ASolvent MAMofaa ms

soll MBMa mas Vg= Volo

Giwn mans A Sdn8adin No:fmsls B
i y 2 . SOLUTIONS ANo:dmas
Ouons are homogeneous mixtures containing two or more components. Generally, the

componcnt that is present in larger quantity is called solveni. ^olvent determines the physical
than solvent are
State ot the solution. One or more components present in the solution other
calldsolutes.[Or,the substance which is dissolved is called solute and the substance in

which solutc is dissolved is called solvent.

Solutions containing only two components are called hinary solutions. Here each component
may be solid, liquid or in gascous slatc. Based on this, solutions are of the following ypes

4 dfat pes obiman ssuihey i na phytstl

Types of Solution Solute Solvent Examples
TGaseous solutions Gas Gas Mixture of O2 and Nz
Liquid Gas Chloroform mixed with nitrogen gas, water-vapour in
air
Solid Gas 3 Camphor in nitrogen gas, naphthalene in air

TLiquid solutions Gas Liquid +Oxygen dissolved in water,soda water

Liquid Liquid 5| Alcohol dissolvedin water, dilute acids andalkalies
Solid Liquid 6| Salt in water, glucose in waler
Solid solutions Gas Solid 7 Hydrogen in Pd, Pt, Ni etc
Liquid Solid 8| Amalgam of mercury with sodium
Solid Solid Gold omaments, alloys of melals

Concentration of Solutions

Composition ofasolutioncan be expressed in termsofEoncentration)Concentration

defincd as the number of moles of solute present per litre of the solution) The concentration
of a solution can be expressed by several ways.
) Mass percentage(w/w): The mass percentage of a component in a solution isdefinedas
thomassofthecomponent presentin 100 partsby mass ofthe soluion.) |Swe ka uA
Mass % of a component =
s Or he component in the solution x 100
Manks
Total mass of the solution
t Mask
For e.g. 10% aqueous solution of glucose by mass mcans that 10 gofglucose is dissolved in
100 g solution.
WA 90g of water resulting in a
Concentration described by mass percentage is commonly used in industrial chemical
applications. N/NA aWAWB
KDD WW B (eD- "%}4
(ii) Volume percentage (v/v): The volume percentage is defined as the volume of a
component present in 100 parts by volume ofthe solution.
 Volume of the component x 100
Volume % of a componentTotal volume of soution Ve
For example, 10% ethanol solution in water means that 10 mi of ethanol is dissolved in 90
mL of water such that the total volume of the solution is 100 mL.
Concentration of solutions containing liquids is commonly expressed in this unit.

dissolved in 100 mL of the

(11) Mass by volume percentage (w/v): It is the mass of solute
solution.It is commonly used in medicineand pharumacy.

Mass of the component in the soluton x 100

Mass/volume % of a component =
Total volume of solution

quantities
in (i.e. very small
(v Parts per millíon (ppm): When a solute is present
trace

in million (ppm). It il defined as the

amounts), its concentration is expressed parts per
number of parts of a particular component in million parts of the solution)

Number of parts of the component x 1106

ppm= of the solution
Total number of parts of all the components

volume and
be expressed as mass to mass, volume to
Concentrationin parts per million can

mass to volume.
expressed in terms of 4g mL or
The concentration of pollutantsin water oratmosphere is
ppm.
(v) Mole fractíon (x):{t is defined as the ratio number of the of moles of aparticular
moles of solution.
component to the total number of

Number of moles of thecomponent

Mole fraction of a component Total number of moles of all the components

moles of A and B are na and np

For example, in a binary solution, if the number of
respectively,
Then, the mole fraction of A )
+ 2

andthat of the component B() nA+n

At X solution of the molefractions of all the components unity.
sum
is
i.e. in a given
If there are i components,then
xi=1
X +X2+ X3t
the calculations involving gas mixtures.
Mole fraction is useful in describing
 2 litre of
(vi) Molarity (M): It isdefincd as the number of moles of solute dissolved per
Mtaart Gmpnalwdpanuul as V chmgeg wt, T
Soluton) Number of moles of solute (n)
i.e. Molarity (M) =
Volume of solution in litre (V)

IMdaaIM ng-msVsl
Molarity (M) Wa X1000
VslL
=

Mp XV(ml)
2 Mdan2M hg-2
that 0.25 mol of NaOH is dissolved in
one
For example, 0.25 M solution of NaOH means

litre ofsolution. O 25M nga0 25 esh,=L

(vii) Molality(m): It is Gefined as the number of moles of the
solute present per kilogram
=
(kg) ofthe solvent.) SE u T mdoped
i.e. Molality (m)=
Number of moles of solute(n) Imdal mN1000
Mass of solvent in kg (WA)
Zm p 2 hDo0
Molality (m)= WB X1000
M XWA9)
1
of KCl is dissolved in
For example, I molal (m) solution of KCI means that 1 mol (74.5 g)
kg of water.
than Imolal solutionhen the density of solvent
1g/ is
QIMolar solution is more concentrated IM solution
or 1000ml of solvent.
mL. Im solution has Imole of solute dissolved in 1000g
solvent
and
contains 1 mole of solte in which is the volume of both solute
1000g of solution
to Im solution and
. Therefore the solvent present in 1M solution is less compared
concentration is more Ans
of solute present per litre of the
Normality (N): It is defined as the no. of gram equivalents
solution.
Number of gram equivalents of solute
ie., Normality (N)
=

Volume of solution in litre

1000
Mass of solute x
Normality (N)
solution in mL
Equivalent mass of solute x Volume of
the concentration of solution, mass %, ppm,
Among the different methods for expressing
of whereas molarity, normality and
mole fraction and molality are independent temperature;
volume % are depend on temperature. This is because volume depends on temperature and
the mass does not.

Nums aelatus to abeu Tptes

Sot: Ex n 3

2:9
3:1, 2:23| a26
|3-7 227
a:s 22
R'30
 SOLUBILITY
Solubility of a substance is its maximum amount that can bedissolved in a spccificd amount
of solvent. It depends upon the nature of solutc and solvent, temperature and pressure
1Solubility of a Solid in a Liquid
ITis observed that polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and non polar solutes in non polar
solvents. In general, a solute dissolves in a solvenlif the intermolecular interactions are
Similar in the two or the general principle related to solubility is that "like dissolves like")
Saturated and Unsaturated solutions
A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same temperature and pressure is

solute
called asaturated solution. Here there is a dynamic equilibriuh betwecn the dissolved
and the undissolved solute)A solution in which more solute can be dissolved at the same

temperature is called an unsaturated solution.

Effect of temperature Hew htmpeaausu j d u duubuhoy i Sn L?
of a
The solubility of a solid in a liquid mainly dépends on temperature.Since the dissolution
if in
solid in a liquid is an equilibrium process, it follows Le Chateliers Principle. In general,
a nearly saturated solution, the dissolution process is endothermic (Aso H> 0), the solubility
should increase with rise in temperature and if it is exothermic (Asoi H>0) the solubility
should decrease with temperature.) , T A B o l l u sSmL wi) Ma CAas
Eect of pressure r?dnuwst agdh uly Sm 4?
Sincosolids and liquids are highly incompressiBle, pressure does not have any significant
effect on solubility of solids in liquids.)
TSolubility of a Gas in a Liquid The solubility
Solubility of gases in liquids is greatly affected by pressure and temperature.
of a gas increases with increase of pressure.
A quantitative relation between pressure and solubility of a gas in a liquid was first given by
states that at a constant temperature, the
Henry, which is known as Henry's law. "Thelaw
to the gas"
solubility ofa gas in a liquid is direcdly proportional is pressure of the
CaOr, "the partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p) propotional to the mole fraction
of the gas (x) in the solution" and is expressed as:
p Kux
Here Ku is the Henry's lay constant.
*The value of Ku depends bn the nature of the gas and temperature.
As the value of KH increases, the solubility of the gas in the liquid decreases.
mole fraction (x) of the gas in solution is a
A graph of partial pressure (p) of the gas against
straight line as follows. (Fig 2.2)The slope of the graph gives the value of Ku.
s the temperature increases solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases as the dissolution of
gases in liquid is exothermio It is due to this reason that aquatic species are more
comfortableincold waters rather than in warm waters._rh
Q: Stal Hkmas land At apkuak Tt sot
k 3subL
: Relak beus ku seubiln a
Hema'sLs Numealeos
2a: 2:,2:1a:
So Ex 24
 Applicatioas of Heary' s lawPls epw oqplan aulao uayskas
1. Toincrease the solubilityof CO in sorl drinks and soda waler, the bottle scaledundr
high pressure. W?.
2. Seuba divers cary oxygen cylinders to breath under deep sca. At high pressure under
water, the blood increases. When the divers come towards
solubility of atmospheric gascs in
lcads to the
Surface, the pressure gradually decreases. This reléases the dissolved gases and
formation of bubbles of nitrogen in the blood. This blocks capillaries and creates a medical

condition known as bends. To avoid bends the cylinders uscd by scuba divers arc filled with
because of lower
Wairdiluted with helium (11.7% helium, 56.2% nitrogen and 32.1% oxygen) wig He
ability of He than N h a l a bmds9 hh-gm d u y d b a
the ground level. T his
high altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that
3. At at
leads to low concentrations of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high
unable to think
climbers. Low blood oxygen causes climbers to become weak and -..
altitudes or as am applliary
clearly. This condition is known as anaxia. eplmw me
Effect of
Temperature Eaa:n dissolution iS an
Solubility of gases in liquids decreases with rise in temperature,
as

exothermic pocess. As-ta TeKanel m y g a m dnswir.

Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions solid.
solute can be a gas, à liquid or a
liquid solutions, the solvent is always a liquid. The
In
the
not be volatile. Based
on
Generally, the liquid solvent is volatile. The solute may may
or

that of the.
volatility of solute, the vapour pressure of the solutionis greater or less than
solvent.
Volablucemponuai
Yapour Pressure of Liquid-Liquid Solutions-Raoult'sLaw -or hwo
It states that for a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each
component in the solution is directly proportional
to its fraction.
mole
the partial
Consider a binary solution of two volatile liquids A and B.. Let pa and ps be
the total vapour
A and B respectively and piotal be
vapour pressures of the two components
two components A and B respectively.
pressure.Let xAand xabe the mole fractions of the
Then according to Raoult's law, for component A,
PA a XA or, PA P A
and for component B,
Pe a XB or, P Px
will be the sum of
According to Dalton's law of partial pressures, the total pressure (p toal)
of the solution.
the partial pressures of the components
So, Plotal PAt pe VapapmeA
Substituting the values of pa and pø, we get
Vapou pusa B

Pr-P e - e ' A ePaata VapeuaPa Bisun

p-P
Ralt' La Numuis tmt 2:8 Sud Ea:2:s
Ea:2:0, 2:4,2:b,2 23,2:24,2!25
2:34,2 38 239
Plots of pa or pa against the mole fractions xa and x give straight lines .

Stat Rarlts Las rr o

Vslatl compnd lons

w Gaaph m be daaseu
dead otdn
Ze 0
The composition of vapour phase in equilibrium with the solution is determined from the
partial pressures of the components. If ya and ya are the mole fractions of the components A
and B respectively in the vapour phase then, using Dalton's law of partial pressures:
PAyA Ptotal and P Panial VPogA
PB yB ptotal
In general, pi=yi Ptotal
t Mou tin A Vapoua phau

Raoult's Law as a special.cascof Hear's Law hm PhkuH

According to Raoult's law, the vapour pressure of a volatile component in a solution is given
by p-X pf.
According to Henry's law, solubility ofa gas in a liquid is given byp=Ku x.
Ifwe compare the equations for Raoult's law and Henry's law, we can see that the partial
pressure of the volatile component or gas is directly proportional to its mole fraction in
solution. Only the proportionality constant Ku differs from pf. Thus, Raoult's law becomes
a special case of Henry's law in which Ku becomes equal to p?.

Vapour Pressure of Solutions of Solids in Liquids -Nem votatu Cmponat ino

The vapog pressure of a liquid is the pressure exerted by the vapour in equilibrium with its
own liquidfa non-volatile solute is added to a pure solveni, the vapour pressure of the
resulting soluiion is always lower than that of the pure soBvent. This is because in a pure
solvent, there are only solvent molecules, which can vapourise. But when a non-volatile
solute is added to the solvent, a fraction of the surface is occupied by solute molecules. So
the number of solute molecules passing to the vapour phase decreases and hence the vapour
presure also decreases. The decrease in the vapour pressure of solvent depends on the
quantity of non-volatile solute present in the solution and not on its nature 2:4

For such a solution the Raoult's law can be stated as, for any solution, the partial vapour A
pressure of each volatile component in the solution is directly proportional to its mole
fraction.

amnvotalle compeua i t dragam?

Raatl VPqA
 Consider a binary solution containing a solvent A and solute B. Since the solute is non-
volatile, only the solvent molecules are prescnt in vapour phase and contribute to vapour

pressure.
Let pa be the vapour pressure of the solvent, xa be its mole fraction, på be its vapour

pressure in the pure state. Then according to

Raoult's law, pa a xA
or, PAP xA
A graph between the vapour presure and the mole fraction of the solvent is linear. (Fig 2.5)

ldeal and non-ideal solutionsam Exammpls s t )

Liquid liquid solutions can
-

be classified into ideal and non-ideal solutions on the basis of

Raoult's law.

solutions:
ldealare
1.*These 5ptu4Exp +lagh +Erugu
solutions which obey Raoult's law over the entire range of concentration.
solvent-solvent
*The A-A and B-B interactions apre nearly equal to the A-B interaction, i.c.
nearly equal to solute-solvent interaction
interactions and solute-solute interactions are

for an ideal solution,.PA P*A and pa=P Xp

AH
mix-0and AV mix =0 O+9gph P!6 ideal in behaviour.
A perfectly ideal solution is rare. But some solutions'are nearly
and
E.g. solutions of n-hexane and n-heptane, bromoethane and chloroethane, bcnzene
toluene etc

2. Non-ideal solutions:
solutions which do not obey Raoult's law the entire range of concentration.
over
These are
o r lower than that predicted by
The vapour pressure of such a solution is either higher
deviation and if it is lower, it
Raoult's law. If it is higher, the solution exhibits positive
exhibits deviation from Raoult's law.
negative

Negative deviation
Positive deviation

A-B interaction is weaker than A-A

and A-B interaction is stronger than A-A and B-B
B-B
PAPA
2 PAPA Pe P XgB
PAPaX AH mix <0,ie negative
0 ie positive
3 AH mix > AV mix0, ie negative
AV mix0 ie positive
E.g. Ethylalcohol
and water E.g. Chloroform&acetone, HCI & water

Acetone& CS2, CCu & benzene phenol& aniline

9:Piss ihe Vaautuanmarnulg lanw a use

 AHi0, AV 0
Mar
deel goluion

--.
uMolercdon u0
1

A Mole frection don

Mor-Hdeol soludlon ahowing negam
Z1

and boil at
the composition in liquid and vapour phase
They are binary miktures having
same
to separate the components by
a constant temperature. For
such solutions, it is not possible
and
There are two of azeotropes: minimum boiling azeotrope
types
ractional distillation.
maximum boiling azeotrope.
Raoult's law form minimum
The solutions which show a large positive deviationfrom lower than
have boiling points
boiling azeotrope at a particular composition. Such azeotropes la
either of the components, 9.dandnu deathevm Rarut's
volume.
E.g. 95%ethanol solution by
from Raoult's lawfoYm maximum boiling
The solutions which show largenegative deviation
have boiling points higher than either
composition. Such azeotropes
azeotrope at particular
a

of the components.
and 32% water by mass forms a maximum boiling
Eg. a mixture of 68% Nitric acid
azeotrope at 393.5
K.

Relts laus dyqmunlusL 68°% HNO?

e d t
Eaplan, COLLIGATIVE PROÝERTIES AND DETERMINAT*ON OF MOLARMA`S
on the number of solute particles
and not on their nature
The properties which depend only
The important colligative properties are: Relative lowering
are called Colligative properties.
Osmotic
of Boiling point, Depression of Freezing point and
of Vapour pressure, Elevation
Presure. IM Natl IM Nas whel Bautnw hews
wnoapour sure 8 u prtlgr an?h IM
NattNTl
When a non-volatile solute is added to a pure solvent, the vapour pressure of the resulting
solvent. The difference between the vapour pressure of
solution is lower than that of the pure
that of the solution is called lowering of vapour pressure.
pure solvent and
Consider a binary solution containing a non-volatile solute B dissolved in a solvent A.

VPotPunoluant A
NPa ddi tstamum Sstuta
P-Pkoweig Napoa pAua
P- Raldas kowiin NapounPAne
P
 YP Nmuitals
Relahs owemy
,tt2:4
Then according to Raoult's law,
PA PxA
SE 2:6
E 2:15,217,2:18, 2:19,2:34
P(1-x»)
P-Px

Ais called relative lowering of vapour pressure.

It is defined as the ratio of the lowering of vapour pressure to the vapour pressure pure

solvent.
nB
But XB nA+ nB

Where na and ng are the number of moles of solvent and solute respectively.
For dilute solutions, na << na and hence ng in the denominator can be neglected.

So, xB=ns/nA

Mex Wa P MgxA
2. Elevation ofofBoiling Point (4T) b> becomes equal to the
is the temperature at which its vapour pressure
liquid
Boiling point a

atmospheric pressure.
of the resulting
When non-volatile solute is added to a pure solvent, the boiling point
a
solvent. The difference between the boiling
solution is always greater than that of the pure

point of solution (Tb) and that

of the pure solvent (T) is called elevation of boiling point
(ATb).
solvent
ie. AT= Boiling point ofsolution- Boiling point of pure
Or, ATb=Tb-Th
If we plot a graph between the vapour pressure and temperature, we get the following graphs

for the pure solvent and the solution.

IM anh a IM Natt shrwshgus
atm
Solubon
Sovent
Boi
Nacl m eluuisyi tmpiuly
dnoiali. t Ma'DAns wm
Temperatue
IMNa gacalis h a IMstaael
AT-Numaicas
9
,IM Nal>LIIM stn
tnt 2;1o
 ATb a m
AT= K»m
Where Kb is a constant called Boiling Point Elevation Constant or Molal Elevation Constant
orEbullioscopic Constant. e kb? hat wntt ?
for
K is defined as the elevation boiling point I
of molal solution.
The unit of Ka is Kkg/mol. For water, Ka= 0.52K kg/mol.
4Tb K X1000
Mg XWA
T<T
3.Depression of Freezing point (4Twhich the solid phase and liquid phase of
a substance has
Freezing pointis the temperature at
the same vapour pressure.
its vapour
non-volatile solute is added to a pure solvent,
when
According to Raoult's law, a
solvent at lower temperature.
pressure decreases. Now
it would become equal to that of solid
of
decreases. The difference between the freezing point
Thus the freezing point of the solvent
of freezing point (AT).
solvent that of the solution (T) is called depression
(T)and
pure
ie. ATr-T-T
of pure solvent and
The vapour pressure temperature
-

graph representing the freezing point

solution is as follows:
P u r el i q u i d
IM Nat, tM NeS0, IM Ghueon sdulry
|AAAange abowe gouan
Solid Soluton

TeT T
4Te hill be maxi mum o r IM a s
AT t h e w s max o i
T T shws dawstTpa,TNaso
Temperature
For dilute solutions, it is found
that the depression offreezing point (AT) is directly (Nau)
proportional to molality (m) of the solution.

Thus ATra m
Or A T r Kr.m
Where Kr is aconstant called Freezing Point Depression
Constant or Molal Depression
Constant or Cryoscopic Constant. k e ? hatu tG wwt 2
It is defined as the depression of freezing boint for 1 molal solution.

The unit of Kr is Kke/mol. For water, Kr= 1.86 K kg/mol.

We know that molalitylm WoX TOO0 =

MBX WA
4Te-Nummniws
10 StdEx: 2: 2:
& sk. 2:
Ex: 2:20,2:a2:3)
 OsossNummescas
eX1000 t 2:/2
ATr= K.,
MBX WA

4. Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure

soE'2:22
pure solvent to solution through
a
Osmosis is(he process of flow of solvent molecules from from lower concentration
semipermeable membrane.Or, it is the flow of solvent molecules
side to a higher concentration side through a semi-permeable membrane (SPM).
A membrane that allows the passage of solvent molecules only is called a semi-permeable
membrane. Cellulose acetate is an
membrane. E.g. egg membrane, all animal and plant
exampleforartificial SPM. Laantu ?
that must be applied on solution side to
? Osmotic pressure is defined as the
excess pressure

the flow of solvent molecules. It

is denoted
stop osmosis. Or, it is the pressure that just stops molecules and not
on the number ofsolute
by It is a colligative property, since it depends
on their nature.
to the molarity (C) and temperature (T).
is proportional
For dilutesolutions, osmotic pressure
ie|z= CRTT
Here R is the universal gas constant. (R= 0.0821 Latm/K/mol or R =0.083Lbar/K/mol).
But C ne/w, the concentration of the solution.(ro:o svsuwe -Molaatuy
Therefore, T=na.RT/V
Or TV=naRT
Or 7V WgRT
MB

of solute and MB is the molar mass of

is the mass
Where V is the volume of the solution,
wB

solute.
calculate the molar mass of the unknown solute by
by knowing all other values,
we can
Thus
the equation:
= WpRT
Ms V

measurement

pressure measurement over other colligative property

eM Advantages of osmotic
whd . Osmotic pressure measurement
done at room
can be temperature.
which can be determined easily.
the solution is used instead of molality,
2. Here molarity of even for dilute solutions.
3 . The magnitude of osmotic pressure
is large very
of biomolecules (which
.This method can be used
for the determination of molar masses

and for polymers (which have poor

are generally not stable at higher temperatures)
solubility).
Examples for osmosis
in concentrated salt solution loses water and shrink.
a) Raw mango placed
in fresh water
b)Wilted fNowers revivewhen placed
11
 c)Blood cellscollapse when suspended in saline water.
bacterial
d) The preservation of meat by salting and fuits by adding sugar protect against
action. Through the process of osmosis, a bacterium on salted meat or candid fruit loses

water, shrinks and dies.

Isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic solutions
Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature are called isotoni

solutions. 3 9 m e i t h ex p
When such solutions are separated by a semi-permeable membrane, no osmosis occurS.
sodium chloride solution,
For e.g. our blood cells are isotonic with 0.9% (mass/volume)
intravenously.? 4 J t y 4ouhey
called normal saline solution. So itissafeto inject While
A solution having higher osmotic pressure
than another is called hypertoniesolution.
than another is called hypotonicsolution.
a solution having lower osmotic pressure sodium
solution containing more than 0.9% (mass/volume)
If we place our blood cells in a
the cells and they shrinkOn the other hand,
would
chloride solution, water will flow out of
less than 0.9% (mass/volume)
NaCl, water blo
will
if they are placed in a solution containing kapres o a
low into the cells and they would swell.?
Eplan ihat
Reverse osmosis and waterpurification Cal kapt than atheL aih
osmotic pressure is
reversed if a pressure larger
The direction of osmosis can be the semi
Now the solvent flows out of the solution through
applied to the solution side. pure
is used in desalination
This phenomenon is called reverse osmosis and
permeable membrane.

Cre am pian Aeman oS w!

ofsea water.
ABNORMAL MOLARMASS
measurement is incorrect, if there is
The molar mass by colligative property
obtained
called abnormal molar
Such molar masses are
or dissociation of particles.
association
masses. So the number of
For e.g. acetic acid dimerises in benzene
due to hydrogen bonding.decreases and molecular
decreases and hence the colligative property
molecules in solution
mass increases. factor called van'
the abnormal molar masses, van't Hoffintroduced a
In order to correct
Holf factor (). It is defined as:

Normal Molar mass

i Abnormal molar mass

Observed colligative property

Or, calculated colligative pToperty

number of moles ofparticles

after association/dissociation
Total before
association/dissociation

Number of moles of particles

12
SdndEx 212
a13
232
33
24D 24
 1.
I and in dissociation, the value of i>

of association, the value ofi

<
in the case

i =1/2
i=3 and for acetic acid in benzene,
hus for NaCl, i =2, for K;SO4, i =
3, for CaClh,

i is van't Hoff factor, n is

the no. of ions
where a is the degree of dissociation,
n-1
produced per formula of the compound.
i-1 iis van't Hofffactor, n
is the no. of solute
where a is the degree of association,
1-
molecules that associate to form a molecule. as followS:
modifies the equations for colligative properties
Inclusion of van't Hoff factor
I Xg 9isouelun
1. Relative lowering of vapour pressure,
2. Elevation of Boiling point (ATs)=iksm
3. Depression of freezing point (AT)=iKtm
4. Osmotic Pressure ( ) = i.CRT

auahi
e, before
1.Given reason for the following : ne:o waters.
in cold waters than in
warm
are more comfortable
(a) Aquatic species
helium.
divers use air diluted with
(6) To avoid bends scuba of CO2
sealed under high pressure
(c) Cold drinks bottles are hill stations.
clear snow from roads in countries.
(e) CaClh is used to solution in radiators of
vehicles in cold
used as antifreeze
() Ethylene glycol is 0.01 m NaCl is nearly
twice that of 0.01 m glucose
of
(g) The freezing point depression
solution. 0.1% NaCl solution.
burst when placed in swell and
(h) RBC swell up and finally that have been dried are placed in water, they slowly
) When fruits and vegetables
retum tooriginal form. solution. Which type of deviation
from
warm
produce a
G)A and B liquids mixing
on

Raoult's law is there?

Fo 8tega eubsa |Ghara, A un

i=l-(+n

k B oo i Na xRAT
Ha41, =

Mg HA
MB V
Mg

A
 L2 Mt.
i2 tmt,Euui,eludE auite
BSot Mas1(/)-)-Haugs ire
Mam AHeu
May fbouh &o7,A/) gnu soula
M a Zsotuut A 2 0 20
Tota vod
MaMotanHasssslte
No: masSalunt PP No:dpaslumprr d
Tota mo:pant ) altmmpm
*-
BMoakadumhB
MMalaar M- g M o
mMrala s L

kuan t M WexIOeO
M x M,M,V
V i m L M V E M Y ,

AVP pursriwA
V P P souleB
PAPaak)VP (kun sn)
PTotakA
Mg Wag
P-k Mangk atalp
P-PakovrNP
PPhRalabualbuwtin
'A
Eleaay o BP
47
KEMmopic erstand,
kp rsupitlniad P A
A20Smokodhsse
P-PA
| dasawdusoualn PT
A
 P
P A MH

Apke WgOs ldod

Mg AA 4 T6k g
Ma W
= CRT
ATp-ikp AIood
n-B Mgx N
NB_x RxT .
Mo Mp
Disso y i> ANumaitals
Tme Nu P:3hst
TRarutkua; P:Unrtai)
Relau kowaiy NPNu
P9

Enslydy wiM vaue,

ATu: Pito
Vi Nu P/2
Calpat