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Mauro Galluccio, Ph.D.

Science and
Diplomacy
Negotiating Essential Alliances
Science and Diplomacy
Mauro Galluccio

Science and Diplomacy

Negotiating Essential Alliances
Mauro Galluccio
EANAM (European Association for Negotiation and Mediation)
Brussels, Belgium

ISBN 978-3-030-60413-4    ISBN 978-3-030-60414-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-60414-1

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
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To Laura, Michele, Lorenzo, and Gabriele
Foreword

It may sound as a provocation to say that science might be considered as “useless”

in some instances. However, any scientific finding is indeed invisible if it is not
properly known, explained, implemented, and/or trusted. Science is about facts and
observations that may or not corroborate theories; it is generally driven by humans,
although the reverse may also occur when humans are driven by science for the best
or the worst science is not understood the same way by politicians, policymakers,
diplomats, practitioners, scientists, industry stakeholders, and citizens. Facts and
knowledge are confronted by different angles of views, expectations, and beliefs
that are anchored in people’s mind. In addition, science may be manipulated by
other interests than seeking the truth, in particular when it is driven by economic
considerations. While it is recognized that science is obviously developed by
researchers and academics covering many different disciplines, sometimes leading
to silo-thinking, it is an illusion to think that it can work in isolation. Even an emi-
nent professor, a genius in his or her discipline, will not master the overall world
complexity when dealing with any kind of crisis. Ideally, interactions with many
different actors will be required, in full dialogue and transparency, with verifiable
facts and figures, tangible demonstrations, and knowledge sharing. In this respect,
science will be challenged to effectively support policymaking and implementation,
and match practitioner’s needs, in the light of available state-of-the-art tools, meth-
ods and technologies and innovation-driven solutions of potential interest to indus-
try (thus with possible market outputs), while being trusted by the general public.
This places humankind at the heart of science with an obvious motto which is the
need to work together.
This ideal situation of working together is however confronted by a number of
conflicts for reasons expressed above. They may concern disputes about costly/
drastic decisions to be taken in the event of a crisis, insufficient consideration of
emotional impacts on people, incapacity to share views owing to egocentric behav-
iours, personal interests being placed before the interests of the community, inabil-
ity to tackle uncertainties, etc. Transparency and established dialogue in all
disciplines, sectors and society, may be a way to limit the number of situations
where our societies are “taken by surprise” by unexpected events, e.g. a disaster of

vii
viii Foreword

natural or man-made origin, a terrorist attack, or a pandemic. This “surprise effect”

is often due to the fact that politicians, scientists, and the overall society have lost
memories about past events, or are affected by cognitive biases which give them the
feeling that they “know better”, or are experiencing a deaf ears syndrome. As cor-
rectly pointed out by Mauro Galluccio, the COVID-19 crisis will bring us an over-
whelming number of lessons in this regard. When it started, conflicting views
immediately occurred not only in people’s “non-scientist” debates but also within
the overall scientific community, notwithstanding the total lack of consensus among
politicians at international or even national levels. The fact is that nobody knew
what would happen; even the most famous epidemiologists were wrong in their
assessment of the contamination spread. The surprise here is that very few remem-
bered that similar pandemics took place in 1957 and 1968–1969, with a more or less
equivalent number of losses, meaning that protection measures taken at the time
were forgotten with all the lessons learned, and this in less than two generations.
Asiatic countries such as China and Korea were certainly better prepared than other
countries because their memories were “still fresh”, i.e. linked to the SARS out-
break in 2003. When dealing with disaster risk management, it has become obvious
that science, while being at the heart of progress, cannot develop in isolation. The
Disaster Risk Reduction Sendai Framework for Action recognizes the need for
evidence-­based policies, which are developing throughout the world. In Europe, the
Union Civil Protection Mechanism is establishing close links with the scientific
community to enhance capacity-building of first responders for the prevention, pre-
paredness, and response to disasters. The policy framework does not, however,
allow for effective cooperation to take place without a well-structured dialogue.
This has given the idea to the European Commission to develop a “Community of
Users on Secure, Safe and Resilient Societies” (CoU) which is gathering different
actors expressing their needs, expectations, doubts, and certainties, in open and
sometimes conflicting debates, in order to find—together—the best compromise to
move forward. Above all technical or legal considerations, such compromise can
only be reached if it is driven by humankind, and this is what the CoU offers.
Thinking out of the box may often bring new perspectives and nourish our own
knowledge. In this respect, speaking with researchers in various natural or CBRN
scientific disciplines, historians, psychologists, first responders, SME/industry rep-
resentatives, etc. has opened new windows of thinking.
It is in this context that I met Mauro Galluccio, both political scientist and clini-
cal psychologist, who since the early 1990s has been instrumental in promoting
conflict transformation. I was honoured by the invitation to preface his book
“Science and Diplomacy: Negotiating Essential Alliances”, which is at the heart of
these considerations. In discussing the needs for multidisciplinary cooperation
among many different actors and the ability to share information from international
to local levels, he puts the accent on trust and credibility about science which form
a strong foundation for diplomacy. The book questions how interpersonal negotia-
tions take place among scientists and politicians/policymakers to achieve a sound
and evidence-informed policy framework. Above all political, technical, and scien-
tific considerations, the fact is that all people involved are men and women who
Foreword ix

need to listen to each other and express their views while trying to avoid a kind of
“chapel-thinking”. They need to be ready to accept that they may change their views
on the basis of knowledge that they do not master, in order to find the best compro-
mise between the science reality, the implementation feasibility, and the general
acceptation of the facts and findings that will influence policymaking and hence the
daily life of citizens. This is only possible in a team working motion where all are
able to listen and mutually respect each other’s views while keeping their roles and
turning their efforts in serving the community. This book will bring the reader into
issues related to perception and misperception (or misinterpretation) in science
diplomacy and related (global) communication drawbacks and it highlights the
needs and ways to strengthen the cooperation process between scientists and diplo-
mats/politicians. Certainly, a motto of this unique volume is a highlight about the
strength of the scientific language to bring together people from different regions,
cultures, ideologies, and social backgrounds and to enable consensual approaches to
be developed to tackle global issues. The chaotic crisis management that the world
has faced with the COVID-19 is the most speaking indication about the efforts
required to reconcile science, politics, and diplomacy, and this book is about how
they should and could work together. It will be of interest to a wide range of readers
from different scientific and political/policymaking spheres, both for professionals
involved in crisis management and university curricula, and will undoubtedly gen-
erate future research developments at international level with the hope that science
diplomacy will be recognized as an essential discipline for tackling any crisis occur-
ring at global, national, or even local levels.

Policy and Research Programming Officer Philippe Quevauviller

European Commission, DG HOME 
Brussels, Belgium
Foreword

Mauro Galluccio’s new book provides a foundation for a new multidisciplinary field
at the intersection of science and diplomatic policy. He makes clear in his Preface
and Introduction both the need for the field and the challenges likely to be encoun-
tered on this journey. With regard to need, there would seem to be little doubt that
national and international policies would benefit from taking into account evidence
from a variety of scientific fields. Climate science and virology are among the phys-
ical and natural sciences that address current global problems. Progress in these
fields is essential if we are to develop a vaccine to combat COVID-19. But the social
and economic sciences are equally important, particularly micro (consumer behav-
iour) and macroeconomics (the study of markets and labour); political economy;
social, political, and clinical psychology; and study of political institutions and elec-
toral processes. Insights from studies in these fields contribute to our understanding
of economic collapses and human coping with a bleak present and future. While the
need for scientific evidence would seem imperative, there have been barriers that
have stood in the way of embracing the knowledge. This book opens a window on
the barriers and provides advice on how they may be overcome.
Mauro Galluccio puts at the centre of debates, on the value of science for politi-
cal leaders and diplomats, the clash between beliefs, emotional processes, and evi-
dence as well as miscommunication. How often have we heard that “faith is not
evidence?” While there may be wide agreement on this aphorism, the behaviour of
a number of current political leaders flies in the face of its meaning. As I write this
foreword, US Vice President Pence is announcing that “we are well on our way to
beating this virus”. A CNN scientist rebuked this statement, saying that it is very
dangerous and will lead to irresponsible behaviour that is likely to contribute to a
second wave of cases. Other political leaders, notably the president of Brazil, have
downplayed the seriousness of the disease despite overwhelming evidence to the
contrary and massive increase of positive tests by citizens in their own countries.
This example raises a question about the compatibility of evidence with beliefs.
This question turns on beliefs about the value of science. It faces what I call a flex-
ibility dilemma characterized by hardened positions that reflect values and interests.
Our research has shown that conflicts are intensified when values or ideologies are

xi
xii Foreword

invoked. Through time and repeated interactions, the contending parties become
more polarized due in large part to identity threats. However, this knowledge is
produced with scientific methods and the experiments are conducted by investiga-
tors who share the same epistemic world view. They are likely to be dismissed by
those who share a faith-based belief system. Questioning the fundamental tenets of
empirically generated knowledge does not bode well for a science-policy discipline.
Mauro Galluccio presents four dilemmas throughout the book. One is referred to
as an uncertainty dilemma. Uncertain or probabilistic knowledge is part of scientific
cultures; it is shunned by policymakers and diplomats eager to be confident about
their decisions. Another is referred to as the complexity dilemma. Scientific knowl-
edge is qualified by circumstances of data collection, time period, population differ-
ences, and methods used. It is also presented in a jargon difficult for non-scientists
to absorb. Third, cooperation between scientists and policymakers is hampered by
the outsider dilemma. Time and again, I have been told that only those of “us” work-
ing in the trenches can understand the dimensions of the problems. This is a com-
plexity dilemma in reverse: only insiders can appreciate the implications of
policy-driven interventions and the crises that occur in the real world. Fourth is a
time urgency dilemma. Scientists and policymakers operate on different timescales.
The former must tolerate the slow pace of data collection, analysis, and peer review.
The latter are intolerant of this pace. Decisions about dealing with crises cannot
wait for results to emerge. Note in this regard the rush by governments to loosen
restrictions on their citizens despite little scientific progress on conquering the
COVID-19. The key US medical advisor warns about the dire consequences of an
anti-science bias in the American population, which I referred to above as a conflict
over tenets.
Mauro Galluccio’s quest in developing a multidisciplinary field that connects
science to diplomacy has many implications highlighted throughout the book. One
is to match the relevant scientific fields with particular policy areas and initiatives:
medical sciences for health policy, economic science for labour policy, and political
science and sociology for institutional reform. Another implication is to encourage
research that sheds light on the relationship between evidence and beliefs. Studies
of world views that lead people to resist taking seriously scientific evidence would
be a priority. A third thread is to address each of the four dilemmas discussed above:
uncertainty, complexity, outsider, and time urgency. Uncertainty and complexity are
features of the scientific enterprise often difficult for non-scientists to appreciate.
The outsider dilemma is an unfortunate characterization used by policymakers to
shut scientists out of the conversations. Time urgency is a feature of the policy pro-
cess that preferences quick rather than carefully considered solutions. But even if
progress is made in each of these areas, the field is unlikely to prosper without a
fourth recommendation. This consists of designing institutional channels that allow
for collaboration between scientists and policy practitioners as timely explained by
Mauro Galluccio. Each community needs to understand the other’s challenges and
modus operandi. This understanding would enable them to properly situate science
within the fabric of policy.
Foreword xiii

Mauro Galluccio’s book provides the foundation needed to spark scientists and
policymakers to join together in fostering this exciting multidisciplinary field. It is
a very innovative contribution to the field which aims to formulate proposals on how
to best optimize the use of science and diplomacy structures throughout training
programs. This volume follows the ongoing debate in the European Union and the
world in providing a better understanding of the tools that can be deployed to
improve communication and cooperation between scientists, politicians, and diplo-
mats. This is an area that uses cognitive and affective processes to shape important
judgements and critical decisions and will be used significantly in widening and
understanding the relational abilities of individuals facing uncertainty and decision-­
making. By analysing the way in which scientists and politicians engage with each
other all over the world, Mauro Galluccio gives us valuable insights into the process
of interpersonal negotiation, as we try to transform the practice of science diplo-
macy to meet the needs of international cooperation in this century.

Public and International Affairs  Daniel Druckman

George Mason University,
Arlington, VA, USA
Preface

In early January 2020 I was finishing the draft of this book. My publisher had been
very patient until then as I was supposed to complete the draft in the first part of
2019. I was late due to a huge clinical workload in 2019. As usual, every morning,
I was reading the news. One item particularly struck me: Wuhan Municipal Health
Commission, China, reported a cluster of cases of atypical pneumonia in Wuhan,
Hubei Province. A novel coronavirus was eventually identified (SARS-CoV-2). An
invisible enemy that could provoke world chaos was an unpleasant thought. I won-
dered how scientists and policymakers would react and interact to a crisis that
destroys the certainty of statistical models and lab-created simulations. We live in a
world which is overpopulated, where a web of networked connections is huge,
information is overwhelming, and globalization of societies is a fact. Also, the
essence of risk has been continually changing, to such a degree that it is systemic
and takes main actors and decision-makers by surprise. This is due to the non-lin-
earity, ambiguity, and uncertainty of the events’ main characteristics, magnified by
the speed of events. In such circumstances, established risk management institu-
tions and approaches would fail to respond in a comprehensive and sustainable way.
Could something be done to foster sound interpersonal negotiations between
scientists and diplomats/politicians for policymaking? Would those involved be able
to work together, manage problems, and engage in necessary interactions for poli-
cymaking? Would they be able to manage the tension between individualism and
requirements of a team effort? Will peer-review papers produced by academicians
and scientists be enough for policymaking facing an unknown problem? Will they
be able to ask each other the right questions to mutually understand their reasons
and work with mutual respect and mutual esteem in an uncertain and ambiguous
environment? And most of all, could they maintain a cooperative attitude, respect-
ing each other’s roles in the interest of the community?
In January 2020, world leaders at the beginning failed to understand that the
crisis was a global problem, not a regional problem. Politicians and diplomats were
taken by surprise as were scientists. They did not know too much about this new
virus, and as they began to study and research it the disease was rapidly spreading.
Data were collected and all over the world scientists began to work on it. But at the

xv
xvi Preface

beginning it seemed a dialogue of deaf people, and many experts (not all) seemed to
minimize the problem. Politicians perhaps accepted this minimization in order to
avoid taking drastic decisions. Unfortunately, when situations are complex, ambigu-
ous, and uncertain, there is a tendency to find heuristic shortcuts to simplify the
problem and to exert control through limited consultations and conflict avoidance
among different parties. In a crisis situation, negative cognitive and emotional pro-
cesses increase the perception of uncertainty, and in the specific case of the
COVID-19 they were highly influenced by the shadow side of the pandemic
(unknown trajectory and knowledge). Health was at stake; social, economic, and
environmental consequences were paralyzing, puzzling, “expanding” space and
time for the people and around policymakers, increasing the delayed response. The
latency of responses to crisis could also be due to politicians’ fear of losing power
due to unpopular decisions taken in a time of crisis. Empirical evidence confirms
that politicians who are not facing imminent election are keen to try different
decision-­making paths.
The failure of communication in this planetary crisis has not been about whether
or not objectives have been achieved, but about the ability of major actors to cooper-
ate to forge links with people. Scientists’ and diplomats’ working relationship
building may be a matter of the process they use to resolve their differences.
However, competence in their respective fields with the accumulation of experience
and tacit knowledge and the ability to reflect realistically on what can and cannot be
achieved are essential skills for both politicians and scientists. Anything that under-
mines this prospective ability can do considerable harm to the people. The way poli-
cymakers and scientists will manage this ability and their interpersonal negotiations
as a whole will be of great importance in fostering international cooperation and
coordinated problem-solving behaviours. Otherwise, science diplomacy will lose
sight of its most important purpose: that of helping to solve problems, conflicts, and
diplomatic processes for the sake of humanity.
This book aims to reinforce the groundwork for a new field of study and research
in the intersection between science and diplomacy. It seeks to promote a multidisci-
plinary approach, generating study, research, and networking that will respond to
the unprecedented demand and opportunity for international cooperation. Improving
“science diplomacy” will require a more effective and coherent ability to share
information at the international level. I am very keen about this volume. It is a first
step in the direction of developing a psychological approach to science diplomacy
through interpersonal negotiation. A second step will be to integrate the approach
towards a larger vision of interpersonal negotiation and related attempts to improve
coordination between scientists and politicians/diplomats, and, most importantly, to
sustain the essential alliances for global changes. It is very satisfying to see this
volume in print and have an opportunity to expose people from many parts of the
world to these ideas.

Rome, Italy  Mauro Galluccio

Brussels, Belgium
Acknowledgements

My heartfelt gratitude goes to the special contributors to this volume: Dr. Aaron Tim
Beck, Ambassador Robert Gallucci, Dr. Lodovica Gullino, and Dr. Laura Vivani, all
of them with strong experience and a balanced mix of theory and practice. They
have all been extremely enthusiastic about the book project and have prepared very
real experience-informed valuable contributions. They have been cooperative,
friendly, and dedicated to their writing. It has been a pleasure and an honour work-
ing with them in acquiring a practical “naturalistic” experience in the field.

xvii
The search and striving for truth and knowledge are one of the highest of man’s qualities -
though often the pride is most loudly voiced by those who strive the least. And certainly, we
should take care not to make the intellect our god; it has, of course, powerful muscles, but
no personality. It cannot lead, it can only serve; and it is not fastidious in its choices of a
leader. The intellect has a sharp eye for methods and tools but is blind to ends and values.
So, it is no wonder that this fatal blindness is handed from old to young and today involves
a whole generation.

Albert Einstein, Out of My Later Years, 1957:260

Another Ebola epidemic or a new influenza pandemic are likely and almost certain. The
only unknowns are when and where they, or a new but equally lethal threat, will emerge.

UNDRR, 2019:105
Contents

Part I Perception and Misperception in Science Diplomacy

1 Introduction to the Book ������������������������������������������������������������������������    3
Science Diplomacy in Time of Uncertainty��������������������������������������������     3
Science and Politics ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������     4
COVID-19 Crisis and Sustainable Scientific Advices ����������������������������     4
Organisation and Contents of the Book ��������������������������������������������������     5
Concluding Remarks��������������������������������������������������������������������������������     7
2 Adaptive Decision-Making Process in Crisis Situations����������������������    9
Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������     9
Negotiating a Cooperation Process����������������������������������������������������������     9
Perception and Misperception in Crisis Situations����������������������������������    10
The COVID-19 Crisis and Evidence-Informed Policymaking����������������    12
Cognitive Biases and Psychosocial Mechanisms������������������������������������    13
Emotional Communication in Action������������������������������������������������������    15
Metacognitive Functions and Emotional Styles��������������������������������������    17
Adaptive Decision-Making����������������������������������������������������������������������    19
Concluding Remarks��������������������������������������������������������������������������������    20

Part II Science Diplomacy: Negotiating a Joint Engagement

3 Science and Diplomacy����������������������������������������������������������������������������   25
Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    25
Defining Science Diplomacy ������������������������������������������������������������������    26
Science Diplomacy: History and Achievements��������������������������������������    28
Science Diplomacy as Soft Power Exercise��������������������������������������������    35
Multilateral Science Diplomacy in Action����������������������������������������������    38
Cooperative Advisory Mechanisms ��������������������������������������������������������    44
4 Science Diplomacy and the European Union����������������������������������������   47
Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    47
Science Diplomacy and the European Union: A Brief History ��������������    48

xix
xx Contents

Scientific Advice in the EU Institutions��������������������������������������������������    54

Responsible Research and Innovation ����������������������������������������������������    56
The EU’s Strategy Under Commissioner Moedas ����������������������������������    59
The Cutting-Edge Year: An Insight on the EU’s Actions������������������������    60
5 Evidence-Informed Policymaking����������������������������������������������������������   65
Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    65
Brief History of Evidence-Based Policymaking��������������������������������������    67
Evidence-Informed Policymaking in the European Union����������������������    68
The Relation Between the Scientist and the Diplomat:
Recommendations������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    69
Evidence-Informed Policymaking in Action ������������������������������������������    70
Standardization vs. Experience-Based Approach������������������������������������    71
Evidence-Informed Policymaking: Leading from the Shadow����������������    73
6 Climate Change and Extreme Hazards ������������������������������������������������   75
Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    75
Evidence-Based Medicine and Clinical Practice ������������������������������������    75
Climate Change and Hydrometeorological Extreme Hazards ����������������    78
Negotiating Global Agreements with Incomplete
Evidence-­Informed Policies��������������������������������������������������������������������    79
Climate Change: Citizens’ Resilience and Well-Being ��������������������������    81
7 Evidence-Informed Policymaking: The Way Forward������������������������   83
Concluding Remarks��������������������������������������������������������������������������������    86

Part III Biosecurity and Environmental Disaster:

Adaptive Decision-­Making in Time of Uncertainty
8 A Major Challenge to the Uncertainty of Modern Times��������������������   91
Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    91
Crisis Management����������������������������������������������������������������������������������    92
Knowing How to Give a Feedback����������������������������������������������������������    94
Risk Management������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    95
Bioterrorism After September 11, 2001��������������������������������������������������    96
Potential Global Economic Impact of Agricultural Bioterrorism������������    98
Environmental Disasters: A Major Challenge to Biosafety ��������������������    99
Hyogo Framework for Action������������������������������������������������������������������   101
Biosafety and Resilience Processes ��������������������������������������������������������   102
9 Crisis Management and Risk Assessment in the EU:
A General Outline������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 103
Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   103
Main Operational Mechanisms in the EU Institutional Framework��������   104
The European Agenda on Security����������������������������������������������������������   105
Risk Assessment System in the EU ��������������������������������������������������������   106
A Brief History of the EU’s Comprehensive Approach��������������������������   107
Contents xxi

The EU’s Green Paper on Bio-Preparedness ������������������������������������������   108

Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear
(CBRN) Task Force����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   109
10 Feeding the Sendai S&T Road Map on Capacity
Development and Resilience�������������������������������������������������������������������� 111
Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   111
European and International Projects on Risk Assessment
and Crisis Management����������������������������������������������������������������������������   111
Stakeholders’ Training Strategy��������������������������������������������������������������   112
UNDP Global Risk Identification Program (GRIP)��������������������������������   113
Risk Communication ������������������������������������������������������������������������������   114
Implementing Biosafety and Biosecurity Preparedness
in the EU��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   115
Development and Resilience��������������������������������������������������������������������   117
The Expected Impact on the European Society ��������������������������������������   118
Concluding Remarks��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   119

Part IV Theory, Research, and Practice for Science Diplomacy:

An Insight on the Cooperative Process
11 International Alliance for Science Diplomacy:
Interpersonal Skills as a Predictor of a Sound Negotiation
Process—American and European Self-Perception����������������������������� 123
Mauro Galluccio and Mattia Sanna
Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   123
Purpose of the Research��������������������������������������������������������������������������   124
Materials and Methods����������������������������������������������������������������������������   125
Data Set������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   125
Results������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   126
Descriptive Statistics����������������������������������������������������������������������������   126
Discussion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   141
Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   143
12 Evidence-Informed Policymaking: An Innovative
European Multi-actor Project���������������������������������������������������������������� 145
Maria Lodovica Gullino and Laura Vivani
Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   145
The EMPHASIS Project��������������������������������������������������������������������������   146
The Multi-actor Approach Within Horizon 2020������������������������������������   147
The Multi-actor Approach Adopted in the EMPHASIS Project��������������   151
Multi-actor Supporting Activities������������������������������������������������������������   151
Analytical Framework��������������������������������������������������������������������������   151
Learning Platform and Socio-Technological Learning Labs (SLL)����   152
Decision-Making Surveys��������������������������������������������������������������������   152
Decision-Making Workshop����������������������������������������������������������������   153
xxii Contents

On-Farm Demonstrations��������������������������������������������������������������������   153

Call for Early Adopters������������������������������������������������������������������������   153
HabiThreats Toolkit ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   154
Use of EMPHASIS Scientific Evidence to the EU’s Policymaking��������   155
Emphasis on Key Messages for Policymakers����������������������������������������   158
Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   161
Appendix��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   162
13 Misunderstanding the First Nuclear Crisis with North Korea:
The Inconvenient Science in Negotiations��������������������������������������������� 165
Robert L. Gallucci
Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   165
The First Misunderstanding: Special Inspections������������������������������������   166
The Second Misunderstanding: The Significance
of the North’s Abandonment of Graphite-Moderated,
Gas-­Cooled Reactors ������������������������������������������������������������������������������   168
The Third Misunderstanding: The Cause of the Crisis
in June, 1994��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   170
The Fourth Misunderstanding: The Non-proliferation
Benefits of the Deal����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   172
Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   174
14 Scientists Meet Diplomats: A Cognitive Insight
on Interpersonal Negotiation������������������������������������������������������������������ 177
Mauro Galluccio and Aaron Tim Beck
Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   177
The Scientist and the Diplomat: Opposing Figures? ������������������������������   178
Scientists and Diplomats’ Communication����������������������������������������������   181
Cognitive and Emotional Processes in Interpersonal Negotiation����������   182
Emotional Competence����������������������������������������������������������������������������   184
Conclusive Remarks��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   186

Afterword���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 189

References �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 193

Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 203
About the Author

Mauro Galluccio, PhD is a political scientist, psychologist, and cognitive behav-

ioural therapist. He completed his post-doctoral fellowship at the Johns Hopkins
University, SAIS in Washington, DC. Dr. Galluccio is the president of EANAM
(European Association for Negotiation and Mediation) based in Brussels. He is an
advisor to the Joint Research Centre (JRC) on evidence-informed policymaking and
a seasoned expert evaluator and peer reviewer to the ERC (European Research
Council) and REA (Research Executive Agency) for founding projects and pro-
grams of the EU. Dr. Galluccio has worked for many years within European institu-
tions as political analyst and advisor. He has been a public speaker and professorial
lecturer for more than 20 years to the European Commission of the EU (DG
COMM—EC Presidency), in charge of the EU institutions and policymaking. He
has been an advisor to the UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) on
mentoring programme for trainers. He is the editor and author of the Handbook of
International Negotiation: Interpersonal, Intercultural, and Diplomatic
Perspectives, 2015, Springer, New York. He is the co-author of Psychological
Processes in International Negotiations: Theoretical and Practical Perspectives
(with F. Aquilar, Springer, New York, 2008) and co-editor of Psychological and
Political Strategies for Peace Negotiation: A Cognitive Approach (with F. Aquilar,
Springer, New York, 2011).

xxiii
About the Contributors

Aaron Tim Beck, MD is Professor Emeritus of Psychiatry at the University of

Pennsylvania and founder of the cognitive therapy. He has authored more than 600
publications and has received numerous honours from professional and scientific
organizations, including the “Lasker Clinical Medical Research Award” and
“America’s Nobel”, often considered America’s Nobel Prize.

Robert L. Gallucci is Professor at Georgetown University where he teaches grad-

uate and undergraduate seminars on nuclear weapons and international security. He
was President of the MacArthur Foundation, Dean of the School of Foreign Service
at Georgetown, and served for 20 years with the Department of State, including as
Ambassador at Large and Assistant Secretary of State for Political-Military Affairs.
He was also Deputy Director General of the Multinational Force and Observers and
Deputy Executive Chairman of the UN Special Commission on the Disarmament of
Iraq. He has taught at the National War College, Swarthmore College, and Johns
Hopkins SAIS.

Maria Lodovica Gullino is Full Professor in plant pathology and the Director of
the Centre of Competence for the Innovation in the Agro-Environmental Sector
(AGROINNOVA) of the University of Torino. She has coordinated and managed
many international research projects and has been a pioneer in the EU on biosecu-
rity research applied to agriculture. Prof. Gullino coordinated CROPBIOTERROR,
PLANTFOODSEC (FP7), and H2020 EMPHASIS European projects. She has
obtained several awards worldwide and written more than 750 research papers, 250
feature articles, and 23 books.

Mattia Sanna is Assistant Professor in the Master’s Program in Global Health and
Development at Taipei Medical University, Taiwan. He holds a Ph.D. on climate
change. His extensive postdoctoral research activity focused on sustainable water
management in agriculture, environmental impact of agricultural practices, and
cropping system modelling. After working for 10 years in agricultural research, in
2015 he moved to Taiwan to apply his expertise in data analysis, geographic infor-
mation systems, and simulation modelling to global and public health.

xxv
xxvi About the Contributors

Laura Vivani is the Managing Director and one of the founders of MOVERIM
sprl based in Brussels for more than 25 years. She is MSc in Economics and holds
a MA in Science Communication from the International School of Advanced
Scientific Studies (SISSA), Trieste, Italy. Dr. Vivani has a seasoned field-based
experience in science diplomacy. As a partner in several projects financed by the
EU, she is in charge of the scientific evidence-informed dissemination activity,
stakeholders’ consultation and engagement, organization of events, workshops, and
webinars for transfer of knowledge. In the EMPHASIS project, Dr. Vivani has
worked on strategic decision-making analysis and applied processes, dissemination
activities for policymakers, scientific communities, and general public at large.
Contributors

Aaron Tim Beck, MD Cognitive Therapy, University of Pennsylvania,

Philadelphia, PA, USA
Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
Robert L. Gallucci Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
Maria Lodovica Gullino UNITO, Turin, Italy
Mattia Sanna Global Health and Development, Taipei Medical University, Taipei,
Taiwan
Laura Vivani MOVERIM sprl, Brussels, Belgium

xxvii
 Part I
Perception and Misperception in Science
Diplomacy
Chapter 1
Introduction to the Book

In the long history of humankind (and animal kind, too) those

who learned to collaborate and improvise most effectively have
prevailed.
Charles Darwin

Science Diplomacy in Time of Uncertainty

Recent years have seen an increasing interest in applying scientific knowledge

towards the improvement of diplomatic and political decision-making processes. To
this end, researchers have sought to provide suggestions and evidence-informed
strategic advice to policymakers on matters of global interest. Sometimes it works;
other times it falls on deaf ears. In the discussion about the interaction between sci-
ence and diplomacy, different definitions have been proposed, each providing a
wide variety of concepts from diverse disciplines. These concepts include soft
power, public diplomacy, preventive diplomacy, etc. However, the origin of science
diplomacy should be found in the field of international relations, where the interests
of science and policy come together and science is employed by policymakers to
facilitate and mediate issues of global concern, as well as to resolve the increasing
number of conflicts around the world.
This book follows the ongoing debate in the EU and the world in providing a
better understanding of the tools that can be deployed to improve communication
and cooperation between scientists, politicians, and diplomats in this field. To this
aim we would need to improve interpersonal negotiating skills to manage evidence-­
informed policymaking processes. A basic fact about interpersonal negotiation is
that people have different backgrounds, core beliefs, held values, cognitive biases,
assumptions, emotional processes, metacognitive abilities, and behaviours, and they

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 3

M. Galluccio, Science and Diplomacy,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-60414-1_1
4 1 Introduction to the Book

are unpredictable. The working relationship capacity building may profoundly impact
present and future interactions and negotiating outcomes. It is possible to be tough but
respectful, and still establish a good relationship with high levels of credibility.

Science and Politics

Modernity is a challenge which puts to the test principles and values that have tra-
ditionally ruled relationships between individuals and populations, the control of
the planet’s resources, and the survival of humankind. May we still trust the human
mind’s creative potential? In light of the new identified coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2)
and the recent COVID-19 crisis, the question arises almost spontaneously as to
whether science and politics are parallel activities, and whether the communication
channel between these two spheres is effective. An important feature of the scien-
tific method is valuing doubt over certainty. In politics having doubts is seen as a
form of weakness. Science is based on years, sometimes decades, of studies, experi-
ments, tests, and examinations, to arrive at concrete, reliable results and solid con-
clusions. However, by its nature, science cannot itself make influential decisions, let
alone ones legally binding on the population. Politics, for its part, has the important
and delicate role of directing the fate of an entire country, or rather of an economic-
political area, through a democratic legislative process for the common good of its
citizens. However, in order to legislate most wisely, it is essential that political deci-
sions are based on solid scientific foundations and that, at the same time, they care-
fully consider all the varying interests involved (public health, right to work,
economic factors, etc.). It often happens, however, that politics finds itself making
decisions, not necessarily supported by scientific evidence, to respond to a higher
good that does not always coincide with the absolute good, for example, as hap-
pened with COVID-19 measures. In complex situations and environments, what we
need is not to be waiting too much for the right information, but the right way to
understand the information we already have and act as fast as possible.

COVID-19 Crisis and Sustainable Scientific Advices

Close association of humans and wildlife (handling and consumption of unmanaged

wildlife by humans increase the opportunity for cross-species transfer) has created
a “perfect storm” that has greatly altered global disease dynamics. Evidence-­
informed policymaking may be the gold standard for crafting policy—the question
is how that gold standard copes with messy and uncertain reality. Decisions are
influenced by a wide variety of factors. This means that even in individual policy
areas the evidence-informed policymaking must be both broad enough to develop a
wide range of policy options and detailed enough for those options to stand up to
intense scrutiny. As stated by Ambassador Robert Gallucci, policymakers are faced
Organisation and Contents of the Book 5

with irreducible complexity and radical uncertainty—and they must often rely on
inadequate information. Policymakers think practically, are prepared to do anything
that looks as if it might succeed, and are reluctant to take big bets if not forced to do
so. Reality is still a long way from perfection, as clearly highlighted by the events
that have taken place since the beginning of this “strange” year 2020. But both
­science and politics now more than ever are willing to improve the situation by
learning from past mistakes and weaknesses. Cognitive behavioural interventions
have proven effective in altering mindsets from a “fixed” entity perspective to a
“growth” incremental perspective. Scientists and politicians/diplomats could struc-
ture interventions that educate individuals and groups as to the ways that stress
influences decision-making, especially under conditions of time pressure, uncer-
tainty, and ambiguity. This could be done together with the increase of the aware-
ness of the interconnectedness between core beliefs, cognitive biases, sacred values,
thinking traps, and adaptive decision-making processes. This book presents a break-
through in thinking that can lead to better understanding and foster these transfor-
mative processes for the individuals involved as well as people generally. At the end
of the day, science diplomacy is a catalyst for political and social change.

Organisation and Contents of the Book

The chapters of this book are organised into four different parts. Part I is titled
Perception and Misperception in Science Diplomacy. In Part I, Mauro Galluccio
highlights the importance of a communication in crisis situations such as the
COVID-19. A sustainable science diplomacy requires the capacity for empathy and
compassion, an ability to build and foster working relationships, and an awareness
of the importance of cooperation between scientists and politicians/diplomats.
Scientists and politicians together need to develop and apply a public information
strategy in support of their common efforts to manage crisis and solve problems. We
need to restructure concepts, constructs, techniques, and strategies of public policy
and diplomacy, adapting them to this new era of global communication that shapes
the public context within which events unfold as the COVID-19 experience
has showed.
Part II is titled Science and Diplomacy: Negotiating a Joint Engagement. In Part
II, Mauro Galluccio explains why the most important issue for the years to come is
represented by a strengthening of the cooperation process between scientists and
diplomats/politicians. Science diplomacy has a huge potential as a “soft power
tool” for preventive diplomacy and conflict resolution. It could help to build bridges
where formal diplomacy has failed. In this sense, it is an attractive option for for-
eign policy strategies throughout the international community. The European
Union can use its potential to consolidate its normative power on the international
scene while using its strength in research and development to help countries achieve
their sustainable goals. If science is properly channelled in domestic policy advice
and external relations, its transformative power could lead to a world of better
6 1 Introduction to the Book

understanding, respect, and collective well-being. At the end of the day, the greatest
winner from progress in science diplomacy will be all of us, both in the future and
in the present.
Part III is titled Biosecurity and Environmental Disaster: Adaptive Decision-­
Making in Time of Uncertainty. In Part III, Mauro Galluccio highlights how recent
events like the COVID-19 have shown the heightened uncertainty of the contempo-
rary world. Climate change, terrorism, health issues, and political instability have
all contributed to threats to security and safety in a complex environment where
analysis is based on a “post-normal science”. In a world of great uncertainty, threats
to biosecurity and biosafety have become a challenge to the integrity of populations.
It is evident that building resilience will be important for the future.
Part IV is titled Theory, Research, and Practice for Science Diplomacy: An
Insight on the Cooperative Process and it is composed of four chapters written by
different authors. In Chap. 11, Mauro Galluccio and Mattia Sanna focus their joint
attention on a multidisciplinary research project conceived and directed by Mauro
Galluccio on two sides of the Atlantic, the United States, and the European Union.
The main objective was to better understand how highly trained negotiators and
diplomats reason, feel, and behave in complex negotiation processes under condi-
tions of uncertainty and ambiguity, and if interpersonal skills could be a predictor of
a sound negotiating process. Our findings suggest that there is a variability in nego-
tiation outcome that can be linked to an individual negotiator and it appears that a
portion of this variability can be related specifically to negotiators’ interpersonal
skills rather than to other variables. Research in this area has the potential to improve
both negotiation research and evidence-informed training for negotiators.
In Chap. 12, Lodovica Gullino and Laura Vivani explain how the European
Union promotes and finances the reinforcement of the food security system in
Europe with the protection of the biodiversity and ecosystems in the frameworks of
agriculture, horticulture, and forestry. The EMPHASIS (Effective Management of
Pests and Harmful Alien Species—Integrated Solutions) project played an impor-
tant role in defining a new approach to agricultural risks’ effective management
while respecting the environment and human health. EMPHASIS has been a pilot
participatory research project where stakeholder engagement went beyond the sim-
ple dissemination of results at the end of the project. End users were involved in
setting up research objectives, gathering and processing data, and interpreting
results, in line with the multi-actor approach promoted by the European Commission
of the EU.
In Chap. 13, Robert Gallucci highlights the review of one negotiation and agree-
ment, which had political, technical, and scientific elements to it, which were poorly
understood, when policy was being debated. He suggests that the same may be true
of other such agreements, be they bilateral strategic arms control agreements with
the Russians or multilateral agreements of the kind negotiated with Iran. To draw
useful lessons from the history of the first nuclear crisis with North Korea, we need
to understand the scientific and technical issues that drove the negotiations between
the DPRK and the United States in 1993 and 1994. But at four critical points during
the negotiations, neither the press nor senior officials seem to have understood the
Concluding Remarks 7

technology upon which decisions and assessments were being made. Complex
issues were distorted to produce a simpler, more convenient narrative. This suggests
that we should be careful in our analysis of this and other negotiations that turn on
scientific calculations.
In Chap. 14, Mauro Galluccio and Aaron T. Beck explain how the area of research
on cognitive biases has made clear that the kinds of judgements people are likely to
make may well be affected by their own baggage in the form of various biases and
perceptual predispositions. Politicians and scientists, like the rest of us, may be
affected by various biases. Cognitive biases anchor our understanding. We need to
investigate social-cognitive biases, because even if we have a lot of experience, if
we are “trapped” in biases we will miss the insights sitting right in front of us. As in
every policy, scientific evidence must be weighed alongside numerous interests and
considerations in order to find balanced and appropriate policymaking for the peo-
ple. Always remember we are all in the same boat and be careful not to be taken
hostage by deeply held core beliefs, misperceptions, misunderstandings, and com-
petitive behaviours.

Concluding Remarks

The tension between cooperation and competition is inherent in interpersonal nego-

tiation. It has been shown that it is precisely cooperation and not competition that
has allowed complexity to evolve. We need an implemented cooperation between
scientists and politicians/diplomats. The act of willing to cooperate together implies
the ability to perceive the other as fundamentally similar to oneself in intentionality:
therefore, the joining with another in really sharing the object of attention estab-
lishes an essentially equal interpersonal perception, which is the fundamental char-
acteristic of cooperative motivation. At this point, scientists could be able to manage
the tension present in policymakers (and in themselves as well) between hard-core
beliefs and world views at large, and the adaptation process of those beliefs and
views to dissonant evidence. By using the language and benefits of science, people
from very different regions, religions, ideologies, and social backgrounds can
develop negotiating consensual approaches for tackling global issues, achieving
development goals, and reducing risks, vulnerabilities, and violence. It has never
been more important to communicate the way science, politics, and diplomacy
should work together. The two spheres, which might seem to be discordant and
distant, are in fact linked, to a more careful analysis, by an intrinsic complementar-
ity, necessary to achieve solid and lasting policymaking goals in the long term.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
tratados de Alquimia: el Libro del Tesoro y la Clavis Sapientiae. Ya
vimos cómo antes había mandado traducir el Lapidario.

200. El Fuero Real de Alfonso X imprimióse en los siglos xv y xvi;

en este último primero en Zaragoza, 1501, con el comentario del
doctor Alfonso Díaz de Montalvo, insigne jurisconsulto de Cuenca
(Fermín Caballero, Elogio del Dr. Alf. D. de Montalvo, Madrid, 1870;
íd., Conquenses ilustres. III. Dr. Montalvo, Madrid, 1873).

Consérvase el texto castellano de las Cortes de Valladolid, 1258, y

de Zamora, 1274, celebradas por Alfonso X.

201. Las Siete Partidas, ed. R. Academia de la Historia, Madrid,

1807, 3 vols.; Opúsculos legales, ed. R. Academia de la Historia,
Madrid, 1836, 2 vols.; Libros del saber de Astronomía, ed. M. Rico y
Sinobas, Madrid, 1863-1867, 5 vols.; Lapidario, ed. J. Fernández
Montaña, Madrid, 1881; Cantigas de Santa María, ed. R. Academia
Española [prefacio del marqués de Valmar], Madrid, 1889, 2 vols.
Consúltense: F. Martínez Marina, Ensayo histórico-crítico sobre la
legislación y principales cuerpos legales de los reinos de León y
Castilla, especialmente sobre el código de las Siete Partidas, etc.,
Madrid, 1834; F. Hanssen, Estudios ortográficos sobre la Astronomía
del rey Don Alfonso, en Anales de la Universidad de Chile (1895), t.
ΧCΙ, págs. 281-312; O. J. Tallgren, Observations sur les manuscrits
de l'Astronomie d'Alphonse X, etc., en Neuphilologische Mitteilungen
(1908), págs. 110-114; M. Barrington, The Lapidario, etc., en The
Connoisseur (London, 1906), t. XIV, págs. 31-36; C. de Lollis,
Cantigas de amor e de maldizer di Alfonso el Sabio, en Studj di
filologia romanza (1887), págs. 31-66; señora C. Michaëlis de
Vasconcellos, Grundriss der romanischen Philologie, t. II, 2.
Abteilung, págs. 178-186; H. Collet y L. Villalba, Contribution à
l'étude des "Cantigas" d'Alphonse le Savant, en Bulletin hispanique
(1911), t. XIII, págs. 270-290; F. Hanssen, Los versos de las
Cantigas de Santa María, etc., en Anales de la Universidad de Chile
(1901), t. CVIII, 337-373, 501-546; E. Cotarelo y Mori, Estudios de
historia literaria, Madrid, 1901, págs. 1-31; G. Daumet, Les
testaments d'Alphonse X le Savant, roi de Castille, en Bibliothèque
de l'École des Chartes (1906), t. LXVIII, págs. 70-99; Antonio
Ballesteros, Sevilla en el siglo xiii (1913), Libro de las Querellas.
Consúltese: E. Cotarelo y Mori, El supuesto libro de "Las Querellas"
del rey don Alfonso el Sabio, en Estudios de historia literaria,
Madrid, 1901, págs. 1-41. [Cf. la crítica de este ensayo, por A.
Morel-Fatio en Romania (1898), t. XXVII, pág. 525.]

202. La poesía lírica provenzal llegó á las Cortes

castellanas de Alfonso IX (1188-1229) y Alfonso X
(1252-1284), donde los trovadores hallaron buen
acogimiento, cuando ya no había Cortes en Tolosa.
Pero sobre todo vino más tarde de Portugal, donde
había hallado segunda patria en la corte de don
Dionis, que comenzó á reinar el año de 1279.
Juntamente con la lírica provenzal vino de Portugal y
Galicia la poesía galaico-portuguesa, de origen
popular gallego. La provenzal se escribía en versos
largos de diez sílabas ó Arte mayor y el asunto era el
amor, tratado de una manera casuística y sutilmente
sentimental; la galaico-portuguesa propia en versos
cortos, redondillas ó Arte menor, el asunto era casi el
mismo, pero tratado con más sinceridad y frescura
en las llamadas canciones de amigo, de ledino,
serranillas y villancicos. El dialecto en que se
escribieron en España tales poesías era el mismo
galaico-portugués, que entonces no se diferenciaba
el portugués del gallego. En este dialecto
escribieron, no sólo el Rey de Portugal don Dionis y
los Príncipes y señores de aquel reino, como sus
bastardos el Conde de Barcellos y Alfonso Sánchez,
sino grandes reyes de Castilla como Alfonso X y
Alfonso XI, abades de Valladolid como don Gómez
García, burgueses de Santiago como Juan Ayras,
juglares de Sarria, de Cangas y de Lugo, mezclados
con otros de León, de Burgos, de Talavera y hasta
de Sevilla, como el llamado Pedro Amigo, uno de los
poetas más fecundos y notables del Cancionero de
la Vaticana, como dice Menéndez y Pelayo (Antol.
poet. lír. cast., t. 3, p. ix). Pero esta lírica fué
puramente erudita y de la corte castellana y no llegó
al pueblo.
203. La lírica provenzal floreció todo el tiempo de las Cruzadas:
comenzó con la primera (1095) y en la última (1268) llegó á su
mayor perfección. Pasó á Portugal derechamente desde Provenza
con el rey Dom Diniz, hijo de Alfonso III y nieto de Alfonso X,
educado por un maestro provenzal, Aimeric d'Ebrard, de Cahors.
Cabalmente cuando decaía la lírica provenzal, entre 1250 y 1290,
llegaba á colmo la lírica portuguesa. Cuantos estaban al servicio de
Dom Diniz eran trovadores: Joâo Velho, Martín Peres, Dom Joâo de
Alboim. Por su casamiento, entró Dom Diniz en relaciones con el
Conde de Provenza, tío de su mujer, y desde que comenzó á reinar
(1279) fué su corte centro de los trovadores de León, Castilla y
Aragón. Consérvanse de aquel rey 138 canciones, pero al punto se
ve la diferencia que las divide en dos clases. Las unas son de corte
provenzal, de sentimental casuística amorosa y en endecasílabos
lemosinos; las otras son las que él llama Cantares de amigo ó
serranillas populares. Las primeras responden á la lírica provenzal;
las segundas, á la lírica nacional, llamada gallega, porque no se
diferenciaba entonces el portugués del gallego, y porque el pueblo
gallego cantaba esta clase de poesías líricas, de metros cortos y
aires de serranillas, villancicos, alboradas, baladas, etc. Hay que
distinguir, pues, tanto en Portugal como en Castilla, estas dos
escuelas: la lemosina ó provenzal y la gallega. De la lemosina dice
Santillana en su Carta al Condestable de Portugal: "Los catalanes,
valençianos é aun algunos del reyno de Aragon fueron é son
grandes offiçiales desta arte. Escrivieron primeramente en trovas
rimadas, que son pies ó bordones largos de sillabas, é algunos
consonaron é otros no. Despues desto usaron el deçir en coplas de
diez sillabas á la manera de los lemosis". Por eso se le llamaba Arte
mayor, en contraposición á las redondillas ó Arte menor. Pues bien,
esta poesía lírica provenzal y el arte mayor dice luego que pasó á
Portugal y Galicia: "E despues fallaron esta arte que mayor se llama
é el arte común, creo, en los reynos de Gallicia é Portugal, donde
non es de dubdar que el exercicio destas sciencias más que en
ningunas otras regiones é provincias de España se acostumbró; en
tanto grado, que non ha mucho tiempo qualesquier decidores é
trovadores destas partes, agora fuesen castellanos, andaluces ó de
la Extremadura, todas sus obras componian en lengua gallega ó
portuguesa. Ε aun destos es cierto rescevimos los nombres del arte,
asy como maestría mayor é menor, encadenados, lexapren é
mansobre... Acuérdome... seyendo en edat non provecta, mas
assaz pequeño mozo, en poder de mi abuela Doña Mencia de
Cisneros, entre otros libros haber visto un grand volumen de
cantigas, serranas é dicires portugueses é gallegos, de los cuales la
mayor parte eran del rey Don Dionis de Portugal... cuyas obras
aquellos que las leian, loaban de invenciones sotiles é de graciosas
é dulces palabras".

El rey Dom Diniz alardea de este arte lemosín:

"Quer'en en maneyra de Provençal

fazer agora um cantar d'amor".

(Canc. Vatic., núm. 123).

Instituyó Côrtes de Amor (Canc. Vatic., núm. 597). De esto ha
tratado eruditamente Teófilo Braga en varias de sus obras (Curso de
Historia de literatura portuguesa, Cancionero del Vaticano, por él
editado con eruditísimo estudio, etc., etc.). El portugués y el gallego
eran entonces una misma lengua, que, después, sobre todo desde
el siglo xv, fueron diferenciándose más y más. El Cancionero de
Ajuda tiene las canciones más antiguas y son de tono provenzal,
hechas por eruditos. Cansados los poetas cortesanos portugueses
de la afectación y artificio casuístico provenzal, pronto se volvieron á
las serranillas y cantares de amigo, esto es, á la poesía popular del
pueblo gallego y portugués, que era todo uno. Vese bien por el
Cancionero de la Vaticana. Por ejemplo, en el número 1043: "Diz
una cantiga de vilaão:

"O'pee d'uma torre

bayla, corp'e giolo,
vedel-o cos, ay cavaleyro".

En el número 1062 se dice al fin: "Esta cantiga fuy seguida por uma
baylada, que diz:

"Vos avedel-os olhos verdes,

matar-m'edes com eles...".

En las redondillas de Camões se halla una alusión á este añejo

mote: "Senâo que tendes os olhos verdes". La serenata de Berceo
(Duelo) parécese á la Alvorada, de Pombal:

"Velat, aliama de los Judios, Eya, velar!

Que furtan el Fijo de Dios! Eya, velar!".
 "Vindas sāo as alvoras,
Eh, levad' á alva!
Que sāo da Virgen sagrada; Eh, levad' á alva!".

Dom Diniz remedó estos aires populares en los Cantares de amigo,

los mejores de la poesía portuguesa. Hoy sobrevive la serranilha,
después de sepultar la poesía erudita provenzal y la italiana
petrarquesca en Portugal. El Conde de Barcellos, hijo natural de
Dom Diniz, dejó en testamento, hecho el año 1350, su Livro das
Cantigas á Alfonso XI de Castilla, y así pudo salir de Portugal aquel
Cancionero, del cual nos da noticias el Marqués de Santillana á
mediados del siglo xv; mientras que el Cancionero de Dom Diniz
quedaba en la librería del rey Dom Duarte. El Cancionero que vió el
de Santillana en Castilla aparece en Roma desde el siglo xvi: tal es
el Cancionero portugués de la Vaticana, que ha publicado Theophilo
Braga, Lisboa, 1878.

De la poesía provenzal fueron protectores Alfonso IX (1188-1229) y,

sobre todo, Alfonso X (1252-1284), que dió asilo á los trovadores
que vinieron de Provenza, cuando ya no hubo Cortes en Tolosa, y
no menos á los trovadores portugueses, como Pero Gomes Barroso,
Payo Gomes Charrinho, que fué almirante de Castilla. (Véase Díez,
Les Troubadours, pág. 61). Giraud Riquier de Narbona le dirigió, en
1275, una poesía acerca del título de juglar y de trovador. Hay en la
Vaticana una composición de Alfonso XI:

"En un tiempo cogí flores del muy nobre paraíso".

Las obras poéticas de don Juan Manuel se han perdido, y sin duda
cultivó la poesía galaico-portuguesa, según son los metros que usa
en el Conde Lucanor. La poesía provenzal entró en Castilla por
Galicia y Portugal. Desde 1214 tuvo Castilla relaciones directas con
los trovadores. Aimeric de Bellinoi estuvo en la corte de Alfonso IX;
Martaquagent y Folquet de Lunel celebraron la elección de Alfonso
X como Emperador; Raymundo de Tours le dirigió versos, y Bertrand
de Carbonel le dedicó sus composiciones (Ticknor, pág. 47). Pero la
imitación provenzalesca sólo fué en Castilla palaciega moda, que no
llegó al pueblo, el cual tenía su poesía épica, sus romances, que
cantaban los juglares y á veces se trasminaban á la literatura
erudita, al Mio Cid, al poema de Fernán González, á las Crónicas.
Por ese carácter palaciego se escribía la poesía provenzalesca en
gallego ó portugués y nunca en castellano, hasta que la puso en
olvido la imitación latina de Dante y Petrarca. En Portugal, donde la
vida nacional no tenía tanto arraigo, la poesía de los trovadores,
primero sola, luego mezclada con la popular gallega, conservóse
hasta el siglo xvi, como se ve en los Cancioneros. El Cancionero
Colocci-Brancuti abraza los dos géneros: el provenzal de los
eruditos y el popular, también compuesto por los poetas eruditos,
pero de origen é imitación juglaresca. Esta segunda vena lírica es la
verdaderamente nacional y de ella no hay rastro en el Cancionero
de Ajuda, que es de composiciones más antiguas y puramente
erudito-provenzales. Las Canciones de amigo se dijeron por
repetirse esta palabra con el sentido de amante, así como las de
ledino, que parece un diminutivo de ledo, alegre. Balada era especie
de danza y su canción, de balar ó bailar, así en gallego, provenzal é
italiano. Dista tanto esta poesía lírica popular del Cancionero de la
Vaticana de la erudita que encierran los Cancioneros ordinarios,
como la épica castellana erudita del mester de clerezia dista del
Romancero y del Mio Cid. En las 66 composiciones á la provenzal y
las 53 cantigas de amigo de Dom Diniz puede verse bien esta
diferencia. Las serranas, vaqueras ó pastorelas, las villanescas ó
vilanas, ellas mismas están diciendo ser populares. Satíricas son las
Cantigas de maldecir y de escarnio, las de joguete certeyro y las de
risaelha (del reir), como las obras de burlas castellanas y los
cantares cazurros, de los que el Arcipreste nos ha conservado un
ejemplo.

¿Es cierto lo que M. Pelayo afirma (Antol. poet. lír. cast., t. III, pág.
ix), que "la primitiva poesía lírica de Castilla se escribió en gallego
antes de escribirse en castellano y coexistió por siglo y medio con el
empleo del castellano en la poesía épica y en todas las
manifestaciones de la prosa"? Cierto es que la hubo y se escribió;
pero esta lírica galaico-portuguesa, naturalizada entre algunos
eruditos castellanos, ni fué "la primitiva poesía lírica de Castilla" ni
mucho menos, como luego añade, parece cierto que "este
galleguismo no era meramente erudito, sino que trascendía á los
cantares del vulgo. El mismo pueblo castellano, que entonaba en la
lengua de Burgos sus gestas heroicas, se valía del gallego para las
cantigas de escarnio y de maldecir, como lo prueban aquellos
curiosísimos versos

"Rey velho que Deus confonda...".

con que los vasallos de Alfonso el Sabio increpaban al gran rey de

Aragón don Jaime I, según nos refiere don Juan Manuel en su
Conde Lucanor". Tenemos aquí la eterna cuestión de confundir el
habla con la escritura. En primer lugar, en todo el Conde Lucanor,
que me he leído para buscarlo, no he hallado nada de los vasallos
de Alfonso el Sabio, de don Jaime I ni de los "curiosísimos versos",
á lo menos en la edición de Rivadeneyra. Sea de ellos lo que fuere,
¿eran esos vasallos gente del pueblo?, ¿hablaban de por sí ó
repetían versos tradicionales gallegos? Vengan pruebas de que el
vulgo repetía versos gallegos. Claro está que hablo, no del vulgo de
Galicia y aun León ó regiones donde se hablaba más ó menos
parecidamente al gallego, sino del vulgo donde sólo se hablaba
castellano. Tales pruebas no las conozco, y, por tanto, debo de
suponer que el pueblo castellano no era bilingüe. En segundo lugar,
el dicho de M. Pelayo supone que en Castilla no hubo poesía lírica
propiamente castellana, sino que la primitiva fué allí la gallega. Á
principios del siglo xiii, mucho antes de Alfonso X, escribía Berceo el
citado cantarcillo de los judíos (Duelo) "Velat, aliama de los Iudios",
que no iba á traducir del gallego ni lo cantaban sino en castellano, ni
era imitación de la poesía gallega, aunque se le parezca, sino uno
de tantos cantarcillos españoles, que yo tengo para mí se cantaron
siempre en España. La lírica, los cantares, son tan viejos como los
refranes, y la variedad métrica de éstos responde á la de los
cantares. Los padres visigodos y los Concilios dan bien á entender
que el pueblo los cantó en todo tiempo. Que Galicia fuera tierra
particularmente acomodada á la lírica es tan cierto que ahora mismo
lo es y la misma lengua gallega, dulcísima cual ninguna de la
Península, es tan propia de la lírica, que ella de por sí se es lirismo
puro, como es epopeya el idioma castellano. Pero eso no empece
para que en el resto de España no hubiese cantares de versos
cortos, lírica popular, en una palabra. Los autores que entienden de
arte internacional han proclamado que la poesía lírica es de toda la
raza ibera. (Teóf. Braga, en la introducción al Cancionero de la
Vaticana; Fauriel, Hist. de la Poésie provençale, etc.). En Provenza
llegó antes á escribirse; pero el origen ibero de sus primeros
habitantes creen ser la raíz del lirismo, popular allí de muy antiguo.
El mismo vocablo de balada y bailada, conocido ya por San Isidoro
como poesía popular española, aparece en Provenza, Galicia y
Portugal y es vocablo ibérico (Cejador, Tesoro de la lengua
castellana, Labiales). Los pueblos germánicos eran más épicos y
originaron la épica del francés ó lengua d'oil; los meridionales de la
lengua d'oc fueron líricos, como los gallegos y toda España. Lástima
grande que, como menospreciaron la épica popular nuestros
eruditos hasta el siglo xv, que, apreciándola, la sacan del pueblo en
los romances, así pasasen tantos siglos sin acordarse de la lírica
popular hasta que nos la mostró el Arcipreste de Hita y, en parte,
Santillana, y tras otro largo sueño volviéronla á sacar de entre el
pueblo Juan del Enzina, Lucas Fernández y Gil Vicente en
villancicos, églogas y autos. El Renacimiento hizo que muchos
poetas la menospreciasen, aunque todavía se aprovecharon de ella
los poetas más amantes de la tradición: Castillejo, Alonso de
Alcaudete, Gregorio Silvestre, Góngora, Lope y Tirso. Hoy ha vuelto
á renacer en Galicia, y algo menos en Castilla de lo que fuera de
desear, aunque el pueblo hoy, como siempre, canta tan
maravillosamente como jamás los mejores poetas eruditos cantaron.

204. Cancioneros portugueses (Theophilo Braga, Cancioneiro

portuguez da Vaticana, pág. xcv):
Libro de las Cantigas do Conde de Barcellos, citado en su
testamento (1350), dejándolo á Alfonso XI de Castilla, compilación
que hizo el Conde de muchos poetas. En el Cancionero da Vaticana
hállanse canciones del Conde, de Alfonso XI y del de Ajuda hasta
56, atribuidas á hidalgos de la corte de Dom Diniz.

Cancioneiro de Dom Diniz (Livro das Trovas de El rei Dom Diniz),

estuvo en volumen aparte, según se sabe por el Catálogo de los
libros del rey Dom Duarte. Fué incorporado en el de la Vaticana
desde la canción 79.

Cancioneiro da Ajuda, comienza en la hoja 41, fáltanle las anteriores

y al final no está acabado. No entraron en él las canciones de Dom
Diniz y parece ser parte de otra colección mayor desconocida.

Cancioneiro de Dom Mencia de Cisneros, el que vió Santillana y

contenía las canciones de Dom Diniz y los trovadores del Códice de
Roma citados por Márquez.

Cancioneiro da Vaticana, núm. 4.803, con 56 canciones que están

en el de Ajuda con variantes notables, lo que prueba que ambos
códices vienen de diferentes fuentes. Tiene una parte relativa á los
sucesos de la corte de Alfonso IV, que proviene de cancioneros
extraños y posteriores al de Ajuda.

Cancioneiro da Ajuda, edic. por Lord Stuart, 1824, y F. A. de

Vernhagen, Madrid, 1849, con el título de Trovas e Cantares d'um
codice do seculo xiv. Carolina Michaëlis de Vasconcellos,
Cancioneiro da Ajuda, Halle, 1904, 2 vols. Cancionero del Vaticano
(códice 4803), copia de mano italiana de principios del siglo xvi de
un cancionero perdido, edic. E. Monaci, Halle, 1875, con el título de
Canzoniere portoghese della Biblioteca Vaticana, Halle, 1875, y
Theophilo Braga, Cancioneiro Portuguez da Vaticana, Lisboa, 1878,
con introducción y glosario. Cancionero Colocci-Brancuti, de los
nombres de sus poseedores Angelo Colocci en el siglo xvi y
marqués Brancuti, en cuya biblioteca lo halló Monaci, importantísimo
por tener mejores variantes que el de la Vaticana y 470 canciones
nuevas; editáronlo Monaci y su discípulo Molteni como tomo
segundo del Cancionero de la Vaticana, Halle, 1880. Consúltense:
H. R. Lang, Cancioneiro Gallego-Castellano, I, New-York, 1902; A.
Jeanroy, Origines de la poésie lyrique en France, París, 1889, pág.
334, etc.

205. Entre 1250 y 1271 se escribió el Poema de

Fernán Gonçalez por un monje del monasterio de
San Pedro de Arlanza, que se cree fundado por su
héroe (895?-970). Fué el autor castellano viejo de la
montaña de Burgos y tomó el asunto de los Cantares
de gesta populares, conservando acaso trozos de
ellos y por lo menos, además de epítetos y frases, el
brío en la narración, el lenguaje guerrero (c. 316), el
ardiente amor á la patria chica burgalesa (c. 58, 159,
174, 260). Este poema ocasionó, sustituyéndolos, la
pérdida de los cantares de juglares sobre la leyenda
del primer Conde de Castilla; por eso tiene de lo
popular y no menos de lo erudito, pues remeda á
Berceo y al autor del Alixandre, ostenta erudición
bíblica, discursea largamente y moraliza, no
desconoce la epopeya francesa (c. 350), y escribe
en la cuaderna vía del mester de clerezia. También
tomó de la crónica anónima (Epitoma Imperatorum),
de la crónica de Lucas de Túy (Chronicon Mundi,
acabado el año 1236), de la de Turpin y acaso del
tratado De laude Hispaniae.
206. Poem. Fern. Gonz., 148: "Sobre todas las tierras meior es la
Montanna". El códice escurialense, incompleto al final, muy
incorrecto y con otras lagunas, lo conoció Sánchez sin publicarlo;
extractáronlo en 1829 los traductores de Bouterweck y se imprimió
entero en 1863 por Zarco del Valle y Sancho Rayón, en el tomo I del
Ensayo de una biblioteca española de libros raros y curiosos, col.
763-804, siguiendo la copia de Bartolomé José Gallardo. Volviólo á
publicar F. Janer en 1864, Bibl. de Aut. Esp., t. LVII. Edición última,
C. Carroll Marden, Baltimore, 1904. Consúltense: C. Carroll Marden,
An episode in the Poema de F. G., en la Revue hispanique, 1900, t.
VII, págs. 22-27; R. Menéndez Pidal, Notas para el Romancero del
Conde Fernán González, en Homenaje á M. y Pelayo, t. I, págs.
429-507.

207. En tiempo de Sancho IV el Bravo (1258?-1295),

tradujeron por orden del Rey el maestro Alfonso de
Paredes, físico del infante heredero don Fernando, y
Pero Gómez, su escribano, la famosa enciclopedia
escrita en francés Li Livres dou Tresor par Brunetto
Latini (publicada en París, 1863), con el título de
Libro del Tesoro. Al mismo Pero Gómez atribuyen
algunos los 40 versos en la cuaderna vía de los
Proverbios en rimo del sabio Salomón, rey de Israel,
por lo menos así lo dice el manuscrito más antiguo,
aunque no se sabe si es el mismo Pero Gómez ú
otro diferente. Otros lo atribuyen á Pedro López de
Ayala.
208. Fué Brunetto florentino, tenido por maestro de Dante, y no hizo
casi más que compilar textos latinos, sobre todo de San Isidoro, de
Cicerón y de otras fuentes que ha estudiado el danés Thor Sundby,
Della vita e delle opere di Brunetto Latini, traducida, Firenze, 1884.
Vino Brunetto en 1260 á Castilla como embajador de los güelfos de
Florencia á solicitar protección de Alfonso el Sabio.

Proverbios en rimo del sabio Salomón, Rey de Israel. Ed. A. Paz y

Meliá, en Opúsculos literarios de los siglos xiv á xvi, Sociedad de
Biblióf. Españoles, 1892.

209. Juan Gil de Zamora, colaborador de Alfonso X, escribió De

praeconiis Hispaniae (1278-1282) y Liber illustrium personarum y
otras obras (Nic. Antonio). José de Loaysa, también colaborador del
mismo Rey, y Arcediano de Toledo, continuó en castellano la
Historia Gothica de don Rodrigo; pero se perdió, y sólo la
conocemos por la traducción latina de Armando de Cremona; ed.
Morel-Fatio, Bibl. de l'École de Chartes, t. LXIX; G. Cirot, De
operibus historicis Joannis Aegidii Zamorensis, Burdeos, 1912.

210. En el mismo reinado de Sancho IV se escribió

la compilación llamada Lucidario, en 106 capítulos,
sacada del Speculum naturale, falsamente atribuido
á Vicente de Beauvais († 1264), donde se tratan
cuestiones curiosas y algo pedantes de historia
natural y física.

El Especulo, Espeio de todos los derechos, que

antes se tenía por una especie de esbozo de las
Partidas, se atribuye hoy en parte á Sancho IV y á
los descontentos del Rey Sabio.

La Gran conquista de Ultramar es obra de fines del

siglo xiii y por lo menos se acabó bastante después
de la muerte de Sancho IV. Contiene las leyendas
del Caballero del Cisne, de Berta y de Mainete. Es la
historia de las Cruzadas hasta 1271.
211. La Gran Conquista de Ultramar es una adaptación de la
Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum, de Guillermo de
Tyro († 1184) y, según Grousac, tiene por fundamento el Roman
d'Eracle, versión francesa del libro de Guillermo de Tyro. Tiene
trozos de la Chanson de Jérusalem y la Cansó d'Antiocha,
refundición de un original perdido que compuso Gregorio Bechada,
siendo la primera obra castellana que tiene cosas tomadas de la
literatura provenzal.

En torno de la primera Cruzada se formó un ciclo épico cuyas ramas

son la Canción de Antioquía, la de Jerusalén, los Cautivos, Helias y
la Infancia de Godofredo de Bullón. Á la última pertenece la leyenda
del Caballero del Cisne, supuesto antepasado del conquistador de
Jerusalén, y que ocupa más de cien capítulos, desde el 47, en la
Gran Conquista de Ultramar, y es lo más poético de esta obra. Es el
Lohengrin, que en Alemania aparece en 1200.

212. La Gran Conquista de Ultramar. Ed. P. de Gayangos, Bibl. de

Aut. Esp., t. XLIV. Consúltese: G. Paris, La Chanson d'Antische
provençale et la Gran Conquista de Ultramar, en Romania (1888), t.
XVII, págs. 513-541; (1890), t. XIX, págs. 562-591; (1893), t. XXII,
págs. 345-363; J. F. D. Βlöte, Mainz in der Sage vom Schwanritter,
en Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie (1903), t. XXXVII, págs. 1-
24; Emeterio Mazorriaga, La leyenda del Cavallero del Çisne,
transcripción anotada del códice de la Biblioteca Nacional, 2454,
Madrid, 1914; A. Bonilla, Las Leyendas de Wagner en España,
Madrid, 1913.

213. Á fines del siglo xiii parece compuso la Historia

del Cauallero de Dios que auia por nombre Cifar,
probablemente un eclesiástico toledano, conocedor
de las novelas bretonas, de los lais de María de
Francia y de los poemas de Chrétien de Troyes. Es
una novela caballeresca con mezcla de picaresca,
por sus dos personajes, pues el ribaldo es un
verdadero pícaro escudero, un Sancho Panza, y
Roboan un caballero andante. Es, pues, el primer
ensayo de entrambas clases de novelas, tan
españolas y tan divinamente cifradas en el Quijote.
Pudo leerlo Cervantes, por haberse impreso en
Sevilla, 1512. Sin embargo, está tan cargada de
cuentos, apólogos, sentencias y moralidades, que
todavía pertenece, en parte, al género didáctico
hasta entonces cultivado. Es, pues, obra de
transición en la que se mezclan lo caballeresco, lo
didáctico y lo hagiográfico.
214. Historia del Cavallero Cifar. Ed. H. Michelant, Tübingen, 1872
(Bibl. des litt. Vereins in Stuttgart, t. CXII). Consúltese: C. P. Wagner,
The sources of El Cavallero Cifar, en Revue hispanique (1903), t. X,
págs. 4-104; M. Pelayo, Oríg. de la novela, página clxxxvii.

215. Año 1275.—Raimundo Lull ó Lulio (1235-1315) nació en

Palma de Mallorca, pasó livianamente en amoríos y devaneos su
mocedad, á pesar del cargo de senescal que tenía en la corte del
Rey de Mallorca y del matrimonio que por orden de éste contrajo.
Sólo se convirtió, según la tradición, al penetrar á caballo por la
iglesia de Santa Eulalia, durante los oficios, tras la hermosa
genovesa Ambrosia del Castello, cuando le descubrió ella su seno
devorado por un cáncer. Abandonó casa, mujer é hijos y dióse á
penitencias y estudios. Tuvo desde entonces tres intentos: la
cruzada á Tierra Santa, la predicación del Evangelio á judíos y
musulmanes y hallar un método ó ciencia nueva con que demostrar
racionalmente las verdades de la religión á sus opugnadores. Para
ello aprendió el árabe, y en el monte Randa imaginó el Arte
universal; logró de don Jaime II de Mallorca, en 1275, la creación de
un colegio de lenguas orientales en Miramar, para que los religiosos
Menores saliesen de él dispuestos á convertir á los sarracenos,
fundación que aprobó Juan XXI el año primero de su pontificado. Él
mismo describe en Blanquerna la vida de soledad y contemplación
que hacía en Miramar y en Randa; pero luego parte para Roma para
impetrar de Nicolás III la misión de tres franciscanos á Tartaria y el
permiso de irse él mismo á predicar á los mahometanos, y peregrinó
por Siria, Palestina, Egipto, Etiopía, Mauritania. Vuelto á Europa
enseñó en Montpellier su Arte, y logró de Honorio IV la creación de
otra escuela de lenguas orientales en Roma; estuvo dos años en la
Universidad de París aprendiendo gramática y enseñando filosofía;
instó á Nicolás IV para que predicase la cruzada; fué á Túnez,
donde predicó, salvándose por milagro; acudió á Bonifacio VIII con
nuevos proyectos de cruzada, y predicó en Chipre, Armenia, Rodas
y Malta. Nuevos viajes á Italia y Provenza; más proyectos de
cruzadas oídos con desdén por el Rey de Aragón y Clemente V; otra
misión á África, donde vuelve por milagro á salvarse. En 1309 la
Universidad de París le autorizó para enseñar su doctrina contra los
averroístas, y en 1311 se presentó al Concilio de Viena con muchos
proyectos. Fué otra vez á Bugia en 1314, y allí logró la palma del
martirio, siendo apedreado.

Filósofo famoso, poeta y novelista insigne, teólogo, místico,

controversista y apóstol de la fe. Escribió en su lengua nativa y en
latín, sobresaliendo literariamente por sus novelas filosóficas
Blanquerna (1283) y el Libre apellat Felix de las maravelles del mon
(1286); son también notables el Libro del Gentil y de los tres sabios,
escrito primero en árabe por Lulio mismo, luego en su lengua, Libre
del Gentil e los tres Savis; y el Libre del Orde de Cauayleria.

Tuvo controversias con moros y judíos sobre teodicea racional: Libro

del Gentil y de los tres sabios. Liber contradictionis inter
Raymundum et Averroistam. Disputatio Raymundi Lulli et Homarii
Sarraceni. Obras ascéticas como Libro de las Contemplaciones.
Blanquerna. Libro del amigo y del amado. Philosophia Amoris. Liber
Proverbiorum, etc., etc., sin contar las poesías en lengua vulgar.
Obras filosóficas: Ars Generalis. Ars brevis. Ars inventiva veritatis.
Ars Magna, Generalis et ultima. Tabula generalis ad omnes scientias
applicabilis. Liber de ascensu et descensu intellectus. Liber de
lumine. Ars voluntatis. Ars Amativa boni. Logica Parva. Logica Nova.
Liber lamentationis duodecim principiorum philosophiae contra
Averroistas. Liber de principiis philosophiae. Liber de anima rationali.
Metaphysica Nova. Liber de ente reali et rationis. Liber de homine.
Liber de contemplatione. Arbor Scientiae. Tractatus de articulis fidei.
De Deo ignoto et de mundo ignoto. Disputatio Raymundi et
Averroistae. Liber disputationis intellectus et fidei. Liber de
convenientia quam habent Fides et intellectus in obiecto. Ars
theologiae et philosophiae mysticae contra Averroem. De ente
simpliciter per se, contra errores Averrois. Liber de reprobatione
errorum Averrois. Liber quaestionum super quatuor libros
Sententiarum. Quaestiones Magistri Thomae Attrebatensis solutae
secundum artem, etc. Las primeras cátedras lulianas en Barcelona y
Palma se abrieron en 1478 y 1481. Los primeros maestros oficiales
del lulismo: Juan Llobet (De Logica et Metaphysica), Pedro Dagui
(Janua Artis. Tractatus formalitatum. Metaphysica), Jaime Gener
(Januarius. Ingressus rerum intelligibilium Raymundi Lulli. Ars
Metaphysica Naturalis, etc.). De Derecho: Ars Principiorum Iuris. Ars
de Iure. Ars utriusque iuris. Sobre literatura escribió Retórica. De
ciencias: Tractatus de Astronomia. Ars Astrologiae. Liber de planetis.
Geometria Nova. Geometria Magna. Liber de circulis. Ars
Arithmetica. Ars navigandi (véase M. Pelayo, Ciencia españ., t. I,
pág. 105, 3.ª ed.). Seudo lulianos son: De secretis naturae seu de
Quinta Essentia. Epistola accurtationis lapidis Philosophorum.
Testamentum Novissimum. Cantilena Raymundi Lulli. Elucidatio
Testamenti R. L. Lux Mercuriorum R. L. Maioricensis. Liber
Mercuriorum. Experimenta R. L... in quibus verae philosophiae
chymicae operationes clarissime traduntur. Liber artis compendiosae
quem Vademecum nuncupavit. Compendium animae
transmutationis artis metallorum. Apertorium. Ars intellectiva super
lapidem philosophorum. Practica Ray. Lulli. Magia Naturalis. Tertia
distinctio quintae essentiae. Lucidarium totius Testamenti. Liber
naturae et Lumen nostre lapidis. Investigatio secreti occulti. Estos
tratados de alquimia se le atribuían antes; pero son apócrifos,
aunque, de todos modos, como de autores españoles de los siglos
xiv, xv y xvi merecen recordarse. Raymundo Lulio no se dió nunca
á la alquimia, y así tampoco se le atribuyen más que, falsamente, no
pocas invenciones de esta arte. Sobre estos tratados y otros de
alquimia, véase José Ramón de Luanco, La Alquimia en España,
Crónica Científica, de Barcelona. De Medicina: Liber de principiis
Medicinae. Ars compendiaria Medicinae. Liber de regiminibus
sanitatis et infirmitatis. El Libro Felix.

216. Año 1285.—Arnaldo de Vilanova (1240-1311) nació en uno

de los pueblos llamados Vilanova, de tierras de Lérida, fué "de
terruño ignoble y oscuro", "nada por su origen", había aprendido
teología con los dominicos de Montpellier; hebreo, con Raymundo
Martí. Sabía el árabe, y de sus maestros en Medicina cita á Juan
Casamida y Pedro de Musadi, y fué acaso el más eminente en esta
facultad de entre los cristianos de la Edad Media. Se dió á la
alquimia, aunque más adelante quemó sus escritos de esta arte.
Fué corto de vista, de ingenio vivo, agudo y pronto y no releía sus
obras. Llevóle su fama á la corte de don Pedro iii de Aragón, el cual,
en 1285, "por los muchos servicios que había recibido y esperaba
recibir de su amado Físico", le regaló el castillo de Ollers, cerca de
Tarragona, y el mismo año le tomó por testigo de su último codicilo.
Don Jaime ii también le protegió, y no menos su hermano don
Fadrique ó Federico, rey de Sicilia, y le llenaron de mercedes. En
1302 don Jaime cedió "á su venerable y amado consejero" la gabela
de la sal de Burriana y plena licencia para donar ó legar "á iglesias y
lugares religiosos" las casas, censos, honores y posesiones que
tenía en el reino de Valencia. En 1299 fué de embajador á Francia,
llamándole don Jaime "su consejero y familiar", "físico, canciller y
familiar nuestro". Redactó para el reino de Sicilia, por encargo de
Federico, unas Constituciones, autorizadas en 1310 por el Rey
como leyes. Murió antes de 1312. En 1316 fueron condenadas
algunas proposiciones teológicas suyas. Sus obras se publicaron en
Lyon, 1504; París, 1509; Venecia, 1514; Lyon, 1520, 1532; Basilea,
1585. Escribió con sentido herético el Comentario del Apocalipsis, el
De adventu Antichristi, etc. Son en la de Basilea: En el tomo I, de
medicina: Speculum introductionum medicinalium. Aphorismi. De
parte operativa. De humido radicali. De conceptione. De simplicibus.
Antidotarium. De phlebotomia. De dotibus theriacalibus. Liber
aphorismorum. De vinis. De aquis medicinalibus. De conferentibus
et nocentibus principalibus membris nostri corporis. De ligaturis.
Expositiones visionum quae fiunt in somnis. De regimine sanitatis.
Regimen sanitatis. De regimine castra sequentium. De conservanda
iuventute et retardanda senectute. De bonitate memoriae. De coitu.
Considerationes operis medicinae. Medicationis parabolae. Tabulae
quae medicum informant. Breviarium practicae. Practica summaria.
De cautelis medicorum. De modo praeparandi cibos et potus
infirmorum. Compendium regimenti acutorum. Regulae generales de
febribus. Regimen sive consilium quartanae. Consilium sive curatio
febris hecticae. Consilium sive regimen podagrae. De sterilitate. De
signis leprosorum. De amore heroico. Remedia contra maleficia. De
venenis. De arte cognoscendi venena. Contra calculum. Regimen...
contra catharrum. De tremore cordis. De epilepsia. De esu carnium.
Recepta electuari mirabilis. De ornatu mulierum. De decoratione.
Commentum super regimen Salernitanum, etc. En el tomo II. de
química: Thesaurus thesaurorum. Novum lumen. Sigilla duodecim
pro totidem coelestibus signis. Magisterium et gaudium. Epistola
super Alchimiam. Capitula Astrologiae. Flos florum. Atribúyensele
otras varias obras, que pueden verse en Nicolás Antonio.

217. En el siglo xiii San Antonio de Padua interpretó místicamente

y manifestó las concordancias morales de la Sagrada Escritura. El
neófito Fray Pablo Christiá tuvo controversias con Rabí Moseh
Najman, de Gerona, y otros doctores judíos en tiempo de don Jaime
el Conquistador. Se hicieron en este siglo las primeras traducciones
castellana y catalana de la Biblia. Fray Poncio Carbonell escribió
una inmensa Catena ó colección de sentencias de expositores
sagrados. El converso Alfonso de Valladolid (Rabí Abner de
Burgos) empleó por primera vez en las controversias bíblicas el
castellano, escribiendo el Monstrador de Justicia, el Libro de las tres
gracias y el de las Batallas de Dios. Fray Ramón de la Puente,
dominico, natural de Fraga, obispo de Valencia desde 1283, escribió
De sacramentis. Fray Miguel de Fraga, dominico, De donationibus
factis coenobio Praedicatorum Valentiae. En Teología fueron
célebres, además del Pugio fidei, el Planeta, obra enciclopédica de
Diego de Campos.

San Pedro Pascual, obispo de Jaén, en los últimos días del siglo
xiii, durante su cautiverio en Granada, escribió Libro contra las fadas
et ventura et horas minguadas et signos et planetas. De la historia
de Mahomat... y de su secta de los Moros y como se prueva que no
es verdadera. De la encarnación de Jesu Christo. De la nacencia de
J. C. De cómo adoraron los tres Reyes Magos á N. S. Glossa al
Pater noster. Libro en que se prueva que Dios es Trinidad.
Explicación de los diez mandamientos. Explicación del Credo. Ms.
en dos vols., de Argote de Molina, hoy de El Escorial (Nic. Antonio).

218. Entre los primeros escolásticos españoles hay que poner á

Pedro Hispano, después Juan XXII, que compuso las Sumulas
logicales, obra popular en los estudios que aun en el siglo xvi halló
comentadores como Esbarroya, Ciruelo, Mercado y Alonso de Vera-
Cruz, y fué autor de los bárbaros versos de los modos y figuras del
silogismo.

219. El filósofo árabe murciano Αben-Sabin respondió á las

preguntas filosóficas del emperador Federico II. Las persecuciones
de los almohades mataron entre los árabes la Filosofía, la cual pasó
á los judíos. El judío Sem-Tob-Falaguera tradujo á Avicebrón de
arábigo en hebreo, y comentó á Maimónides: Diálogo entre un
teólogo y un filósofo sobre la concordia entre la religión y la filosofía.
Guía de las ciencias ó principios de la Sabiduría. Tratado del Alma.
Apología de Maimónides, etc.
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