay of the DC-link voltage measurement.
(2) As the increase of the motor speed, the amplitude of the current vector reference
|is_ref | will increase to the current vector limit is_lim nearby ismax . Then, |is_ref |
is controlled around is_lim , and the output power of the inverter increases by
extending usmax .
132 6 Flux-Weakening Control Method

1000 25

20
Speed [r/min]

950

Torque [N.m]
15
900
10
850
5

800 0
0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2
Time [s] Time [s]
(a) (b)
600 10
500
5
Voltage [V]

Current [A]
400
300 0
200
-5
100
0 -10
0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2
Time [s] Time [s]
(c) (d)
1.4
1.2
Torque (N.m)

1.0 300Hz
0.8 294Hz
0.6
0.4
0.2 6Hz

0 100 200 300 400 500

Frequency (Hz)
(e)

Fig. 6.7 Simulation results of torque ripples without the flux-weakening control at the motor
frequency of 49 Hz. a Motor speed. b Electromagnetic torque. c DC-link voltage. d Stator currents.
e FFT analysis of the electromagnetic torque

Fig. 6.8 Stator voltage uq

vector under the simulation ωe Lqiq = 100V
Rsiq = 17V
condition
j 0.61π
us = 299e ωeψ f = 265V

ϕu =0.61π

ud
6.3 Adjustable Maximum Voltage Based Flux-Weakening Control 133

550
udc udc _ LPF udc_min

Voltage [V] 500

450
0.55 0.555 0.56
Time [s]

Fig. 6.9 The relationship among udc , udc_LPF and udc_min

6.3.2 Realization of the Control Method

The whole control system is shown in Fig. 6.10, and the proposed adjustable
maximum voltage based VCFS is used in three-phase inverter with film capacitors.
In the high-speed region, the position sensorless control based on back-electromotive
force (EMF) is adopted.
In the flux-weakening controller, |is_ref | is used as a key factor to determine usmax .
As shown in Fig. 6.10, if |is_ref | is smaller than is_lim_l , which is the lower limit of the
amplitude of the current vector, the minimum DC-link voltage control mode (Mode
I) will be activated and usmax is determined by udc_min .

Fig. 6.10 Block diagram of the adjustable maximum voltage based VCFS in the three-phase inverter
with film capacitors
134 6 Flux-Weakening Control Method

The flux-weakening current can be expressed as

  
ki1 u dc_min
i d_r e f = k p1 + √ − |us | (6.25)
s 3

where s is the Laplace operator, k p1 and k i1 are the coefficients of the PI_1 regulator,
and id_ref is the instruction of d-axis current.
If |is_ref | is larger than is_lim_l , the extended DC-link voltage control mode (Mode II)
will be activated. In the extended DC-link voltage control mode, |is_ref | is controlled
around is_lim to adjust usmax by the PI_2 regulator. When the output power needs to
increase, |is_ref | will overstep is_lim and u will become a positive value to increase
udc_lim .
 
ki2  
u = k p2 + is_ref − is_lim , (6.26)
s

u dc_lim = u + u dc_min (6.27)

where k p2 and k i2 are the coefficients in the PI_2 regulator, and u is the increment
of udc_lim .
As a result, |us | will increase to produce the expected output power by the PI_1
regulator. On the contrary, udc_lim will become lower when the expected output power
decreases. Therefore, in the extended DC-link voltage control mode (Mode II), the
output power is adjusted by the maximum voltage usmax .
In the extended DC-link control mode (Mode II), is_lim is in the middle of is_lim_l
and ismax , and the gap of the current limit between is_lim_l and ismax is set consid-
ering the torque ripples analyzed in the previous section, which means to ensure
the effectiveness of the PI_2 regulator, this gap should be larger than the amplitude
of the low-frequency oscillation current vector. Higher ulim , which is the limit of
u, will cause the increase of udc_lim , but it should not exceed udc_max . As analyzed,
larger gap of the current limit and higher ulim will lead to higher output power
capability of the DC-link capacitance reduced drive. It should be noted that, ulim
and the gap between is_lim_l and is_lim can be selected to balance the inverter output
capability against the torque ripple. Higher ulim with larger gap between is_lim_l and
is_lim will lead to higher utilization rate of DC-link voltage, but the torque ripple will
also increase. In different industrial applications, the output power ability and torque
ripple can be controlled by setting suitable limits of the adjustable maximum voltage
flux-weakening controller.
The two control modes of the adjustable maximum voltage flux-weakening
controller can be switched smoothly. As aforementioned, when the expected output
power increases, the flux-weakening controller can switch from the minimum DC-
link voltage control mode (Mode I ) to the extended DC-link control mode (Mode II).
Contrarily, the decrease of the expected outpower will reduce udc_lim until u is zero.
In this condition, udc_min is used as usmax again and |is_ref | will be lower than is_lim_l
6.3 Adjustable Maximum Voltage Based Flux-Weakening Control 135

Fig. 6.11 Stator current vector trajectory in whole speed region

due to the losing effectiveness of the PI_2 regulator in the extended DC-link control
mode. Therefore, the minimum DC-link voltage control mode will be activated.
In the extended DC-link voltage control mode (Mode II), the control system can be
as stable as VCFS. When VCFS is used, the output power is increased by regulating
the stator current. In the extended DC-link voltage control mode, the increase of
output power is realized by increasing the stator voltage. In fact, from the energy
perspective, these two flux-weakening strategies are the same.

6.3.3 Analysis of Stator Current Vector Trajectory

The system operation trajectory using the adjustable maximum voltage based VCFS
is shown in Fig. 6.11. ω1 , ω2 , ω3 , ω4 represent motor speed, where ω1 < ω2 < ω3 <
ω4 , and T 1 , T 2 , T 3 represent electromagnetic torque, where T 1 < T 2 < T 3 . In fact,
the voltage limit boundary is a hexagon and fluctuated due to the DC-link voltage
fluctuation. For easy understanding, the ellipse is used to represent average voltage
limit boundary. The brown dash line circle is current limit boundary, the blue dash
line is is_lim_l , and the black solid circle is is_lim , which is located in the middle of
the dash lines. Assuming that, the load torque increases when the speed gets higher.
The current trajectory OA represents the accelerating process in no flux-weakening
region. In the flux-weakening region, the current trajectory is shown as AB and BC. In
the trajectory AB, usmax is produced by the minimum DC-link voltage control mode
(Mode I). As can be seen, the voltage limit boundary shrinks as the speed increases.
The point B is the switching point of the minimum DC-link voltage control mode
(Mode I) and the extended DC-link voltage control mode (Mode II).
As further increase of the motor speed, the current vector trajectory is represented
by BC. During BC, the maximum voltage usmax will increase since the fluctuation
136 6 Flux-Weakening Control Method

Fig. 6.12 Utilization of the

DC-link voltage fluctuation

Voltage [V]
component 515
udc_LPF
usmax
465
udc_min
0 0.003 0.006 0.009
Time [s]

component of the DC-link is used as shown in Fig. 6.12. Under this condition, the
stator current vector is will always locate at the intersection of the voltage limit
boundary and the stator current limit boundary, which is determined by the load
torque. As the load torque increases, the current vector trajectory will move from B
to C, and the ellipse will be enlarged since usmax /ωe is increased.

6.4 Power Loss Analysis of Flux-Weakening Control

In order to improve the torque performance, the flux-weakening method may increase
the total losses of the PMSM and decrease the efficiency slightly in control mode I.
The total losses of PMSM can be denoted as [10]

Ploss = PCu + PFe + Pstr + Pm (6.28)

where Ploss is the total losses, PCu is the copper loss, PFe is the iron loss, Pstr is the
stray loss, and Pm is the mechanical loss.
The losses can be further expressed as
 
PCu = Rs i d2 + i q2 , (6.29)

 2
ψf L q2
PFe = c Fe ωeβ L 2d + id + i q2 , (6.30)
Ld L 2d
 
Pstr = cstr ωe2 i d2 + i q2 , (6.31)

Pm = cm ωe2 (6.32)

where cFe , cstr and cm are the iron loss coefficient, the stray loss coefficient and the
mechanical loss coefficient, respectively. Rs is the stator resistance, and β = 1.5 ~
1.6.
6.4 Power Loss Analysis of Flux-Weakening Control 137

Substituting (6.29), (6.30), (6.31) and (6.32) into (6.28), the total losses of the
IPMSM can be obtained as
 2
  ψf L q2
Ploss = a i d2 + i q2 + b + id + i q2 + Pm (6.33)
Ld L 2d

where

a = Rs + cstr ωe2 , (6.34)

b = c Fe ωeβ L 2d . (6.35)

Compared with the flux-weakening method proposed in [11], the fundamental

component of the stator currents will increase since larger demagnetization current is
needed at the same output condition in the minimum DC-link voltage control mode
(Mode II). Therefore, the copper loss and stray loss will increase. Generally, the
copper loss is the dominated component in the total losses while PMSM is operating
around the based speed [12]. As a result, the proposed flux-weakening method has
the limitation on the motor efficiency and the experimental results will be given in
Sect. 6.5.

6.5 Experimental Results

The flux-weakening control algorithm is verified on a 2.2-kW IPMSM drive, supplied

by a three-phase diode rectifier commercial drive with reduced DC-link capacitance
as shown in Fig. 6.13. The AC input of the inverter is 380-Vrms (50 Hz). The PMSM
parameters are listed in Table 6.1. A 50 μF film capacitor are used to replace the
former 850 μF electrolytic capacitors in the DC side of the inverter. Another 2.2-
kW IPMSM operating in the generation mode is used to provide the load torque.
All the algorithms are implemented through ARM STM32F103, a 32-bit fixed-point
microcontroller with 72 MHz maximum operating frequency. The inverter switching
frequency is 6 kHz, the same as the current sampling frequency. In this study, k p1 ,

Fig. 6.13 Experimental setup of 2.2-kW IPMSM drive with film capacitors
138 6 Flux-Weakening Control Method

k i1 , k p2 and k i2 are set as 2, 20, 0.2 and 0.8, respectively. The proportional and
integral coefficients of the current regulator are set as 66 and 5000 respectively. And
the proportional and integral coefficients of the speed regulator are set as 4 and 22,
respectively.
The comparison of the torque ripple between the flux-weakening method in [11]
and the adjustable maximum voltage based VCFS is shown in Fig. 6.14. The compar-
ison is made in the minimum DC-link voltage control mode (Mode I). In Fig. 6.14a
and b, the PMSM operates in 49 Hz (980 r/min). Using the method proposed by
[11] as shown in Fig. 6.14a, the electromagnetic torques contains lots of harmonics
especially at the frequency of 6, 294 and 300 Hz. The amplitude of the low-frequency
oscillation at 6 Hz is about 0.14 N·m, and the range is corresponding to the anal-
ysis in section III. The amplitude of the high frequency fluctuations at 294 Hz and
300 Hz are 0.17 N·m and 0.26 N·m respectively, which are lower than the theoretical
range for the limited bandwidth of the current loop. And the speed error is about 6
r/min. When the adjustable maximum voltage based VCFS is used, the torque ripple
can be decreased effectively, and the speed error is smaller than 3 r/min, since the
fluctuated component of the DC-link voltage is not used in this region, as shown in
Fig. 6.14b. Similarly, when the PMSM operates in 51 Hz (1020 r/min), the torque
ripples and speed error can also be reduced by comparing the waveforms shown in
Fig. 6.14c and d. It should be noted that, when the speed increases, the amplitude
of the low-frequency oscillation at 6(ωg −ωe ) increases from 0.14 to 0.19 N·m by
comparing the waveforms shown in Fig. 6.14a and c. This is due to the increase of
ϕ u , which verifies the analysis of the torque ripple changing tendency.
The experimental results at low demagnetization current are shown in Fig. 6.15.
The demagnetization current changes from 0 to 5% to 15% of the current vector limit
is_lim . The zoomed view while the demagnetization current is equal to 5% of is_lim
as shown at the bottom of Fig. 6.15. As can be seen, the demagnetization current
contains ripples at the frequency of 300 Hz and the amplitude of the ripples is about
1% of is_lim , which is due to the DC-link voltage measurement error. Due to the inertia
of the PMSM, the speed is almost unaffected by the small current ripples.
The entire operation process of the adjustable maximum voltage based VCFS is
shown in Fig. 6.16. is_lim_l and is_lim are set to 95% (7.52 A) and 97% (7.67 A) of
ismax , respectively. ulim is set to 9% (46 V) of udc_LPF . In region 1, |is_ref | is smaller
than is_lim_l , and the minimum DC-link voltage control mode (Mode I) is activated, so
id is reduced to increase the speed, and udc_lim is located in udc_min . The stator voltage
is shown in Fig. 6.16b, where the blue dash line is the voltage hexagon considering
udc_min , and the blue solid line is the voltage hexagon considering udc_max . The voltage
vector is kept as the inscribe circle of the dash line. In region 2, the extended DC-link
voltage control mode (Mode II) is activated, in which |is_ref | is greater than is_lim_l , so
usmax is increased to realize the improvement of the output power. The stator voltage
can be seen in Fig. 6.16c, and it can extend beyond the dash line. It should be aware
that, in region 2, the amplitude of ia is a nearly constant, which means the amplitude of
the stator current vector is limited at is_lim , and id is reallocated automatically when
the speed and load torque furtherly increase. In region 3, |is_ref | increases until to
ismax , and usmax reaches the predetermined value, indicating that the flux-weakening
6.5 Experimental Results 139

0.315
300
0.252

Torque[N.m]
Te [3.5 N.m/ div]

Δω e [10(r/ min) / div] 0.189 294

6
4965
ia [5A/ div] 0.126 100

0.063

0 250 500
Time[80ms/div]
f[Hz]
(a)
0.315

Te [3.5 N.m/ div] 0.252

Δω e [10(r/ min) / div] Torque[N.m] 0.189

ia [5A/ div] 0.126

65 300
0.063 97
294
6
0 250 500
Time[80ms/div]
f[Hz]
(b)
0.315
300
Te [3.5 N.m/ div] 0.252
Torque[N.m]

100
Δωe [10(r/ min) / div]
0.189 6 306

ia [5A/ div] 0.126 51 153

68
0.063 200

0 250 500
Time[80ms/div]
f[Hz]
(c)
0.315

Te [3.5 N.m/ div] 0.252

Torque[N.m]

Δω e [10(r/ min) / div] 0.189

ia [5A/ div]
0.126

68 102 300
0.063
6 306

0 250 500
Time[80ms/div] f[Hz]
(d)

Fig. 6.14 Comparisons of torque ripple and speed error. a Method introduced in [21] at 49 Hz
(980 r/min). b Adjustable maximum voltage based VCFS at 49 Hz. c Method introduced in [21] at
51 Hz (1020 r/min). d Adjustable maximum voltage based VCFS at 51 Hz
140 6 Flux-Weakening Control Method

udc [100V/ div]

id = 0 ωˆ e [200(r/ min) / div]

id = 5%is_lim
id = 15%is_lim
id [1.5A/ div]
ia [10 A/ div]

Time[1s/ div]

udc [100V/ div]

id = 5%is_lim ωˆ e [200(r/ min) / div]

id [1.5A/ div]

ia [10 A/ div]

Time[5ms/div]

Fig. 6.15 Experimental results at low demagnetization current

controller is saturated. In region 4, the control ability can be reacquired when the
speed decreases. As the motor speed decreases further, |is_ref | is smaller than is_lim_l ,
and the IPMSM operates in region 5.
In the flux-weakening region, the switching between two control modes will cause
little affect to the speed, as shown in Fig. 6.17. In the accelerating process, the motor
speed changes from 0 to 1150 r/min. When the control strategy varies from the
minimum DC-link voltage control mode (Mode I) to the extended DC-link voltage
control mode (Mode II), the speed is relatively smooth, as shown in the yellow region.
When the IPMSM slows down to 1050 r/min, corresponding to the minimum DC-
link voltage control mode (Mode I), the speed is not affected in decelerating process,
as shown in the blue region.
To demonstrate the speed control performance, the experimental result with ramp
speed change in two flux-weakening control modes is shown in Fig. 6.18 where the
load torque increases with the motor speed. The motor speed changes between 940,
1100 and 1180 r/min, corresponding to no flux-weakening region, the minimum DC-
link voltage control mode (Mode I) and the extended DC-link voltage control mode
6.5 Experimental Results 141

Fig. 6.16 Operation process of the adjustable maximum voltage based VCFS. a DC-link voltage
and stator current in different operation mode. b Voltage vector trajectory in Mode I. c Voltage
vector trajectory in Mode II

Fig. 6.17 Flux-weakening control mode change in accelerating and decelerating process (0 r/min–
1150 r/min–1050 r/min)
142 6 Flux-Weakening Control Method

Fig. 6.18 Experimental result of the speed tracking performance (940 r/min–1100 r/min–1180
r/min)

(Mode II). As can be seen, the estimated speed can track the reference speed well in
both two flux-weakening control modes. The estimated speed error is less than 10
r/min corresponding to 1% of the speed reference in the flux-weakening region.
By changing ulim and the gap between is_lim_l and is_lim , different maximum
output stator voltages can be obtained as shown in Fig. 6.19. is_lim_l and is_lim are set
to 85% (6.72 A) and 92.5% (7.32 A) of ismax , respectively. In Fig. 6.19a, b and c,
ulim is set to 9% (46 V), 12% (61 V) and 14% (71 V) of udc_LPF , respectively. As
the increase of ulim , the maximum output stator voltage can be extended. When
ulim is set to 14% of udc_LPF , the trajectory of the voltage vector can be extended
to the inscribe circle of the hexagon determined by udc_max .
Figure 6.20 shows the current vector trajectory in the dq synchronous rotating
coordinate frame. The red dash circle is is_lim , which is set to 97% (7.67 A) of ismax .
As can be seen, in the extended DC-link voltage control mode (Mode II), the current
trajectory is settled in is_lim . When the speed increases from 1150 to 1170 r/min, usmax
is extended to improve the output power of the inverter. The current vector moves
from the point B to point C to increase the load torque from 22 to 23 N·m.
The reduction of the DC-link capacitance can improve the grid side power quality
dramatically. In this study, a 5.5-kW inverter with different DC-link capacitance (50
μF film capacitors and 850 μF electrolytic capacitors) is tested, respectively. The
grid side power quality is tested by a power analyzer (WT1800). When the operating
speed of the motor is 1200 r/min, the corresponding motor output power is 3.3 kW,
and the THD of the inverter with reduced capacitance can be reduced to 38% by
contrast, as shown in Fig. 6.21a and b. In the same output condition, the grid side
power factor can be improved to one and half times approximately, as shown in
Fig. 6.21c and d. It should also be noted that, the grid side power quality has been
improved greatly along with the increase of the output power in the inverter with
reduced DC-link capacitance.
6.5 Experimental Results 143

uβ [125V/ div]
u β [125V/ div]

uα [125V/ div] uα [125V/ div]

(a) (b)
u β [125V/ div]

uα [125V/ div]

(c)
Fig. 6.19 Voltage vector trajectory with different limit in Mode II. a ulim is set to 9% (46 V).
b ulim is set to 12% (61 V). c ulim is set to 14% (71 V)

Fig. 6.20 Current vector 7.2

trajectory when the speed
and load torque increase at
the same time in Mode II

C
iq [A]

is_lim

5.4
-5.4 -3.6
id [A]
144 6 Flux-Weakening Control Method

Capacitance:50uF Capacitance:850uF
200 200 182 158
140
150 150 143
THD%

83

THD%
112 136
100 68 136
83 100

50 65
50
52
0 0
500 500
700 700
3.72 3.72
900 2.89 900 2.89
2.06
ωe [r/ min] 1100
1.23 ωe [r/ min] 1100
1.23
2.06
1300 0.41 Pe [kW] 1300 0.41 Pe [kW]

(a) (b)

Capacitance:50uF Capacitance:850uF
1 0.8 1
0.71
Power factor

Power factor
0.71 0.8 0.85
0.57 0.5
0.5
0.5 0.5 0.4 0.52 0.57 0.58

0 0
500 500
700 700
3.72 3.72
900 2.89 900 2.89
ωe [r/ min] 1100 2.06 ωe [r/ min] 1100 2.06
1.23 1.23
1300 0.41 Pe [kW] 1300 0.41 Pe [kW]

(c) (d)

Fig. 6.21 Test results of the grid side power quality in different output power. a Phase current THD
(inverter with 50 μF capacitor). b Phase current THD (inverter with 850 μF capacitor). c Power
factor (inverter with 50 μF capacitor). d Power factor (inverter with 850 μF capacitor)

In order to eliminate the torque ripples, the minimum DC-link voltage is used
as the flux-weakening boundary in control mode I. As a result, compared with the
flux-weakening method proposed in [11], the fundamental component of the stator
currents will increase since larger demagnetization current is needed at the same
output condition in flux-weakening region. As shown in Fig. 6.22a, when the speed
is 940 r/min, the amplitude of the stator current is 5.65A. Under the same condition,
the stator current is 5.25A while the flux-weakening method proposed in [11] is used,
as shown in Fig. 6.22b.
The proposed flux-weakening method may decrease the efficiency slightly in
control mode I because of the higher amplitude of the stator currents fundamental
component. The efficiency of the IPMSM is compared as shown in Fig. 6.23 tested by
WT1800. During this operation region, the proposed flux-weakening scheme works
in control mode I. The efficiency of the proposed method decreases about 0.6%
compared with the method in [11] shown as the two fitting curves in Fig. 6.23. By
the way, as the increase of the motor rated power, the decrease of the efficiency will
be smaller due to the reduced value of the stator resistance.
6.6 Summary 145

udc [100 V/ div]

ωˆ e [400(r/ min) / div]
id [3A/ div]

ia [10 A/ div] 11.3A

Time[100ms/div]
(a)

udc [100 V/ div]

id [3A/ div] ωˆ e [400(r/ min) / div]

ia [10A/ div] 10.5A

Time[100ms/div]
(b)

Fig. 6.22 Comparison of the fundamental component of the stator currents at the same operation
condition in flux-weakening region. a Proposed flux-weakening method in control mode I. b Flux-
weakening method proposed in [11]

6.6 Summary

This chapter focuses on the flux-weakening control issues existing in the motor drive
with reduced DC-link capacitance. A quantitative analysis of the torque ripples in
flux-weakening region is given, which will act as the guidance to decide whether to
make the full utilization of the DC-link voltage. The adjustable maximum voltage
based VCFS is introduced for the reduced DC-link capacitance IPMSM drive. In
the minimum DC-link voltage control mode (Mode I), the torque ripples can be
significantly reduced at the cost of decreasing the efficiency slightly. In the extended
DC-link voltage control mode (Mode II), the DC-link voltage can be further extended,
until nearly maximum DC-link voltage utilization. Moreover, the control method only
depends on the DC-link voltage and the stator current reference. Although the flux-
weakening controller has two control modes, the control system can switch smoothly.
Finally, the experimental results have verified the realizability and effectiveness of
the control method.
146 6 Flux-Weakening Control Method

91.2

91

Efficiency[%] 90.8

90.6
Proposed method

90.4 Method proposed

in [3]
90.2

90

89.8
1.75 1.8 1.85 1.9 1.95 2 2.05 2.1
Power[kW]

Fig. 6.23 Comparison of the efficiency in flux-weakening region using control mode I

References

1. K. Sang-Hoon, S. Seung-Ki, Voltage control strategy for maximum torque operation of an

induction machine in the field-weakening region. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 44(4), 512–518
(1997)
2. S. Morimoto, Y. Takeda, T. Hirasa, K. Taniguchi, Expansion of operating limits for permanent
magnet motor by current vector control considering inverter capacity. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl.
26(5), 866–871 (1990)
3. T.M. Jahns, Flux-weakening regime operation of an interior permanent-magnet synchronous
motor drive. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. IA-23(4), 681–689 (1987)
4. L. Harnefors, K. Pietilainen, L. Gertmar, Torque-maximizing field-weakening control: design,
analysis, and parameter selection. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 48(1), 161–168 (2001)
5. S. Kim, J. Seok, Maximum voltage utilization of IPMSMs using modulating voltage scalability
for automotive applications. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 28(12), 5639–5646 (2013)
6. Z. Dong, Y. Yu, W. Li, B. Wang, D. Xu, Flux-weakening control for induction motor in voltage
extension region: torque analysis and dynamic performance improvement. IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electron. 65(5), 3740–3751 (2018)
7. X. Xu, D.W. Novotny, Selection of the flux reference for induction machine drives in the field
weakening region. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 28(6), 1353–1358 (1992)
8. D. Ding, G. Wang, N. Zhao, G. Zhang, D. Xu, Enhanced flux-weakening control method for
reduced DC-link capacitance IPMSM drives. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 34(8), 7788–7799
(2019)
9. S. Bolognani, M. Zigliotto, Novel digital continuous control of SVM inverters in the
overmodulation range. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 33(2), 525–530 (1997)
10. C. Mademlis, I. Kioskeridis, N. Margaris, Optimal efficiency control strategy for interior
permanent-magnet synchronous motor drives. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 19(4), 715–723
(2004)
11. A. Yoo, S. Sul, H. Kim, K. Kim, Flux-weakening strategy of an induction machine driven by
an electrolytic-capacitor-less inverter. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 47(3), 1328–1336 (2011)
12. S. Kim, Y. Yoon, S. Sul, K. Ide, Maximum torque per ampere (MTPA) control of an IPM
machine based on signal injection considering inductance saturation. IEEE Trans. Power
Electron. 28(1), 488–497 (2013)
Chapter 7
Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage
Control

The DC-link may suffer from overvoltage during motor transient process due to the
use of slim film capacitors in the diode rectifier front end. Recently, some researches
have been carried out against the overvoltage phenomenon during transient process
for motor drives equipped with large electrolytic capacitors [1–7]. One frequently
used solution is to add extra hardware, such as switching device controlled braking
resistor. Although, this solution is reliable and easy to realize, it will increase the
system cost and decrease the power density. Therefore, the anti-overvoltage control
scheme realized by software is preferred [8, 9].

7.1 Braking Performance Analysis Under Reduced

DC-Link Capacitance

7.1.1 Electrical Power Analysis Under Breaking Process

The PMSM electrical power of the three-phase machine can be expressed as

Pe1 = Pmech +PCu +PFe + Pstr + Pm (7.1)

where Pe1 is the electrical power.

Generally, PCu is the dominated component in all losses, especially when the
motor operates below the speed of the flux-weakening [10]. Therefore, only PCu is
considered in this study. The mechanical power and the copper loss can be denoted
as

Pmech = Te ωr (7.2)

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 147
G. Wang et al., Reduced DC-link Capacitance AC Motor Drives,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8566-1_7
148 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

3
PCu = Rs |is |2 . (7.3)
2
In fact, the energy will flow back to the DC-link if Pe1 < 0, here define energy
flowing into the motor as the positive direction, and (7.1) could be presented as

3
Pe1 = Te ωr + Rs |is |2 . (7.4)
2
In maximum torque per ampere (MTPA) control mode, the electromagnetic torque
can be denoted as
3
Te = Pn [ψ f |is |sinθ M + (L d − L q )|is |2 sinθ M cosθ M ]. (7.5)
2
where θ M is the current angle of the MTPA point.
Then, the magnitude of the stator current can be derived as
 2  
− 23 Pn ψ f sin θ M − 3
2
Pn ψ f sin θ M + 6Te Pn L d − L q sin θ M cos θ M
|is | =  
3Pn L d − L q sin θ M cos θ M
(7.6)

Essentially, the direction of energy flow is determined by T e , and the existence

of T L will only mitigate the phenomenon of overvoltage. Hence, the relationship
between the braking torque and the DC-link capacitance is analyzed in the extreme
condition of no load.
Combining (7.4) and (7.6), the electrical power in the braking process can be
expressed as
 
Te Te Pn
Pe1 = ωri0 + t +
Pn J
⎛ ⎞2
. 2   .
3 ⎜ − 23 Pn ψ f sin θ M − 3 P ψ sin θ
2 n f M + 6Te Pn L d − L q sin θ M cos θ M ⎟
Rs ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ 3Pn (L d − L q )sinθ M cos θ M ⎠

(7.7)

where ωri0 is the initial rotor speed.

Then, (7.7) can be denoted as

Pe1 = f 1 (t, Te , θ M ). (7.8)

7.1 Braking Performance Analysis Under Reduced DC-Link Capacitance 149

7.1.2 DC-Link Voltage Analysis Under Breaking Process

The rectifier diode will turn off when the energy flows back, then the increase of the
DC-link voltage can be expressed as

1 Pe1
u dcinc = − dt (7.9)
Cdc u dc

where u dcinc is the increase of the DC-link voltage.

Further, (7.9) can be denoted as

1 f 1 (t, Te , θ M )
u dcinc =− dt (7.10)
Cdc u dci + u dcinc

where udci is the initial DC-link voltage.

The capacitance can be derived as

2 f 2 (t, Te , θ M )
Cdc = (7.11)
2u dci u dcinc + u 2dcinc

where

Te T2
f 2 (t, Te , θ M ) = ωr 0 t + e t 2 +
Pn 2J
⎛ ⎞2
2  
3 ⎜ − 23 Pn ψ f sin θ M − 3 P ψ sin θ
2 n f M + 6T P
e n dL − L q sin θ M cos θ M⎟
Rs ⎜ ⎟ t
2 ⎝ 3Pn (L d − L q )sinθ M cos θ M ⎠

(7.12)

Considering the experimental platform and the IPMSM parameters listed in

Table 6.1, the quantitative relationship between the braking torque and the DC-link
capacitance when the DC-link voltage increasing 150 V is shown in Fig. 7.1. As a
result, the following conclusions can be obtained:
(1) Larger DC-link capacitance is needed to maintain secure DC-link voltage when
the absolute value of braking torque or deceleration time increases.
(2) By comparing DC-link capacitance at different initial speed (80, 90, and 100%
of the rated speed), it can be derived that the motor decelerating from higher
initial speed requires larger DC-link capacitance.
150 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

3
x 10
2.5
As the initial
Capacitance[uF]
80% of the rated speed
2 speed increase
1.5 90% of the rated speed
1 100% of the rated speed
0.5
0
0
-2 0.1
-4 0.05
-6 0

Fig. 7.1 Relationship between the DC-link capacitance, the braking torque and the deceleration
time while the DC-link voltage increases

7.2 Motor Loss Based Braking Method

The energy flow during regenerative braking is shown in Fig. 7.2. E s is the shaft
energy, E f is the energy consumed by friction, E e is the electromagnetic energy, E c
is the energy consumed by copper loss, and E e1 is the electric energy. The core loss can
be neglected at normal operating condition. The expressions of the aforementioned
energy are denoted as follows,

1  2 
Es = J ωr _i − ωr2_u (7.13)
2

Ef = Fωr2 dt (7.14)
t

3    
Ee = Pn ψ f + L d − L q i d i q ωe dt (7.15)
2
t

DC side Motor side

stator rotor
Energy
Ef
tank Ec
udc f (id )

Ee1 Ee Es
udc 0
f (iq )

Fig. 7.2 Energy flow during regenerative braking

7.2 Motor Loss Based Braking Method 151


2 
Ec = i d + i q2 Rs dt (7.16)
t

E e1 = E e − E c (7.17)

where F is the motor friction coefficient, ωr_i and ωr_u are the initial mechanical
angular speed and the ultimate mechanical angular speed during t, respectively.
As can be seen in Fig. 7.2, if E e1 flows into the DC-link capacitor, the DC-link
voltage will increase. Therefore, the only way to regulate the DC-link voltage is to
dissipate the regenerative power in the motor, which is the motor loss concept.
Recently, there are some effective methods proposed for active braking based on
the concept of motor loss manipulation [11–15]. The characteristics of the above
methods are listed in Table 7.1. It should be noted that most of the active braking
methods need motor parameter information in order to achieve good dynamic perfor-
mance during regenerative process. According to the requirements of industrial
applications, the active braking method for IPMSM drives without motor param-
eters is expected for improving the robustness against parameter perturbation. In this
chapter, an active braking method based on a defined stator current vector coordinate
is introduced for IPMSM drives, and it is different from the existing methods and
independent of motor parameters.

Table 7.1 Characteristics of active breaking schemes proposed in recent years

Items Motor type Parameters System losses Way of realization
Methods needed utilized
Method in [11] IM Stator resistance Copper loss Manipulating
Rotor resistance Inverter loss losses in each
Stator inductance switching period
Magnetic based on loss
inductance model
Method in [12] Six-phase IM None Copper loss Using additional
degree of freedom
Method in [13, SPMSM Stator resistance Copper loss Calculating
14] Inductance switch speeds
Flux-linkage using voltage
limit, current
limit, and power
limit
Method in [15] Switched Stator resistance Copper loss Voltage
reluctance motor On-resistance of Core loss closed-loop
(SRM) power device Inverter loss control and
excitation time
calculation
152 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

7.3 Stator Current Vector Orientation Based

Anti-Overvoltage Control

7.3.1 Principle Analysis

In this section, a novel active braking method is proposed for IPMSM without using
any motor parameters.
As shown in Fig. 7.3, the proposed anti-overvoltage control strategy is integrated
with vector control scheme. The rotational position θ M and θ B are determined by the
current reference isref as can be seen in the dotted box. The current reference isref is
the output of the speed regulator. When the drive system is operating in motoring
mode, isref is greater than zero, and θ M will be chosen. Otherwise, isref is lower
than zero, and θ B will be chosen. When the drive system is operating in motoring
mode. The stator current will locate at the MTPA curve. Otherwise, the stator current
will be allocated by θ B , which is the current angle in braking process. In this case,
θ B is generated by the voltage controller to guarantee the smoothness of the motor
operation in braking process. The d-axis component of stator voltage in the stator
current vector coordinate system u i∗d is controlled to zero (u dr e f = 0) to prevent DC-
i

link overvoltage. The stator current angle in αβ-axes θ i is obtained by the normalized
PLL for the calculation of u i∗
d . The amplitude of the stator current is limited to ismax ,
which is determined by the motor drive system.

Proposed anti-overvoltage
control scheme
θB Voltage + udref
i

cosθ se ≤0
isref controller
θ θB −
θM θM MTPA
sin θ isref >0
se curve
ω +
*
e Speed is max isref i +
*
d
ud* udi* uα*
regulator −is max Current
− *
− iq +
*
regulator uq e − jθ A uqi* e jθi uβ*
ω e
Current
limiter
− θA θi
id iq θe −
+ iα
θi PLL
iβ

Fig. 7.3 Block diagram of the anti-overvoltage control scheme

7.3 Stator Current Vector Orientation Based Anti-Overvoltage Control 153

7.3.2 Current Trajectory Planning in Braking Process

For electrolytic capacitorless motor drives, the electromagnetic torque should meet
the following requirement during regenerative braking process to prevent DC-link
overvoltage considering (7.18),

3Pn Rs |is |2
− ≤ Te < 0. (7.18)
2ωe

For the purpose of acquiring satisfactory braking performance and preventing the
DC-link overvoltage at the same time, the electromagnetic torque should be kept as

3Pn Rs |is |2
Te = − . (7.19)
2ωe

The stator current vector can be allocated in the dq-axes considering the expression
of electromagnetic torque and (7.19) can be re-expressed as
 
3 i sr e f sin(θ B )ψ f + 2
3Pn Rs i sr ef
Pn  2 =− (7.20)
2 L d − L q i sr e f sin(θ B )cos(θ B ) 2ωe

where isref is the amplitude of the stator current vector.

Considering (7.20), θ B is determined by isref and ωe as shown in Fig. 7.4. During
active braking, θ B is adjusted automatically according to isref and ωe to prevent the
DC-link overvoltage and guarantee the smoothness of the motor operation.

1
Current angle during
braking process(rad)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0
-2 318
-4 637
-6
-8 955
-10 1273

Fig. 7.4 Relationship between the current angle during braking process, the amplitude of the stator
current, and the rotor speed
154 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

Fig. 7.5 Stator current MTPA iq

trajectory for active braking Constant
operating trajectory torque loci

II I
I smax

id

Current III IV
trajectory during
braking process

In regenerative braking mode, the stator current vector will locate at the expected
stator current trajectory for active braking shown as the red solid line in quadrant III
shown in Fig. 7.5. The stator current trajectory has different starting point determined
by isref and ωe as analyzed in Fig. 7.4.
Essentially, the energy regenerated by IPMSM is dissipated in the stator resistance.
By manipulating the dq-axes currents according to the stator current trajectory, satis-
factory braking performance can be obtained while the DC-link overvoltage can
be prevented. However, θ B is related to motor parameters including Rs , L d and L q
according to (7.20). Therefore, accurate calculation of θ B from (7.20) is difficult to be
achieved since motor parameters will change with the temperature and the magnetic
situation. As a result, it is necessary to obtain θ B in an effective way for practical
applications.

7.3.3 Anti-Overvoltage Realization Using Stator Current

Vector Orientation

In three-phase diode rectifier IPMSM drives equipped with film capacitors, the
average DC-link current can be calculated from the motor side.

3 us · is
i inv = (7.21)
2 u dc

Here, a new coordinate frame is denoted as dqi -axes, in which the stator current
vector is located at d i -axis. For the purpose of preventing the DC-link voltage
7.3 Stator Current Vector Orientation Based Anti-Overvoltage Control 155

increase, the average DC-link current cannot be a negative value. Namely, the hori-
zontal component of stator voltage in the defined coordinate frame should not be
smaller than zero. As shown in Fig. 7.6, θ i is the stator current angle in αβ-axes,
θ A = θ i − θ e is the angle of stator current vector in dq-axes. The stator voltage vector
in the stator current vector coordinate frame can be expressed as

∗ ∗
d = u d cos θ A + u q sin θ A
u i∗
∗ (7.22)
u q = −u d sin θ A + u q∗ cos θ A
i∗

where u*d and u*q are stator voltage components in dq-axes. ui* i*
d and uq are stator
voltage components in stator current vector coordinate system. The stator current
angle in αβ-axes obtained by PLL is shown in Fig. 7.7.

q
Rs is
ωeϕ f
ωe Lq iq
ωe Lq id β
qi us
uqi* θi
u i* θA
d
θe
N d

S α
θB
is
i
d

Fig. 7.6 Stator voltage components in stator current vector coordinate frame

sin(⋅)
iα

− k pllp s + k plli ωi 1 θˆi

÷ n

+ s s
iα2 + iβ2

iβ
cos(⋅)

Fig. 7.7 Block diagram of the PLL for acquiring θ i

156 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

Compared with the traditional structure, the stator current is normalized to elim-
inate its effect on the bandwidth of the PLL control loop. Consequently, the transfer
function of the PLL after linearization can be derived as

θ̂i k pllp s + k plli

= 2 (7.23)
θi s + k pllp s + k plli

The parameters of the PLL can be designed by adopting poles assignment. Gener-
ally, the poles can be set on the negative real axis. In this study, choosing k pllp = 2ρ,
k plli = ρ 2 and the bandwidth of the PLL should be higher than that of the current
loop. When ρ is set as 600, the bandwidth of the PLL is 1000 Hz.
Ultimately, the current angle in braking process can be derived by controlling the
stator voltage vector in the stator current vector coordinate frame

k pθ s + kiθ  i 
θB = u dr e f − u i∗
d (7.24)
s

where k pθ and k iθ are the coefficients of the anti-overvoltage PI controller, u idr e f is

the reference of the horizontal component of stator voltage in stator current vector
coordinate system.

7.3.4 Parameters Determination of Voltage Controller

Choosing one operating point as θ B0 = 0, u ∗d0 = 0, u q0

∗
= |u s |, u i∗
d0 = 0, u q0 = |u s |.
i∗

Under this circumstance, the small signal model of the proposed anti-overvoltage
control scheme is shown in Fig. 7.8.
Therefore, the transfer function of the anti-overvoltage control scheme can be
derived

uqi*0

+
1
Δid
Rs s + Ld −

Δidref −
de + k pc s + kic Δu *
d

s
− Δudi*
Δudref
i
+ k pθ s + kiθ Δθ B −
uq* 0
− s
Δudi*

Fig. 7.8 Small signal Block diagram of the anti-overvoltage control scheme
7.3 Stator Current Vector Orientation Based Anti-Overvoltage Control 157

u i∗ −k pθ |us |s 2 + (−kiθ |us | + |us |ωcb k pθ )s + kiθ |us |ωcb

d
= (7.25)
u i∗
dr e f (1 − k pθ |us |)s 2 + (k pθ |us |ωcb − kiθ |us | + ωcb )s + kiθ ωcb |us |

where u i∗ d and u dr e f are the disturbance components of u d and u dr e f , respectively.

i∗ i∗ i∗

ωcb is the bandwidth of the current loop, while the coefficients of the current regulator
(k pc , k ic ) is designed to eliminate the electromagnetic time of the current loop.
In order to guarantee the system stability, Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion is
considered
⎧
⎨ 1 − k pθ |us | > 0
k |u |ω − kiθ |us | + ωcb > 0 (7.26)
⎩ pθ s cb
kiθ |us |ωcb > 0

The coefficients of the PI controller in anti-overvoltage scheme should meet the

following conditions

0 < k pθ < 1
|us |
ωcb . (7.27)
0 < kiθ < |us |

The maximum amplitude of the stator voltage vector is considered to guarantee

the system stability in whole speed region. Here, the bandwidth of the current loop
is set as 200 Hz, which can be set as several hundred Hz as well. As a result, the
pole map of the control system can be obtained as Fig. 7.9, when the coefficients of
the PI controller are set according to (7.27). As can be seen, the increase of k pθ will
reduce the settling time of the controller, while the system damping reduces with the
increase of k iθ . Therefore, choosing k pθ = 0.0023, k iθ = 4.

2000
0.89 0.8 0.68 0.54 0.38 0.18
k pθ = 0.0023 ,kiθ = 4 Damping:
1500 0.95 0.707

1000
0.986
Imaginary Axis

500 kiθ increase k pθ increase

-500
0.986
-1000

-1500 0.95

0.89 0.8 0.68 0.54 0.38 0.18

-2000
-4500 -4000 -3500 -3000 -2500 -2000 -1500 -1000 -500 0
Real Axis

Fig. 7.9 Pole map of the anti-overvoltage control scheme

158 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

In order to promise better speed transient performance, the speed regulator is

designed using the method proposed in [16, 17]. The open-loop transfer function of
the speed loop can be denoted as
 
kis 1 1
H (s) = k ps + (7.28)
s Tcc s + 1 J s

where T cc is the time constant of the current loop, k ps and k is are the coefficients of
the speed regulator.
With the definition of the cutoff frequency ωsc and phase margin ϕ m of the speed
loop, the coefficients of speed regulator can be derived.
⎛ ⎞
 ϕ −
  ⎜ m   ⎟
k ps = 1 + Tcc2 ωsc
2 J 2 ωsc
2 sin
⎝ 1 π ⎠, (7.29)
arctan +
ωsc Tcc 2
⎛ ⎞
 ϕ −
  ⎜ m   ⎟
kis = ωsc 1 + Tcc ωsc J ωsc cos⎝
2 2 2 2
1 π ⎠. (7.30)
arctan +
ωsc Tcc 2

In order to simplify the calculation process, the following assumption is made

that T cc ωsc << 1. Finally, the coefficients of the speed regulator can be derived as
follows,

k ps = J ωsc sin ϕm
. (7.31)
kis = J ωsc
2
cos ϕm

7.3.5 Experimental Results

The anti-overvoltage control scheme is verified on a 2.2-kW IPMSM, supplied by a

commercial three-phase diode rectifier drive with film capacitors shown in Fig. 6.13.
The targeted application of the anti-overvoltage scheme is heating, ventilation and
air conditioning (HVAC) system. Parameters of the test motor are listed in Table 6.1.
The load motor is working as a generator with its output connecting to a resistance
box. Consequently, the load will increase with the motor speed, which is the load
type of the HVAC system. The coefficients of the speed regulator are set as k ps = 70
and k is = 12000, and the coefficients of the current regulator are set as k pc = 101
and k ic = 5162.
The comparison of the DC-link voltage and the stator current during deceleration
is shown in Fig. 7.10. Under this condition, the hardware brake unit is used to limit
the DC-link voltage within the safety value. In the experiment, the activating voltage
7.3 Stator Current Vector Orientation Based Anti-Overvoltage Control 159

Overvoltage protection

ωe [200(r/ min)/div]

ωref [200(r/ min) / div]

udc [100V/div]

ia [5A/div]

Time[800 ms/ div]

ωe [200(r/ min)/div]
Longer than 5ms Speed is
ωref [200(r/ min)/div] recorded

Brake unit action

660V
620V
Overvoltage
udc [100V/div] Less than 5ms
protection action

ia [5A/div]

Time[16 ms/ div]

(a)

Fig. 7.10 Experimental comparison of the speed decrease from 900 to 100r/min in no-load condi-
tion. a Without anti-overvoltage control. b With proposed anti-overvoltage control. c Without anti-
overvoltage control at the same speed change rate. (d) Speed reference slop is set as −55.6r/s2 .
e Speed reference slop is set as −16.7 r/s2

of the brake unit is set at 660 V, and the threshold of the overvoltage protection is
set at 620 V. The overvoltage protection execution cycle is 1 ms, and the protection
will be activated to stop the Interrupt Service Routine of the vector control when the
overvoltage protection flag is maintained for five execution cycles (5 ms).
At the beginning, the motor is operating at MTPA point, and the DC-link over-
voltage emerges as the speed reference changes from 900 to 100 r/min within 80 ms
as shown in Fig. 7.10a. The brake unit is turned on to consume the regenerative
energy once the DC-link voltage reaches 660 V. Due to the adoption of the slim film
capacitor, the change of the DC-link voltage is fast. Thus, the overvoltage protection
will not be activated when the electrical level of the protection flag is maintained
less than 5 ms. When the motor speed decrease process is nearly finished, the
160 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

ωref [200(r/ min) / div] ωe [200(r/ min)/div]

id [1.6A/div]

iq [1.6A/div]

θ B [0.125rad/ div]

udi*[124V/div]

udc [100V/div]

7.9A

ia [5A/div]

Time[800 ms/ div]

udc [100V/div]

ia [5A/div]

Time[32ms/div]

(b)

Fig. 7.10 (continued)

overvoltage protection will be activated since the protection flag is maintained

longer than 5 ms. At this time, the speed is recorded instantly and the motor enters
into the freewheeling mode. By modifying the dq-axes currents, the overvoltage
problem can be solved as shown in Fig. 7.10b. As can be seen, θ B is calculated
immediately during deceleration process, ui* d is controlled to zero immediately to
prevent the energy flow back. In the experiment, ismax is chosen as 7.9 A which is
the rated current of the test IPMSM. As can be seen in Fig. 7.10b, the peak value
of the a-phase current can reach 7.9 A during speed decreasing process. Therefore,
7.3 Stator Current Vector Orientation Based Anti-Overvoltage Control 161

Fig. 7.10 (continued)

ωref [200(r/ min) / div]

ωe [200(r/ min)/div]
udc [100V/div] Voltage
increase

ia [5A/div]

Time[800 ms/ div]

(c)

ωref [200(r/ min) / div]

ωe [200(r/ min)/div]
Speed
slope=-55.6(r/s2)

t=0.48s

Time[160ms/div]
(d)

ωref [200(r/ min) / div]

ωe [200(r/ min)/div]
Speed
slope=-16.7(r/s2)
t=0.64s

Time[160ms/div]
(e)

the proposed anti-overvoltage scheme can maximize the copper loss during speed
decelerating process. The speed adjustment time is 1.2 s when the speed decreases
from 900 to 100 r/min. It should be noted that, the large speed reference change rate
is set to accelerate the braking process. On the one hand, the speed reference change
rate should give enough margin for the increase of the real speed change rate. On
the other hand, large difference between the speed reference and the real speed
during braking process is beneficial for the increase of the copper loss. Figure 7.10c
162 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

shows the experimental result when the speed adjustment time is set as the same in
Fig. 7.10b (1.2 s) without the proposed anti-overvoltage control scheme. As can be
seen, the DC-link voltage increases from 540 to 610 V during the speed deceleration
process. Figure 7.10d and e show the experimental results when the deceleration
slop of the speed reference is set as −55.6 r/s2 and −16.7 r/s2 , respectively. The
speed reference decelerates from 900 to 100 r/min. As can be seen in Fig. 7.10d,
the deceleration time is 0.48 s when the speed reaches 200 r/min. If the speed slop
is reduced to −16.7 r/s2 , the deceleration time is increased to 0.64 s as shown in
Fig. 7.10e. It should be noted that, this deceleration experiments are done with
no-load, in which condition the overvoltage phenomenon is more likely to emerge.
If the motor decelerates with load, the braking process will be easier and faster.
Figure 7.11 shows the experimental results of the sudden load reduction while
the motor speed is 900 r/min. When the load reduces from 80% of the rated value to
0 N·m suddenly, the drive system will operate in regenerative braking mode. Under
this condition, the overvoltage fault will happen as shown in Fig. 7.11a. Figure 7.11b
and c show the 80 and 100% rated load reduction when the anti-overvoltage control
scheme is applied. As can be seen, when the q-axis current is lower than zero, the
dq-axes current is reallocated by θ B . The absolute value of the q-axis current is small
mainly to restrict the electromagnetic torque, the absolute value of the d-axis current
is increased to consume more energy in stator resistance. The DC-overvoltage during
braking process has been prevented effectively and the speed settling time is 400 ms.
When the speed reference changes from 900 r/min (corresponding to 80% rated
load) to 100 r/min (corresponding to 1% rated load) within 80 ms, the overvoltage
phenomenon will still occur as shown in Fig. 7.12a. Figure 7.12b and c show the decel-
eration under 80 and 100% initial load with the proposed anti-overvoltage control
scheme. The DC-link overvoltage can be avoided, and the speed settling time is
400 ms. Besides, the adjustment process is faster than no-load condition compared
with Fig. 7.10b.

7.4 Energy Control Error Analysis of Braking Scheme

Conventionally, the DC-link overvoltage can be prevented by the aforementioned

voltage controller effectively. However, it may fail in electrolytic capacitorless motor
drives due to the small capacity of the DC-link capacitor and the undesirable energy
error.
Due to the time delay of the q-axis current reference and the real q-axis current,
the current control error is inherent during transient process, which can be expressed
as

i qerr = i q∗ − i q (7.32)

where iqerr is the q-axis current control error.

7.4 Energy Control Error Analysis of Braking Scheme 163

ω e [400(r / min) / div] Brake unit & Overvoltage

protection activated
iq [3.2A/div]

id [3.2A/div]

udc [100V/div]

ia [5A/div]
Time[500ms/div]

(a)

ω e [400(r / min) / div]

iq [3.2A/div]

id [3.2A/div]

θ B [0.157rad/div]

udi*[124V/div]

udc [100V/div]

ia [5A/div]
Time[500ms/div]

(b)

Fig. 7.11 Experimental comparison of the sudden load reduction. a Load reduces from 80% rated
value to 0 N·m without anti-overvoltage control. b Load reduces from 80% rated value to 0 N·m with
proposed anti-overvoltage control. c Load reduces from 100% rated value to 0 N·m with proposed
anti-overvoltage control
164 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

ωe [400(r / min) / div]

iq [3.2A/div]

id [3.2A/div]

θ B [0.157rad/div]

udi*[124V/div]

udc [100V/div]

ia [5A/div]
Time[500ms/div]
(c)

Fig. 7.11 (continued)

The energy error produced by the q-axis current control error from t 1 to t 2 can be
derived as

t2
3
E err = Pn ψ f ωe i qerr dt (7.33)
2
t1

where E err is the energy error.

Generally, the time scale from t 1 to t 2 is very small compared with the speed decel-
eration time, and ωe can be regarded as an instant value denoted as ωe0 . Therefore,
the energy error can be represented as
 t2
3
E err = Pn ψ f ωe0 i qerr dt (7.34)
2 t1

The energy error will affect the DC-link voltage during regenerative process

1
E err = Cdc [u 2dc − u 2dci ] (7.35)
2
Ultimately, the DC-link voltage error caused by the q-axis current control error
can be expressed as
7.4 Energy Control Error Analysis of Braking Scheme 165

Brake unit & Overvoltage

protection activated

ωe [200(r/ min)/div]

ωref

udc [100V/div]

ia [5A/div]
Time[500ms/div]
(a)

ωref [200(r/ min) / div] ωe [200(r/ min)/div]

udc [100V/div]

ia [5A/div]
Time[500ms/div]
(b)

Fig. 7.12 Experimental comparison of the deceleration from 900 to 100r/min under load condition.
a 80% rated load without anti-overvoltage control. b 80% rated load with proposed anti-overvoltage
control. c 100% rated load with proposed anti-overvoltage control

2
3Pn ψ f ωe0 t1 i qerr dt
u dcerr ≈ (7.36)
2Cdc u dci

where udcerr = udc − udci is the DC-link voltage control error.

The block diagram of the q-axis current control error is illustrated in Fig. 7.13, in
which 1/(T sω s + 1) is the closed-loop transfer function of the current loop. During
transient process, iqerr will cause the DC-link voltage control error udcerr . Conse-
quently, the voltage controller will adjust the q-axis current reference i*q for the
purpose of stabilizing the DC-link voltage. However, due to the existence of the
inherent q-current control error, the voltage controller cannot regulate the DC-link
voltage effectively through the q-axis current reference adjustment. When the large-
volume electrolytic capacitor is applied, the voltage controller can achieve perfect
166 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

ωe [200(r/ min)/div]
ωref [200(r/ min) / div]

udc [100V/div]

ia [5A/div]
Time[500ms/div]
(c)

Fig. 7.12 (continued)

Undesirable current
*
1 iq control error
iq
Tsω s + 1
Voltage + −
controller
PI iqerr
udcerr 1 Eerr 1 Peerr 3P ψ ω
n f e0
udci C dc s 2
Fig. 7.13 Signal flow graph of the current error regulated by DC-link voltage controller

performance. However, little energy error will cause large udcerr in motor drives
equipped with slim film capacitors. Figure 7.14 shows the DC-link voltage error
caused by the q-axis current control error. During one fluctuation period, id can be
regarded as a constant since it is only used for loss consumption. During braking
process, udc will increase if i*q > iq (from t 1 to t 2 ) in region 1, otherwise udc will
decrease if i*q < iq in region 2.
Figure 7.15 is the relationship of the DC-link voltage error, the DC-link capac-
itance and the motor speed considering the experimental electrolytic capacitorless
IPMSM drive according to (7.36). The motor parameters are listed in Table 6.1.
During 1.6 ms, different q-axis current control error is considered under different
speeds and capacitance. As can be seen, when the DC-link capacitance increases,
the DC-link voltage error caused by current control error will decrease under the same
motor speed. Quantificationally, if a 50 µF DC-link capacitor is used, the voltage
7.4 Energy Control Error Analysis of Braking Scheme 167

udc

Voltage
udc -max
Time
0
0 t2
t1 Time
iq*
Current

1 2
iq

0
Time
id
Current

Fig. 7.14 Voltage control error caused by the q-axis current error

500
As the current
DC-link voltage error(V)

400 5A error increase

300
200 2.5A
100 1.2A
0
48 100
32 90
80
16 70
Instant motor 0
60 DC-link
50
speed (Hz) capacitance(µF)

Fig. 7.15 Relationship of the DC-link voltage error, the DC-link capacitance and the instant motor
speed

error reaches 200 V when the q-axis current error is 5 A at the operating frequency
of 45 Hz. As a result, the voltage controller may fail when using slim film capacitor,
since the energy error cannot be controlled effectively, especially when the d-axis
current is large.
168 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

7.5 Dual Anti-Overvoltage Control Method

7.5.1 Principle Analysis

The proposed anti-overvoltage scheme is based on the system loss concept, and it
is enhanced for the applications of electrolytic capacitorless drives. The dual anti-
overvoltage control scheme for electrolytic capacitorless IPMSM drives with coef-
ficient autoregulation is shown in Fig. 7.16. As can be seen, the q-axis current limit
iq-max is determined by a PI regulator, and the coefficient autoregulation strategy is
integrated. In addition, the d-axis current is used to accelerate the braking process
by increasing the copper loss quickly. The setting of the two voltage limits udc-l1 and
udc-l2 will be analyzed. The speed and position estimation method presented in [18]
is used for achieving position sensorless control. To conclude, for the applications of
electrolytic capacitorless drives, the improvement of the proposed anti-overvoltage
control scheme is listed as follows:
(1) The dual anti-overvoltage scheme is proposed to mitigate the effect of the energy
control error on the DC-link voltage control performance.
(2) The coefficients of the DC-link voltage controller are theoretically designed to
acquire sufficient stability margin.
(3) The copper loss can be maximized instantly and maintained in braking process.

iq - max
iq*
ωe* + Speed isref
MTPA
regulator id*
− iq -max +
Coefficient +
ismax
autoregulation Δid*
ωec
τn
ωe ismax
ω ϕ
τ sωc ψmf
(7.47)
(7.49)
k p k p (τ n s + 1)
s udc -l 2
Cdc udci +
udc -l1 −
−+
Dual anti-overvoltage
controller udc

Fig. 7.16 Block diagram of the proposed braking scheme

7.5 Dual Anti-Overvoltage Control Method 169

7.5.2 Realization of Dual Anti-Overvoltage Control Method

The energy flow during regenerative braking is shown in Fig. 7.17. The shade area
in the trapezium represents the energy stored in the DC-link capacitor. The height
of the shade area in trapezium is the value of DC-link voltage. Switches 1, 2 and 3
are controlled by the dq-axis currents, id and iq . E s is the shaft energy, E l is the load
energy, E f is the energy consumed by friction, E c is the energy consumed by copper
loss, and E e1 is the electric energy. E Fe is the energy consumed by core loss, which
is ignored. The smaller E s will make the control of the DC-link voltage easier, since
the motor load can provide extra braking toque for active braking, and this part of
torque will not cause the DC-link voltage increase.
During regenerative braking, there are two aims expected. Firstly, the DC-link
voltage should be controlled at a secure value. Secondly, the motor braking process
should be as fast as possible to meet the requirement of high-dynamic applications.
Based on the energy flow during regenerative braking as shown in Fig. 7.17, there are
four cases can be derived according to the states of Switch 1, Switch 2 and Switch 3
(directly related to id and iq ):
Case 1: id = 0 & iq = 0. Under this condition, Switch 1, Switch 2 and Switch 3
are all off. The regenerative energy can only be consumed by motor friction (E f ).
Although the DC-link voltage does not increase, the braking process is very slow.
Case 2: id = 0 & iq = 0. Under this condition, Switch 1 is off, Switch 2 and Switch
3 are on. The regenerative energy cannot flow into the DC-link capacitor. The energy
in the capacitor will be consumed by E f and E c . That means the DC-link voltage
will decrease quickly, but the motor braking process is still very slow.

Fig. 7.17 Energy flow

during regenerative braking
ulimt
Energy tank
udc
Switch1 Switch2

Ee1
Stator
Motor
and
friction
Ef EFe rotor
Es

Switch3
Ec

Stator
winding
170 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

Case 3: id = 0 & iq < 0. Under this condition, Switch 1, Switch 2 and Switch 3 are
all on. The braking energy flows into the DC-link capacitor and then is consumed by
E f and E c .
Case 4: id < 0 & iq < 0. Under this condition, Switch 1, Switch 2 and Switch 3
are all on. Large regenerative braking energy flows into the DC-link capacitor, but is
quickly consumed by increased E c .
As a result, case 4 is the best solution for active braking. The proposed method
is designed based on case 4 to prevent the DC-link overvoltage while improving the
motor dynamic performance.
By the manipulation of dq-axis currents, case 4 can be realized. The DC-link
overvoltage can be prevented while guaranteeing the motor dynamic performance.
The proposed coefficients autoregulation method is integrated into the controller
specially for motor drive with slim film capacitor in order to guarantee the effective
manipulation of the dq-axis currents.

7.5.3 Analysis of Energy Control Error

The voltage control error of the proposed dual anti-overvoltage control scheme is
analyzed in Fig. 7.18. Also, udc-l2 is higher than any magnitude that udc can ever arrive
during motoring mode. When udc reaches udc-l1 , the DC-link voltage controller will
Voltage

Time
0
0
Time
Current

2
1

0
Time
Current

Fig. 7.18 Voltage control error of the dual anti-overvoltage control scheme
7.5 Dual Anti-Overvoltage Control Method 171

udc-adj udc

B
udc-l1
A
udc-l2

Voltage
Time
0 t1
t2 Time
0
Energy

Ee1-adj Ee1

Fig. 7.19 Energy control error of the dual anti-overvoltage control scheme

be activated to limit the q-axis current, and this part is the same as the aforementioned
method. The comparison between udc and udc-l2 is added to control the d-axis current
reference. Once udc exceeds udc-l2 , the d-axis current reference will change in step
type to the negative maximum value. This kind of manipulation has two effects: (1)
udc can be reduced effectively to udc-adj in region 1 as can be seen in Fig. 7.18, (2) the
d-axis current can be maximized as fast as possible. In region 2, the DC-link voltage
decreases with udc-l2 due to the regulation of the d-axis current. However, this is not
important since the maximum value of DC-link voltage suppression is the target for
anti-overvoltage control.
In practical applications, the gap between udc-l1 and udc-l2 requires a trail-and-error
approach considering the energy control error. Figure 7.19 shows the energy control
ability of the proposed anti-overvoltage scheme. Once udc reaches point A, E e1 can be
reduced as one axis current component is controlled. If udc increases to point B further,
another axis current component will be controlled to reduce E e1 simultaneously. As
can be seen, compared with the conventional method, the dual control scheme can
reduce the energy regulation time from t 2 to t 1 . Small gap between udc-l1 and udc-l2
will reduce the energy regulation time. However, if the gap is set excessively smaller,
the copper loss will decrease.

7.5.4 Voltage Controller Coefficient Autoregulation

The relationship between the electric power and the DC-link voltage can be expressed
as
172 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

0+ k p (τ n s + 1) Δiq
*
1 Δiq 3Pn [ψ f + ( Ld − Lq )id 0 ]ωe 0 ΔPe 1 ΔEe1
− s Tsω s + 1 2 s
Δudcinc
1
udci Cdc

Fig. 7.20 Small signal diagram of the anti-overvoltage control scheme

1
E e1 = Cdc [u 2dc − u 2dci ] (7.37)
2
As a result, the increase of the DC-link voltage can be denoted as

E e1
u dcinc ≈ . (7.38)
Cdc u dci

The small signal block diagram of the anti-overvoltage control system is shown in
Fig. 7.20. The open-loop transfer function of the proposed anti-overvoltage scheme
can be derived as
K (τn s + 1)
G(s)= (7.39)
s 2 (Tsω s + 1)
   
3Pn ψ f + L d − L q i d0 ωe0 k p
K = (7.40)
2Cdc u dc0

where k p and τ n are the coefficients of the voltage controller.

The cutoff frequency and the phase margin of the voltage control loop can be
derived from (7.40),

K (τn ωc )2 + 1
|G( jωc )| =  =1 (7.41)
ωc2 (Tsω ωc )2 + 1

∠G( jωc ) = arctan(τn ωc ) − π − arctan(τsω ωc ) = ϕm − π (7.42)

where ωc and ϕ m are the cutoff frequency and the phase margin, respectively.
By solving (7.41) and (7.42), the coefficients of the voltage controller can be
derived as
tan(ϕm ) + Tsω ωc
τn = (7.43)
ωc [1 − tan(ϕm )Tsω ωc ]

2Cu dci ωc2 [1 − tan(ϕm )Tsω ωc ] (Tsω ωc )2 + 1
kp =  (7.44)
[tan(ϕm ) + Tsω ωc ]2
3Pn [ψ f + (L d − L q )i d0 ]ωe0
+[1 − tan(ϕm )Tsω ωc ]2 + 1
7.5 Dual Anti-Overvoltage Control Method 173

2
Fixed coefficients 0dB
2dB Autoregulated
coefficients ωe -2dB
1 increases ω2
6dB
Imaginary Axis
-6dB
-20dB
0
20dB
B ω1
A ω3
-1 15
Phase margin
stay constant C

-2
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0
Real Axis

Fig. 7.21 Nyquist plots of the control system using fixed coefficients and autoregulated coefficients

Neglecting the influence of the d-axis current, k p can be simplified as


2Cu dci ωc2 [1 − tan(ϕm )Tsω ωc ] (Tsω ωc )2 + 1
kp = √ (7.45)
3Pn ψ f ωe0 [tan(ϕm ) + Tsω ωc ] + [1 − tan(ϕm )Tsω ωc ]2 + 1

As can be seen in (7.45), except for the motor speed ωe0 , parameters such as ψ f and
C dc may not change dramatically with the drive operating condition. By considering
the motor speed in k p , the control system can avoid the influence of the motor speed
variation. It means that, once the cutoff frequency and the phase margin are set, the
coefficients of the voltage controller will be regulated automatically to maintain the
phase margin of the system. In practical control system, the motor speed information
used in k p should be limited to a suitable range. Figure 7.21 shows the Nyquist
plots of the control system using fixed coefficients and autoregulated coefficients,
respectively. If fixed controller coefficients are used, the Nyquist plot is shown as
the gray line. The Nyquist plot changes with the motor speed, and the direction is
depicted as the green line. When the motor speed increases from ω1 to ω2 , the system
phase margin will increase. However, as the speed further increases from ω2 to ω3 ,
the phase margin will decrease. That means, the system phase margin will change
with the motor speed if fixed controller coefficients are used. When autoregulated
coefficients are used, the Nyquist plot of the control system is shown as the red line.
The system frequency characteristic will not change with the motor speed, and the
phase margin can be maintained to the designed value. In this control system, the
phase margin is designed as 75°.
174 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

7.5.5 Experimental Results

The proposed anti-overvoltage control scheme has been verified on a 2.2-kW IPMSM
platform, supplied by a three-phase diode rectifier drive with film capacitors shown
in Fig. 6.13. The inverter includes a 50 µF film capacitor, power board and control
board. The AC input of the drive is 380-Vrms (50 Hz). Parameters of the test motor
are listed in Table 6.1 and the amplitude of the stator current vector is limited to
7.9 A. The load motor is used as a generator and consumes energy at load resistors.
All algorithms are implemented in a low-cost STM32F103 ARM with 72 MHz clock
frequency. The inverter switching frequency is set as 6 kHz, the same as the current
sampling frequency.
Figure 7.22 shows the control performance of the system loss based anti-
overvoltage control scheme [4] applied in electrolytic capacitorless IPMSM drives.
As can be seen in Fig. 7.22a, the DC-link voltage is controlled around 640 V (udc-max )
during the speed decrease process and the deceleration time is 0.6 s from 45 to 5 Hz.
However, the magnitude of the DC-link voltage fluctuation trends to increase along
with the increase of the d-axis current. The reason is that, the q-axis current will be
increased as the increase of the copper loss. The q-axis current control error will also
be enlarged without regulator coefficient autoregulation. When the copper loss is
further increased for accelerating the deceleration process in Fig. 7.22b, the DC-link
voltage will further increase when the d-axis current reaches the negative maximum
value. The enlarged view of the DC-link voltage fluctuation is shown in Fig. 7.22c.
As can be seen, when i*q is greater than iq in region 1, the maximum DC-link voltage
is 730 V. Contrarily, in region 2 the DC-link voltage will decrease to 600 V. The
experimental results verify the theoretical analysis of Fig. 7.14. It can also be noted
that the DC-link voltage control period is 8 ms.
After applying the coefficients autoregulation scheme in conventional method, the
DC-link voltage can be controlled effectively when the d-axis current increases to
the rated value as shown in Fig. 7.23. However, since the d-axis current is generated
by PI regulator with the input of speed control error, the d-axis current adjustment
is slow.
The experimental results of the proposed dual anti-overvoltage control scheme
with controller coefficient autoregulation are shown in Fig. 7.24. udc-l1 is set at 640 V,
and udc-l2 is set at 615 V. As can be seen in Fig. 7.24a, the DC-link voltage is
controlled effectively during deceleration process, and the magnitude of the d-axis
current can be controlled to the maximum value within 0.02 s benefited from the
controller coefficient autoregulation. Consequently, the speed deceleration time can
be reduced to 0.34 s from 45 to 5 Hz. Figure 7.24b is the zoomed view of the DC-link
voltage and the dq-axis currents during active braking process. The maximum value
of the voltage is 645 V, which is slightly higher than udc-l1 (640 V). Also, the DC-link
voltage control period is reduced to 2.5 ms, which means the energy control error
has been reduced effectively.
Figure 7.25 shows the experimental results when the rated load is added when
7.5 Dual Anti-Overvoltage Control Method 175

udc (200V / div)

ω r (20 H z / div)

td = 0.6s
id (3.2A/div)

iq (3.2A/div)

ia (10A/ div)

Time[200ms/div]
(a)

udc (200V/div) Out of control

ω r (20H z/ div)

td = 0.4s
id (3.2A/div)

iq (3.2A/div)

ia (10 A/ div)

Time[200ms/div]
(b)

Fig. 7.22 Experimental results of speed decrease from 45 to 5 Hz using conventional anti-
overvoltage scheme. a 80% d-axis current. b 100% d-axis current. c Influence of the q-axis current
control delay
176 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

udc (200V/div)

iq* & iq (3.2A/div)

ia (10A/ div)

Time[200ms/div]

730V
600V
udc (200V/div)
Region1: dc-link Region2: dc-link
voltage increase voltage decrease

iq* (3.2A/div) iq (3.2A/div)

T=8ms
ia (10A/ div)

Time[8ms/div]
(c)

Fig. 7.22 (continued)

the speed is 45 Hz. The DC-link voltage increases slightly during speed deceler-
ation process. The load torque consumes most of the regenerative energy, and the
anti-overvoltage control methods have not activated. Figure 7.26 shows the exper-
imental results when 50% rated load is added when motor speed is 45 Hz. Under
this condition, the DC-link overvoltage phenomenon emerges. The DC-link voltage
can be controlled effectively, and the speed deceleration time is 0.27 s using the
conventional anti-overvoltage control scheme. When applying the proposed method,
almost the same control performance is obtained, the speed deceleration time is
0.2 s. It should be noted that, the proposed anti-overvoltage control method works
more effectively if the load torque is relatively large, since faster motor dynamic
performance can be obtained.
7.5 Dual Anti-Overvoltage Control Method 177

Time[200ms/div]

k p (6e −2 / div)

ki (5e −4 / div)

Time[200ms/div]

Fig. 7.23 Experimental results when motor speed decreases from 45 to 5 Hz. using conventional
scheme with proposed autoregulated controller coefficients

The experimental results of the deceleration time statistics from different initial
speeds to ultimate speeds are shown in Fig. 7.27. By using the proposed anti-
overvoltage scheme, the deceleration time can be reduced effectively compared with
the method in [4]. Specially, the deceleration time reduction is more obvious in lower
speed region. Quantificationally, when the speed changes from 15 to 5 Hz, the decel-
eration time can be reduced to 33%. The deceleration time can be reduced to 57%
as the speed changes from 45 to 35 Hz.
Figure 7.28 illustrates that the DC-link overvoltage can be prevented when the
load is suddenly reduced by adopting the proposed control scheme. Figure 7.28a
178 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

Be enlarged
in (b)

Time[200ms/div]

k pτ n (1.6e −1 / div)

k p (1e −3 / div)

(a)
645V
580V udc (200V / div)

T=2.5ms

id (3.2A/div)

iq (3.2A/div)
Time[1.6ms/div]
(b)

Fig. 7.24 Experimental results of speed decrease from 45 to 5 Hz using the proposed anti-
overvoltage control scheme. a Whole braking process. b Zoomed view
7.5 Dual Anti-Overvoltage Control Method 179

Time[80ms/div]
(a)

Time[80ms/div]
(b)

Fig. 7.25 Experimental results of speed decrease from 45 to 5 Hz with rated load. a Using
conventional anti-overvoltage control scheme. b Using proposed anti-overvoltage control scheme

shows the results when 80% rated torque (21 N·m) is suddenly reduced to 0 N·m.
During regenerative process, the DC-link voltage can be controlled effectively. The
speed adjustment time is 0.35 s. Figure 7.28b shows that the DC-link voltage can
still be controlled effectively when 100% rated torque (26 N·m) is suddenly reduced
to 0 N·m.
Figure 7.29 shows the experimental results when different gaps between udc_l1 and
180 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

50% Rated current

Time[80ms/div]
(a)

50% Rated current

Time[80ms/div]
(b)

Fig. 7.26 Experimental results of speed decrease from 45 to 5 Hz with 50% load. a Using
conventional anti-overvoltage control scheme. b Using proposed anti-overvoltage control scheme

udc_l2 are set during speed deceleration process. From Fig. 7.29a, b, c, the voltage
gap is increased. Along with the increase of voltage gap, the motor dynamic perfor-
mance is improved. Specifically, when the speed decreases from 25 to 5 Hz, the
speed adjustment times are 0.14 s and 0.11 s when voltage gaps are 10 V and 40 V,
respectively. Although, the increase of voltage gap can improve the motor dynamic
performance, the DC-link voltage control performance is degraded. As shown in
7.5 Dual Anti-Overvoltage Control Method 181

0.8

Deceleration time(s)
0.6

0.4

0.2
0
0
5
15 50
45
Ultimate 25 35
speed(Hz) 25
35
15 Initial
speed(Hz)
(a)

0.8
Deceleration time(s)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 5
15 50
45
Ultimate 25 35
speed(Hz) 35 25
15 Initial
speed(Hz)
(b)

Fig. 7.27 Experimental statistical results of the deceleration time. a Conventional method.
b Proposed method

Fig. 7.29c, the maximum DC-link voltage reaches 660 V. Figure 7.29d shows the
experimental result when the motor speed decreases from 35 to 5 Hz using the
voltage gap of 40 V, the DC-link voltage further increases to 690 V. Large voltage
gap between udc_l1 and udc_l2 can improve the motor dynamic performance, but the
DC-link voltage may be out of control. Small voltage gap may lead to slower motor
dynamic performance. Thus, the settings of udc_l1 and udc_l2 should consider both
motor dynamics and DC-link voltage control performance.
In order to verify the control performance under fluctuated AC input, the line-line
voltage of the AC source produced by chroma 61512 is shown in Fig. 7.30. The
182 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

udc (200V/div)

ωr (20H z / div)
id (6.4A/div) 80% load reduction

Te (7N ⋅ m/div)

ia (10A/ div)

Time[200ms/div]
(a)

100% load reduction

Time[200ms/div]
(b)

Fig. 7.28 Experimental results of load reduction at the speed of 45 Hz. a 80% load change. b 100%
load change
7.5 Dual Anti-Overvoltage Control Method 183

650V

590V

Time[80ms/div]
(a)

650V

570V

Time[80ms/div]
(b)

Fig. 7.29 Experimental results under different settings of udc_l1 and udc_l2 . a Speed decrease from
25 to 5 Hz when udc_l1 = 640 V and udc_l2 = 630 V. b Speed decrease from 25 to 5 Hz when udc_l1
= 640 V and udc_l2 = 615 V. c Speed decrease from 25 to 5 Hz when udc_l1 = 640 V and udc_l2 =
600 V. d Speed decrease from 35 to 5 Hz when udc_l1 = 640 V and udc_l2 = 600 V
184 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

660V

550V

Time[80ms/div]
(c)

690V

Time[80ms/div]
(d)

Fig. 7.29 (continued)

7.5 Dual Anti-Overvoltage Control Method 185

537V 490V

Time[8ms/div]

Fig. 7.30 Line-line voltage of AC source produced by chroma 61512

peak values of euv and evw are 537 V and 490 V, respectively. The frequency of the
produced AC voltage is 50 Hz.
The anti-overvoltage control performance is tested under AC source fluctuation.
Figure 7.31a shows the experimental results when speed deceleration under rated
load. The DC-link voltage will increase slightly, and the speed deceleration time is
0.2 s. As can be seen, in region 1, the motor is operating in motoring mode with
rated load. The peak value of the DC-link voltage is fluctuated which is affected by
the AC input. In region 2, the motor is operating in regenerative braking mode, and
the DC-link voltage is higher than the peak value of euv and evw . In region 3, the
fluctuation of DC-link voltage is small since the motor power is largely reduced.
The speed deceleration without load is shown in Fig. 7.31b, the anti-overvoltage
control performance is not affected by the AC source fluctuation. The DC link voltage
can be controlled effectively, and the speed deceleration time is 0.33 s.

7.6 Summary

In this chapter, two anti-overvoltage control schemes are introduced for the elec-
trolytic capacitorless motor drives during the motor transient process. Without addi-
tional hardware circuit, the DC-link voltage can be controlled effectively based on
the motor loss concept. Experimental results show the effectiveness of the control
methods.
186 7 Motor Loss Based Anti-Overvoltage Control

800V

400V
Time[10ms/div] Time[10ms/div] Time[10ms/div]

Region1 Region2 Region3

ωr (20H z/ div) td = 0.2s udc (200V/div)

id (3.2A/div)

iq (3.2A/div)

ia (10A/ div) 80% rated current

Time[80ms/div]
(a)

udc (200V/div)

ωr (20H z/ div)

id (3.2A/div) td = 0.33s

iq (3.2A/div)

ia (10A/ div)

Time[80ms/div]
(b)

Fig. 7.31 Experimental results of speed decrease from 45 to 5 Hz under AC source fluctuation.
a with rated load. b without load
References 187

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Chapter 8
Optimized Overmodulation Strategy

8.1 Overmodulation Method of SVPWM

8.1.1 Conventional Overmodulation of SVPWM

Overmodulation strategies can be used to increase the DC-link voltage utilization

rate, which enhances the output torque ability. In practice, the motor can operate
beyond linear modulation region, even enter the six-step operation by implementing
effective overmodulation strategies. Generally, the classical overmodulation strate-
gies can be classified into two categories [1]. One is the single-mode strategy [2–10],
and the other is the dual-mode strategy [11–15].
Three typical single-mode overmodulation strategies are summarized and their
characteristics are discussed. In [2–5], the minimum phase angle error overmodu-
lation strategy was investigated. This method only modifies the phase angle of the
voltage vector, which is relatively simple and easy to implement. However, it can
only reach the maximum modulation ratio of 0.952, which could not fully utilize
the DC-link voltage. Another strategy named the minimum amplitude error over-
modulation strategy was proposed in [2–4, 6]. Compared with the minimum phase
angle error overmodulation strategy, this kind of method can increase the maximum
modulation ratio to infinitely close to 1. However, this method is relatively compli-
cated. In an effort to simplify the computation, a single-mode strategy adopted in
the whole modulation region was proposed by Bolognani and other researchers [3,
8–10]. This method can make full use of the DC-link voltage and has advantage of
simple computation processing.
The single-mode overmodulation causes larger voltage distortion although it can
achieve high modulation ratio with less computation. The dual-mode overmodulation
strategy was proposed by J. Holtz and other researchers [10–12]. This method divides
the overmodulation region into two parts: overmodulation region I and II. In over-
modulation region I, only the amplitude of the voltage vector is changed. While both
the amplitude and the phase angle are changed in overmodulation region II. This
method can synthesize the advantages of the above single-mode overmodulation
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 189
G. Wang et al., Reduced DC-link Capacitance AC Motor Drives,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8566-1_8
190 8 Optimized Overmodulation Strategy

strategies, which ensures that the stator voltage vector is continuously transmitted
from linear modulation region to the six-step operation. However, this method has
heavy computing burden and occupies large memory resources. For solving this
problem, a dual-mode overmodulation strategy was proposed in [13]. Compared
with classical strategy, the method can simplify the computation processing. In [14],
the linearity between the output voltage and the modulation ratio is guaranteed,
which ensures the seamless transition from linear modulation region to the six-step
operation.

8.1.2 Analysis of the Overmodulation in Reduced DC-Link

Capacitance PMSM Drives

The above overmodulation strategies were implemented based on large-volume elec-

trolytic capacitor drives, in which the DC-link voltage almost maintains a constant
value. However, in electrolytic capacitorless motor drives, the DC-link voltage fluc-
tuates seriously, which results in unintentional entrance to overmodulation region and
affects the operation performance in overmodulation region. Consequently, the more
effective overmodulation strategy is needed to improve the performance of reduced
DC-link capacitance PMSM drives. The relation among the THD, the value of the
fundamental voltage, the operation frequency and the initial phase of the voltage
vector are analyzed in [15] when small DC-link capacitors are equipped. However,
the overmodulation strategy proposed in this reference causes the phase-angle to
jump frequently, which results in the distortion of the stator voltage and current.
In this section, the influence of the dual-mode overmodulation strategy for reduced
DC-link capacitance PMSM drives is analyzed. According to the analysis, it can be
concluded that the time for entering the six-step operation is difficult to control due
to the comprehensive effect of the fluctuating DC-link voltage and the conventional
dual-mode overmodulation strategy, which results in the increase of THD of the stator
voltage and current. For solving this problem, a novel overmodulation strategy named
optimized voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy is proposed. This strategy
can improve the performance in overmodulation regions by switching between the
actual DC-link voltage and the fixed DC-link voltage used for SVPWM. The fixed
DC-link voltage is used for SVPWM in overmodulation regions, which can exactly
control the time for entering the six-step operation. Besides, the selection of the
optimal value of the fixed DC-link voltage is discussed.
8.2 Voltage Distortion Caused by Convensional Dual-Mode Overmodulation 191

8.2 Voltage Distortion Caused by Convensional Dual-Mode

Overmodulation

The influence of DC-link voltage fluctuation on voltage boundary hexagon is shown

as Fig. 8.1. As can be seen from Fig. 8.1, when the DC-link voltage decreases to the
minimum value, it corresponds to the minimum voltage boundary hexagon. When
the DC-link voltage increases to the maximum value, it corresponds to maximum
voltage boundary hexagon. The size of the voltage boundary hexagon varies with the
voltage fluctuation on the DC-link voltage. As can be seen from Fig. 8.1a, when the
DC-link voltage increases, the voltage boundary hexagon will expand. As can be seen
from Fig. 8.1b, the voltage boundary hexagon will shrink when the DC-link voltage
reduces. The voltage boundary hexagon changes with the voltage fluctuation of the
DC-link, which leads to extra harmonics when the motor operates in overmodulation
region, affecting the operation performance of the motor drive.
When the motor operates in overmodulation region, the αβ-axes voltage in
stationary frame will distort sharply. Figure 8.2 shows the voltage vector trajec-
tory and waveforms when the motor drive operates in overmodulation region. It can
be seen that two types of the waveform distortions occur while the conventional
dual-mode overmodulation strategy is used for reduced DC-link capacitance PMSM
drives. This Chapter classifies these distortions into two types: Type-I distortion and
Type-II distortion.
Figure 8.2 shows the trajectory and αβ-axes voltages waveforms, where u*s is the
reference stator voltage vector, us is the stator voltage vector, u1 -u6 are the active
vectors, uα is the α-axis voltage, and uβ is the β-axis voltage. As can be seen from
Fig. 8.2, ➀➁➂➃ is the trajectory of the Type-I distortion. When us moves from ➂
to ➃ in Fig. 8.2a, i.e. from D to E in Fig. 8.2b, the phase-angle of us jumps and
reverses. This is since the voltage hexagon will expand and shrink repeatedly due to

uβ uβ
udc_max Shrink udc_max
udc udc
Expand
udc_min udc_min

uα uα
0 0

(a) (b)

Fig. 8.1 Influence of DC-link voltage fluctuation on voltage boundary hexagon. a When DC-link
voltage increases. b When DC-link voltage decreases
192 8 Optimized Overmodulation Strategy

Fig. 8.2 Two types of stator voltage distortion. a trajectory. b αβ-axes voltage waveforms

the DC-link voltage fluctuation. The motor will exit from the six-step operation and
return to the previous operating point owing to the expansion of the voltage hexagon.
In addition, Type-II distortion exists and lasts for the whole overmodulation region.
When us moves alone the edge of the hexagon or stays still in one of the hexagon
vertexes, the value of the stator voltage vector |us | will change due to the expansion
and contraction of voltage hexagon.
The expression of the DC-link voltage udc (t)can be expressed as
  
u dc (t) = u dc_max sin ωg t + kπ 3 (8.1)

where k = 1, 2, … 6 during one period.

The analysis of these two types of distortion is presented as follows:
(1) Type-I distortion

Here, the movement during sector III is considered as shown in Figs. 8.3 and 8.4. As
can be seen from Fig. 8.3, when the conventional overmodulation strategy is used in
general purpose PMSM drives using large-volume electrolytic capacitors, the DC-
link voltage can be considered constant. Then the hexagon of the voltage vector is
also constant. In this case, the phase-angle of the stator voltage vector us will not
reverses.
As can be seen from Fig. 8.4, when the conventional dual-mode overmodulation
strategy is used in reduced DC-link capacitance PMSM drives, the conventional dual-
mode overmodulation determines whether the motor enters the six-step operation
according to the comparison between T 3 /2 + T 4 and T s . Note that T 3 and T 4 are
the action time of the two fundamental voltage vectors in the sector III, and T s is
8.2 Voltage Distortion Caused by Convensional Dual-Mode Overmodulation 193

Fig. 8.3 Reference and stator voltage vector trajectories in general purpose PMSM drives.
a Trajectory ➀. b Trajectory ➁

Fig. 8.4 Reference and stator voltage vector trajectories of Type-I distortion. a Trajectory ➀.
b Trajectory ➁. c Trajectory ➂. d Trajectory ➃
194 8 Optimized Overmodulation Strategy

the PWM carrier period. In reduced DC-link capacitance PMSM drives, the value of
T 3 /2 + T 4 is related to the DC-link voltage fluctuation.
The action time T i and T i+1 of the fundamental voltage vectors in arbitrary sector
can be expressed as
⎧ √   
⎪
⎪ 3Ts u∗s sin π 3 − θus (t)
⎪
⎨ Ti =
u dc (t)
√ (8.2)
⎪
⎪ ∗
3Ts us sin(θus (t))
⎪
⎩ Ti+1 =
u dc (t)

where θ us (t) is the angle between u*s and active vector ui , and the subscript “i”
represents the sector number.
For sector III, substituting (8.1) into (8.2) can obtain the result as
√     
 3Ts u∗s sin π 3 − θus (t) /2 + sin(θus (t))
T3 2 + T4 = . (8.3)
u dc (t)

The numerator of (8.3) is defined as a function,

√     
F(t) = 3Ts u∗s sin π 3 − θus (t) /2 + sin(θus (t)) . (8.4)

The analysis of the Type-I distortion by combining the expression of T 3 /2 + T 4

with the reference and the stator voltage vector trajectories shown in Fig. 8.4 is given
as follows:
When us moves alone ➀ as shown in Fig. 8.4a, T 3 and T 4 satisfy T 3 + T 4 > T s ,
and us moves alone the edge of the hexagon. T 3 and T 4 should be reduced to T 3 ’
and T 4 ’, respectively.
⎧
⎪  T3
⎪
⎨ T3 =Ts
T3 + T4
. (8.5)
⎪
⎪  T4
⎩ T4 =Ts
T3 + T4

The trajectory ➁ is shown in Fig. 8.4b. At the beginning of the trajectory, u*s is
on the boundary of the dotted line and T 3 /2 + T 4 = T s , which means the motor
enters the six-step operation and us stays still in one of the hexagon vertexes. During
the movement, the actual voltage hexagon draws back towards the minimum voltage
hexagon, which means dudc/ dt < 0, and dF/dt > 0. Consequently, T 3 /2 + T 4 keeps
increasing and always satisfies T 3 /2 + T 4 > T s , i.e. the motor operates in a six-step
operation state, which means T 3 = 0 and T 4 = T s .
The trajectory ➂ is shown in Fig. 8.4c. During the movement, the actual
voltage hexagon expands towards the maximum voltage hexagon, which means that
dudc /dt > dF/dt > 0. Consequently, T 3 /2 + T 4 will constantly decrease until it is
equal to T s .
8.2 Voltage Distortion Caused by Convensional Dual-Mode Overmodulation 195

The trajectory ➃ is shown in Fig. 8.4d. During the movement, the actual voltage
hexagon expands towards the maximum voltage hexagon, which means that dudc /dt
> dF/dt > 0. Consequently, T 3 /2 + T 4 will constantly decrease until T 3 + T 4 <
T s , which means us exits from the six-step operation and returns to the previous
operating point even to the linear modulation region, i.e. the phase-angle of us jumps
and reverses.
(2) Type-II distortion

Since the Type-II distortion exists and lasts for the whole overmodulation region,
the Type-II distortion can be analyzed in different overmodulation regions. When us
moves alone ➅➆, the motor enters the six-step operation, which means T 4 = 0 and
T 5 = T s . The stator voltage vector us can be derived as

T4 T5
us = u4 + u5 =u5 . (8.6)
Ts Ts

The amplitude of the fundamental voltage vector fluctuates with the DC-link
voltage fluctuation, which can be expressed as
 π
ui = 2 3u dc (t)e j 3 (i−1) . (8.7)

Substituting (8.7) into (8.6) when i is selected as 5, the following can be obtained
 4π
us =2 3u dc (t)e j 3 (8.8)

As can be seen in (8.8), the amplitude of the stator voltage vector |us | will fluctuate
with the DC-link voltage fluctuation.
When us moves alone ➈➉, i.e. the edge of the hexagon, T 6 and T 1 should be
reduced to T 6 ’ and T 1 ’, respectively.
⎧
⎪  T6
⎪
⎨ T6 = Ts
T6 + T1
. (8.9)
⎪
⎪  T1
⎩ T1 = Ts
T6 + T1

The stator voltage vector can be derived as

 
T T
us = 6 u6 + 1 u1 . (8.10)
Ts Ts

Substituting (8.2) and (8.7) into (8.10) when i are selected as 1 and 6 respectively,
the result can be obtained as
196 8 Optimized Overmodulation Strategy
   5π
2 sin π 3 − θus (t) e j 3 + sin(θus (t))
us =    u dc (t). (8.11)
3 sin π 3 − θus (t) + sin(θus (t))

As can be seen in (8.11), |us | will fluctuate with the DC-link voltage fluctuation.
According to the above analysis, it can be noticed that the Type-I distortion is expected
to be eliminated, but the Type-II distortion is inherent due to the DC-link voltage
fluctuation. In order to eliminate the Type-I distortion, the proposed overmodulation
strategy named optimized voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy will be
discussed in next section.

8.3 Transition Analysis of Uncontrollable Modulation

Region

According to the above analysis of the Type-I distortion, us moves alone three
different trajectories in an electrical period, which means that the transition of modu-
lation region is chaos. The uncontrollable modulation region transition conditions
will result in entering the six-step operation in advance, which is described as follows,
The ideal modulation processed from linear modulation region to the six-step oper-
ation is that us moves alone from a circular trajectory to the hexagon trajectory with
the increase of |u*s |, and the motor does not enter the six-step operation until a complete
hexagon trajectory has been moved alone during an electrical period. However, using
the conventional dual-mode overmodulation strategy in reduced DC-link capacitance
PMSM drives will result in entering the six-step operation in advance, i.e. us can not
move alone a complete hexagon during an electrical period.
*
Figure 8.5 shows the trajectory √ at different values of |us | [16]. As can be seen,√
*
when |us | is smaller than udc_min / 3, Us only moves alone the circle. When udc_min / 3
≤|u*s | < 2/3 udc_min , us moves alone the circle or the edge of the hexagon depending on
the location of u*s and udc . When |u*s | ≥ 2/3 udc_min , the motor will enter the six-step
operation at some point. Consequently, whatever |u*s | is, us can not move alone a
complete hexagon during an electrical period.
From the analysis of entering the six-step operation in advance, it can be noticed
that the time for entering the six-step operation can not be controlled exactly. The
voltage vector trajectory in multiple periods while |u*s | beyond the maximum voltage
hexagon is shown in Fig. 8.6. As can be seen, even as |u*s | is constant, the time for
entering the six-step operation is different due to the DC-link voltage fluctuation,
which reflects in the distribution of us . The inverted triangle reflects that the motor
prefers to enter the six-step operation early at low DC-link voltage, and enter the six-
step operation late at high DC-link voltage. Voltage boundary hexagons of different
sizes will lead to different angles of entering the six-step operation, that is, different
times of entering the six-step operation. The time of entering the six-step operation
is entirely dependent on changes of udc (t), which is uncontrollable.
8.3 Transition Analysis of Uncontrollable Modulation Region 197

u3 Move alone the edge of the hexagon

Enter the six-step operation udc udc_max

2/3udc_min
udc_min/ 3
udc_min

us*

u4
Move alone the circle

Fig. 8.5 Trajectory at different values of |u*s |

Fig. 8.6 Voltage vector

trajectory in multiple periods us *
us
β-axis voltage [100V/div]

Enter the six-step operation

late at high DC-link voltage

Enter the six-step operation

early at low DC-link voltage

α-axis voltage [100V/div]

In conclusion, if the time for entering the six-step operation can be controlled
exactly and the appropriate transition conditions can be designed, these problems
can be solved. In order to control the time of entering the six-step operation, the
influence of DC-link voltage fluctuation on T i and T i+1 should be weakened so that
the value of T i /2 + T i+1 (T i + T i+1 /2) is controlled by u*s . For this purpose, optimized
voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy is proposed.
198 8 Optimized Overmodulation Strategy

8.4 Voltage Bundary Based Overmodulation Scheme

8.4.1 Optimized Voltage Boundary Based Overmodulation

Strategy

According to the conventional definition for modulation region, the incircle of the
hexagon is the boundary between the linear modulation region and the overmodula-
tion region I. The excircle of the hexagon is the boundary between overmodulation
region I and II. Besides, the range of modulation ratio in these modulation regions
are [0, 0.907], [0.907, 0.952] and [0.952, 1], respectively. However, the conventional
definition for modulation region in reduced DC-link capacitance PMSM drives will
conflict and become chaos due to the DC-link voltage fluctuation.
A new definition of modulation region is proposed as shown in Fig. 8.7. As can
be seen, the incircle of the actual voltage hexagon is the boundary between the
linear modulation region and the overmodulation region I. While the excircle of the
maximum voltage hexagon is the boundary between overmodulation region I and II.
For evaluating the modulation depth of the inverter in reduced DC-link capacitance
PMSM drives, an alternative definition for modulation ratio is expressed as

|us |π
M= (8.12)
2R M S(u dc (t))

Fig. 8.7 Division of modulation region

8.4 Voltage Bundary Based Overmodulation Scheme 199

where RMS (udc (t)) is the RMS value of the DC-link voltage.
Similarly, the distribution of the range of modulation ratio is the same as that in
large-volume electrolytic capacitor drives, i.e. the range of modulation ratio in these
modulation regions are also [0, 0.907], [0.907, 0.952] and [0.952, 1], respectively.
According to the above definition of modulation region, optimized voltage
boundary based overmodulation strategy is introduced. The overmodulation strategy
is implemented by switching between the actual DC-link voltage udc (t) and the fixed
DC-link voltage ufixed used for SVPWM. The voltage switching time is based on
the action time of the fundamental vectors when using ufixed or udc (t) for SVPWM,
which can be expressed as
⎧ √   
⎪
⎪ 3Ts u∗s sin π 3 − θus (t)
⎪
⎨ Ti_ f i xed =
u f i xed
√ (8.13)
⎪
⎪ ∗
3Ts us sin(θus (t))
⎪
⎩ Ti + 1_ =
f i xed
u f i xed
⎧ √   
⎪
⎪ 3Ts u∗s sin π 3 − θus (t)
⎪
⎨ Ti_ actual =
u dc (t)
√ (8.14)
⎪
⎪ ∗
3Ts us sin(θus (t))
⎪
⎩ Ti + 1_ actual =
u dc (t)

For the convenience of discussion, the following analysis is based on sector III,
and the analysis of the other sectors can be obtained by similar methods.
(1) Linear modulation region (0 ≤ M ≤ 0.907)

As can be seen from Fig. 8.7, when reference stator voltage u*1 moves in linear
modulation region, T 3_actual + T 4_actual ≤ T s . T 3 and T 4 can be expressed as
⎧ √   
⎪
⎪ 3Ts u∗s sin π 3 − θus (t)
⎪
⎨ T3 =
u dc (t)
√ (8.15)
⎪
⎪ ∗
3Ts us sin(θus (t))
⎪
⎩ T4 =
u dc (t)

It is noticed that, udc (t) is used in above formula, which ensures that us can
completely follow the track of u*1 .
(2) Overmodulation region I (0.907 < M ≤ 0.952)

When u*2 moves in OVM I, two modulation formulas is used depending on the
location of u*2 .
When u*1 moves in the actual voltage hexagon, T 3_actual + T 4_actual ≤ T s . T 3 and
T 4 can be expressed as (8.15).
When u*1 moves outside the actual voltage hexagon, three inequalities satisfy
simultaneously, i.e. T 3_actual + T 4_actual > T s , T 3_fixed /2 + T 4 _fixed ≤ T s and T 3_fixed +
200 8 Optimized Overmodulation Strategy

T 4_fixed /2 ≤ T s , and the minimum phase angle error overmodulation strategy is used
to limit us to the actual voltage hexagon [2-5]. T 3 and T 4 can be expressed as
⎧ √   
⎪
⎪ 3Ts u∗s sin π 3 − θus (t)
⎨ T3 =
⎪
u f i xed
√ (8.16)
⎪
⎪ ∗
3Ts us sin(θus (t))
⎪
⎩ T4 =
u f i xed

where T 3 and T 4 should be reduced to T 3 ’ and T 4 ’ as (8.5), respectively.

Actually, either udc (t) or U fixed is used in (8.16), us can be limited to the actual
voltage hexagon due to the modified formula (8.5).
(3) Overmodulation region II (0.952 < M ≤ 1)

When u*3 moves in OVM II, two modulation formulas are used depending on the
location of u*3 .
When u*3 moves in the triangle, T 3_actual + T 4_actual > T s , T 3_fixed /2 + T 4 _fixed ≤
T s and T 3_fixed + T 4_fixed /2 ≤ T s , and the minimum phase angle error overmodulation
strategy is used [2–5]. T 3 ’ and T 4 ’ can be expressed as (8.16) and (8.5).
When u*3 moves outside the triangle, T 3_fixed /2 + T 4 _fixed > T s or T 3_fixed +
T 4_fixed /2 > T s , and the motor enters the six-step operation, i.e. us is regulated to
the nearest fundamental voltage vector. T 3 and T 4 can be expressed as

T3 =Ts T3 =0
T3_ f i xed +T4_ f i xed /2>Ts , T3_ f i xed /2+T4_ f i xed >Ts (8.17)
T4 =0 T4 =Ts

From the discussion above, it can be concluded that T 3_actual , T 4_actual , T 3_fixed
and T 4_fixed are used to determine which modulation formula should be used, which
ensures that improved performance can be obtained in overmodulation region. The
block diagram of the optimized voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy
is shown in Fig. 8.8. The expressions corresponding to the modulation switching
conditions in Fig. 8.8 are listed in Table 8.1.
When the optimized voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy is adopted,
the selection of the optimal value of ufixed should be well designed. Since different
values of the ufixed will result in different effects.
Figure 8.9 shows the comparison of M growth curve with three different values of
ufixed . As can be seen, when ufixed1 < udc_max , M increases sharply at 2/3ufixed1 , where
the motor still operates in OVM I. That means the motor enters the six-step operation
in advance. When ufixed2 > udc_max , the gap between OVM I and OVM II occurs, and
M is constant until |u*3 | > 2/3ufixed2 . In that case, the motor can not transit from OVM
I to OVM II smoothly and swiftly. When U fixed2 = udc_max , M increases smoothly
to 0.952, and the gap between OVM I and OVM II will not occur. Consequently,
udc_max is the optimal value of ufixed .
8.4 Voltage Bundary Based Overmodulation Scheme 201

Fig. 8.8 Block diagram of optimized voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy

Table 8.1 SVPWM modulation strategy

Modulation switching condition Expression
Cond. 1 T i_actual + T i+1_actual ≤ T s
Cond. 2 T i_actual + T i+1_actual > T s
& T i_fixed /2 + T i+1_fixed ≤ T s
& T i_fixed + T i+1_fixed /2 ≤ T s
Cond. 3 T i_fixed /2 + T i+1_fixed > T s
or T i_fixed + T i+1_fixed /2 > T s

Figure 8.10 shows the curves of the drive efficiency and system efficiency using
different overmodulation strategy. As can be seen, the drive efficiency and the system
efficiency will increase with the motor power. The efficiency curves are not very
different with different strategies. As a result, the drive efficiency is little influenced
after using the proposed strategy.
202 8 Optimized Overmodulation Strategy

Fig. 8.9 Comparison of M growth curve with three different values of ufixed

98%
drive efficiency (proposed strategy)

drive efficiency (conventional strategy)

Efficiency
[1%/div]

System efficiency (proposed strategy)

System efficiency (conventional strategy)

93%
2.25 2.45
Motor power [0.04kW/div]

Fig. 8.10 Curves of the drive efficiency and system efficiency using different overmodulation
strategies

8.4.2 Experimental Results of Optimized Voltage Boundary

Based Overmodulation Strategy

The effectiveness of the voltage distortion analysis and the optimized voltage
boundary based overmodulation strategy is verified experimentally. In the experi-
ment, in order to satisfy the stability condition and minimize the switching ripple
voltage, DC-link capacitance is set as 50 μF. A 2.2 kW PMSM drive with 50 μF
film capacitors is used in the DC-link as shown in Fig. 6.13. When the motor oper-
ates in OVM II, the Type-I distortion occurs without using the optimized voltage
boundary based overmodulation strategy is shown in Fig. 8.11a. As can be seen, the
angle of the stator voltage vector θ u falls back in the dotted line, which means that
the phase-angle of us jumps and reverses. In this case, a spike of the α-axis voltage
uα appears, which results in the increase of THD and the distortion of the a-phase
current ia . By comparison with the results, the optimized voltage boundary based
overmodulation strategy can eliminate this Type-I distortion as shown in Fig. 8.11b.
8.4 Voltage Bundary Based Overmodulation Scheme 203

Fig. 8.11 Comparison of the Type-I distortion occurrence when motor operates in OVM II.
a Without optimized voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy. b With optimized voltage
boundary based overmodulation strategy

It is noticed that θ u always increases in an electrical period by using the optimized

voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy. Same conclusions can be obtained
as shown in Fig. 8.12. As can be seen from Fig. 8.12a, the phase-angle of us jumps
and reverses near the hexagon vertex in an electrical period. As a contrast, using
the proposed overmodulation strategy can eliminate Type-I distortion as shown in
Fig. 8.12b.
The FFT analyses of the ia in the low frequency range are shown in Fig. 8.13. The
result without using the optimized voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy
is shown in Fig. 8.13a, ia contains lots of harmonics including various low frequency
harmonics. Besides, the THD of ia reaches up to 19.3%. When the optimized voltage
boundary based overmodulation strategy is used, the harmonics of ia decreases is
shown in Fig. 8.13b. The THD of ia is decreased to 14.4%.
The FFT analysis of the phase current ia around switching frequency range is
shown in Fig. 8.14. The result without using the optimized voltage boundary based
overmodulation strategy is shown in Fig. 8.14a, ia contains some high frequency
noises around switching frequency range (mainly at 6 kHz ± 0.055 kHz*2, 4,
204 8 Optimized Overmodulation Strategy

Fig. 8.12 Comparison of the

β-axis voltage [100V/div]

Lissajous figures in an
electrical period. a Without
optimized voltage boundary
based overmodulation
strategy. b With optimized
voltage boundary based Type-I
overmodulation strategy distortion

α-axis voltage [100V/div]

(a)

β-axis voltage [100V/div]

α-axis voltage [100V/div]

(b)

8, 10, where 0.055 kHz is the motor operating frequency). When the optimized
voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy is used as shown in Fig. 8.14b,
the switching frequency coupled with the motor operating frequency will increase
slightly. However, other various frequency harmonics decrease, which means the
harmonics around the switching frequency range are concentrated on the switching
frequency coupled with the motor operating frequency (6 kHz ± 0.055 kHz*2, 4, 8,
10).
The FFT analysis of grid current is shown in Fig. 8.15. It can be seen that, after
adopting the optimized voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy, the ampli-
tude of 350 Hz harmonic increases slightly. The amplitude of 350 Hz harmonic
increases from 1.16A to 1.49A. The amplitude of 250 Hz harmonic decreases slightly.
The amplitude of 250 Hz harmonic decreases from 1.83A to 1.62A, and the ampli-
tude of other frequency harmonics does not change much. In addition, after adopting
optimized voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy, THD of the grid current
decreases from 57.4% to 56.6%.
As can be seen from Fig. 8.16, in order to represent the modulation region that
the motor operates at any time, a variable named modulation region flag FMR is
8.4 Voltage Bundary Based Overmodulation Scheme 205

0.57 THD=19.3%

[0.08A/div]
Amplitude
0.36

0.18 0.18
0.14 0.12
0.11 0.10
0
Frequency [62.5Hz/div]
(a)

THD=14.4%
[0.08A/div]
Amplitude

0.46

0.18
0.06 0.04 0.07 0.08
0.02 0.02
0
Frequency [62.5Hz/div]
(b)

Fig. 8.13 Comparison of the FFT analyses of ia in the low frequency range. a Without opti-
mized voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy. b With optimized voltage boundary based
overmodulation strategy

defined. This variable has three values of 0, 1 and 2, which represent us moves alone a
circular trajectory, hexagon trajectory and enters the six-step operation, respectively.
The transition of modulation region is chaos without using the optimized voltage
boundary based overmodulation strategy as shown in Fig. 8.16a. The value of FMR
changes among three different values during an electrical period, which means the
motor enters the six-step operation in advance. The waveform distortion of uα is
different in various electrical periods. Besides, before the motor enters the six-step
operation, a complete hexagon trajectory does not appear, which means the transi-
tion of modulation region is unideal. While the optimized voltage boundary based
overmodulation strategy is used, the transition of modulation region is progressive
as shown in Fig. 8.16b. The value of FMR increases gradually with the deepening
of modulation depth, and a complete hexagon trajectory is moved alone before the
motor enters the six-step operation. That means the motor can operate from linear
modulation region to OVM II smoothly, and avoid entering the six-step operation in
advance.
In an effort to evaluate the time for entering the six-step operation, an angle
named α h is defined as shown in Fig. 8.17. When the motor operates in OVM II, α h
is different or even decrease to zero without using the optimized voltage boundary
206 8 Optimized Overmodulation Strategy

[0.005A/div]
Amplitude 0.029 0.030
0.024 0.023

0.007 0.004 0.003

0.002
0
5.45k 5.56k 5.78k 5.89k 6k 6.11k 6.22k 6.44k 6.55k
Frequency [125Hz/div]
(a)

0.034
[0.005A/div]

0.029
Amplitude

0.026
0.020
0.012
0.009
0.006 0.006
0
5.45k 5.56k 5.78k 5.89k 6k 6.11k 6.22k 6.44k 6.55k
Frequency [125Hz/div]
(b)

Fig. 8.14 Comparison of the FFT analysis of ia around switching frequency range. a Without
using the optimized voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy. b Using the optimized voltage
boundary based overmodulation strategy

based overmodulation strategy as shown in Fig. 8.17a. While the optimized voltage
boundary based overmodulation strategy is used, α h is approximately equal during
an electrical period as shown in Fig. 8.17b.
Same conclusions can be obtained as shown in Fig. 8.18. As can be seen from
Fig. 8.18a, the trajectory of us represents as an inverted triangle, which means α h is
different or even decrease to 0 without using the optimized voltage boundary based
overmodulation strategy. The trapezoid means α h is approximately equal during an
electrical period when the proposed overmodulation strategy is used as shown in
Fig. 8.18b. The approximately identical α h can reduce the degree of distortion of the
uα and decrease THD.
The comparison of experiments results is shown in Fig. 8.19. As can be seen,
before the motor operates into overmodulation region, the waveforms of the torque
T e , the speed ωr and the q-axis current iq are the same respectively. When the motor
operates in overmodulation region, the ripple of T e , ωr and iq can be decreased from
8.4 Voltage Bundary Based Overmodulation Scheme 207

THD=57.4%
4.29

[0.06A/div]
Amplitude

1.83 1.65
1.16
0.67
0
Frequency [250Hz/div]
(a)

4.60 THD=56.6%
[0.06A/div]
Amplitude

1.62 1.49 1.73

0.74
0
Frequency [250Hz/div]
(b)

Fig. 8.15 Comparison of the FFT analysis of grid current. a Without using optimized voltage
boundary based overmodulation strategy. b Using optimized voltage boundary based overmodula-
tion strategy

26.31% to 14.04%, 2.00% to 1.14%, 24.50% to 12.68%, respectively by using the

optimized voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy.

8.5 Summary

This Chapter focuses on the overmodulation strategy in three-phase diode rectifier

PMSM drives equipped with slim film capacitors. The characteristics of the conven-
tional dual-mode overmodulation strategy are analyzed, which includes the Type-I
distortion, entering the six-step operation in advance and the difference of the time
for entering the six-step operation. The optimized voltage boundary based overmod-
ulation strategy has been proposed and the selection of optimal the value of the
constant DC-link voltage for SVPWM has been discussed. The experimental results
verify that the distortion of voltage and current can be improved when the optimized
voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy is used.
208 8 Optimized Overmodulation Strategy

uα [250V/div]

FMR [1/div]
0

Time [400ms/div]

Entering six-step uα [250V/div]

operation in adavnce

0
FMR [1/div]
Time [20ms/div]
(a)

uα [250V/div]

FMR [1/div]
0

Time [400ms/div]

Move alone a uα [250V/div]

complete hexagon

0
FMR [1/div]
Time [20ms/div]
(b)

Fig. 8.16 Comparison of the transition of modulation region when motor operates from linear
modulation region to OVM II. a Without optimized voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy.
b With optimized voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy
8.5 Summary 209

uα [250V/div]

0 αh/ωe
FMR [1/div]
Time [10ms/div]
(a)

uα [250V/div]

0 αh/ωe
FMR [1/div]
Time [10ms/div]
(b)

Fig. 8.17 Comparison of the angle α h when the motor operates when motor operates in OVM II.
a Without optimized voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy. b With optimized voltage
boundary based overmodulation strategy
β-axis voltage [100V/div]

β-axis voltage [100V/div]

αh αh

α-axis voltage [100V/div] α-axis voltage [100V/div]

(a) (b)

Fig. 8.18 Comparison of the Lissajous figures. a Without optimized voltage boundary based
overmodulation strategy. b With optimized voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy
210 8 Optimized Overmodulation Strategy

Linear modulation region Overmodulation region

Te [5N.m/div]

Te ripple=26.31%
0 ωr [400rpm/div]

ωr ripple=2.00%
0

iq [1A/div]
iq ripple=24.50%
0
Time [400ms/div]

(a)
Linear modulation region Overmodulation region

Te [5N.m/div]

Te ripple=14.04%
0 ωr [400rpm/div]

ωr ripple=1.14%
0

iq [1A/div]
iq ripple=12.68%
0
Time [400ms/div]

(b)
Fig. 8.19 Comparison of the experiments results when motor operates from linear modulation
region to OVM II. a Without optimized voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy. b With
optimized voltage boundary based overmodulation strategy

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