Buchan et al.

Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8 Smart Learning Environments

https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-024-00293-x

RESEARCH Open Access

Navigating the digital world: development

of an evidence‑based digital literacy program
and assessment tool for youth
M. Claire Buchan1†, Jasmin Bhawra2† and Tarun Reddy Katapally3,4,5*   

†
M. Claire Buchan and Jasmin
Bhawra contributed equally Abstract
to this work and share first The rapid expansion of digital connectivity has provided youth with wide-ranging
authorship.
access to digital platforms for communication, entertainment, and education. In light
*Correspondence: of this profound shift, there have been growing concerns about online safety, data pri-
[email protected]
1
vacy, and cybersecurity. A critical factor influencing the ability of youth to responsibly
School of Public Health
Sciences, University of Waterloo,
navigate digital platforms is digital literacy. While digital literacy programs have been
Waterloo, ON, Canada implemented in various regions worldwide, significant disparities remain not only in
2
School of Occupational overall digital literacy levels, but also the assessment of digital literacy initiatives. To
and Public Health, Toronto
Metropolitan University, Toronto,
address these challenges, an environmental scan and literature review were conducted
ON, Canada to identify existing digital literacy programs in Canada developed specifically for youth,
3
DEPtH Lab, Faculty of Health as well as digital literacy assessment tools, respectively. The search encompassed peer-
Sciences, Western University,
1151 Richmond St, London, ON
reviewed articles, organizational curricula, and assessment measures indexed in various
N6A 5B9, Canada databases and organization websites. The environmental scan identified 15 programs
4
Department of Epidemiology targeting key components of digital literacy such as data safety, cyberbullying, and dig-
and Biostatistics, Schulich School
of Medicine and Dentistry,
ital media. The literature review identified 12 digital literacy assessment tools. Based
Western University, London, ON, on the findings, data were synthesized from shortlisted programs and assessment tools
Canada
5
to inform the development of both a new digital literacy program and assessment
Lawson Health Research
Institute, London, ON, Canada
tool to complement the youth-focused program. The new program focuses on four
key components: (1) digital fluency, (2) digital privacy and safety, (3) ethics and empa-
thy, and (4) consumer awareness. A 15-item assessment tool was also developed
consisting of 4–5 questions specific to each program component. Given the growing
importance of digital competencies, a youth-focused program and assessment tool are
crucial for understanding and addressing digital literacy among this vulnerable cohort.
This program’s adaptability allows for customization across sociodemographic target
groups, including culturally diverse and geographically remote communities—an
aspect that has the potential to enhance digital literacy across settings. Implement-
ing digital literacy programs can better prepare youth for an increasingly digital world,
while minimizing potential risks associated with technology use.
Keywords: Digital literacy, Youth, Digital literacy assessment, Digital literacy program,
Data privacy, Data safety

© The Author(s) 2024. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits
use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original
author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third
party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the mate-
rial. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or
exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8 Page 2 of 24

Introduction
Digital connectivity has rapidly evolved in the past decade (Burr et al., 2020; Korte,
2020), and contributed to fundamental shifts in how people engage with each other,
find information, and access services (Bach et al., 2018). Of all the demographic groups,
youth have increasingly turned to technology and the internet as preferred tools for
communication, socialization, entertainment, and more recently, education (Bach et al.,
2018; Pandya & Lodha, 2021). From the use of social media applications to online gam-
ing and educational resources, digital technology has become an integral part of the
daily routines of many youth globally (Pérez-Escoda et al., 2020; The Lancet Child and
Adolescent Health, 2018).
Nevertheless, there are variations in digital platform use, and more importantly, digital
literacy levels among youth within and across countries (Bandura & Leal, 2022; Human
Rights Council, 2023). In Canada, these disparities are particularly pronounced, with
a national ‘digital divide’ resulting from stark cross-country differences in both digital
access and digital literacy levels (Aydin, 2021; Hadziristic, 2017). While it is true that
80–96% of Canadian youth aged 13–24 years own or have access to smartphones (Ride-
out et al., 2022; Secretariat & Secretariat, n.d.; Vernon et al., 2018), certain factors such
as gender, education, and geographic location have a significant influence on the digital
skills of Canadian youth (Hadziristic, 2017), with some subgroups still demonstrating
significantly lower digital literacy skills than their peers, including Indigenous youth,
newcomers to Canada, youth living in poverty or in northern, rural, and remote com-
munities (Government of Canada, 2023).
Despite these disparities in connectivity, digital technology use by youth is grow-
ing globally (Graafland, 2018; Haddock et al., 2022; The Lancet Child and Adolescent
Health, 2018). In addition to recreational use (Joshi et al., 2019), online learning has
become increasingly common in countries such as Canada, particularly due to the Cor-
onavirus disease pandemic which led to widespread school closures and adoption of
remote learning among all levels of schooling in both urban (Quintana et al., 2020) and
rural jurisdictions (Kannan et al., 2022). Many jurisdictions have opted to continue offer-
ing some level of online learning in the post-pandemic era (LaBonte et al., 2021). The
National Center for Education Statistics reports that in the 2021–2022 school year, 33%
of schools continued to offer remote learning, and 10% offered hybrid models of instruc-
tion (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2022) that combined in-person and
online learning (LaBonte et al., 2021). While increased digital access improved quality of
life for many, it has also magnified concerns about online safety, data privacy, and cyber-
security (Government of Canada, 2016). Misinformation, identity theft, and cyberbully-
ing are among the numerous digital concerns which are particularly important among
vulnerable groups such as youth (Human Rights Council, 2023).
Research has shown that despite being early adopters of evolving technology (Had-
dock et al., 2022), youth often demonstrate limited critical thinking skills and low media
literacy, which can lead them to share information impulsively (Machete & Turpin, 2020;
Pérez-Escoda et al., 2020) and therefore make them vulnerable to online misinformation
(Nan et al., 2022). Privacy is another growing concern (Lupton, 2021), as personal infor-
mation can be collected, stored, and shared online often without their consent or knowl-
edge (Donelle et al., 2021), rendering youth vulnerable to identity theft, online fraud, and

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8 Page 3 of 24

other forms of online exploitation (Quayyum et al., 2021). Studies suggest that youth are
often unaware of who has access to their posted content and the permanence of their
digital footprint. Such oversight can not only impact their quality of life, but also lead to
the exploitation of their personal information (Donelle et al., 2021; van der Velden & El
Emam, 2013).
The ability to navigate the benefits and risks of digital connectivity largely hinges on
one key factor—digital literacy. Digital literacy is “the ability to access, manage, under-
stand, integrate, communicate, evaluate, and create information safely and appropriately
through digital technologies” (Law et al., 2018) and includes individuals’ ability to use
various digital devices and software (British Columbia Ministry of Education and Child
Care, 2022). Digital literacy has become a crucial skill for young people to navigate and
succeed in the increasingly technology-driven world, with these skills becoming increas-
ingly relevant in all environments, including school, recreation, home, and work (Gov-
ernment of Canada, 2023). Research shows a concerning trend of low digital literacy
among youth, particularly in areas with limited digital connectivity (i.e., remote areas)
(Bhawra et al., 2022; Schreurs et al., 2017). This warrants the need for dedicated digi-
tal literacy programs, both to aid learning and decision-making, as well as to mitigate
some of the prominent concerns associated with increased technology usage (Pérez-
Escoda et al., 2020). Several jurisdictions in Canada, particularly in urban centres or pri-
vate school boards, have begun implementing specific digital literacy curricula (British
Columbia Ministry of Education and Child Care, 2022; Government of Ontario, 2022;
Nova Scotia Ministry of Education and Early Childhood Development, 2022); however,
adoption of digital literacy programs is not mandatory across all school boards.
Given the importance of digital literacy, the United Nations Educational, Scientific,
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) led the development of a Digital Literacy Global
Framework which emphasized the role of digital literacy in achieving Sustainable Devel-
opment Goal (SDG) 4—Quality Education—which includes a specific indicator (4.4.2)
to measure the percentage of youth and adults who have achieved at least a minimum
level of proficiency in digital literacy skills (Law et al., 2018). UNESCO’s framework is
informed by global evidence on the core components of digital literacy and associated
evaluation criteria, which can serve as a foundation for the development of digital lit-
eracy curricula across jurisdictions (Law et al., 2018). The UNESCO framework and
persistent digital divide in countries such as Canada underscores the pressing need for
comprehensive digital literacy programs to address these disparities and empower youth
in the digital age.
Thus, this study aimed to develop a tailored digital literacy program for youth in Can-
ada, as well as a robust digital literacy assessment tool designed to evaluate the impact
of the newly developed program by measuring digital literacy before and after program
implementation. To inform the development of the program and assessment tool, an
environmental scan and literature review were conducted to explore the current land-
scape of digital literacy programs and assessment tools for youth in Canada. This work
was guided by the following research questions: (1) Based on an environmental scan of
peer-reviewed and grey literature, what digital literacy programs or frameworks have
been developed for youth in Canada? Specifically, (i) What are the core topic areas (e.g.,
data safety, cyberbullying) of digital literacy programs/frameworks? and (ii) Who is the

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8 Page 4 of 24

target audience for existing digital literacy programs/frameworks?; (2) Based on a litera-
ture review of peer-reviewed articles, what assessment tools and/or questionnaires have
been used to evaluate digital literacy levels? Specifically, (i) What digital literacy assess-
ment tools have been tailored for youth?

Methods
Environmental scan
An environmental scan was conducted to explore the current landscape of digital lit-
eracy programs for youth in Canada. This method allowed for the exploration of digi-
tal literacy programs in peer-reviewed publications as well as grey literature (Charlton
et al., 2019; Shahid & Turin, 2018). The environmental scan aimed to identify both peer-
reviewed journal articles of existing programs, as well as organizational reports or school
curricula describing programs or frameworks in Canada which aimed to improve digi-
tal literacy among youth. The environmental scan was conducted by searching for pro-
grams and frameworks in relevant databases (Aromataris & Riitano, 2014) including the
Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) database which focuses on education
research, as well as Google and Google Scholar to capture programs or curricula that
may not be published in peer-reviewed literature (i.e., from organizational websites).
Moreover, in order to hone in on previously developed curricula (Shahid & Turin, 2018),
specific organizational and school board websites within Canada were also searched.
Search terms used in the environmental scan included a combination of “Digital Liter-
acy”, “Program”, “Framework”, “Program development”, “Youth,” and “Canada.” The key
inclusion criteria for this scan included identification of programs which: discussed an
educational program or curriculum related to digital literacy; were developed for chil-
dren, youth, or adolescents; were developed or published in the last 6 years (2018–2023);
were designed for implementation either in person or online; and were available in Eng-
lish. Exclusion criteria were documents: not published in English, not targeting youth
or adolescent populations, or not clearly describing digital literacy as a focus area for a
given program or curriculum.

Database search for peer‑reviewed literature

A peer-reviewed literature review for existing digital literacy assessment tools was con-
ducted to determine how awareness and knowledge uptake from digital literacy pro-
grams were being assessed (Ahmed et al., 2016). The literature search aimed to identify
digital literacy assessment measures that could be used to assess digital literacy status
among youth (i.e., a reference point to identify changes in digital literacy pre/post pro-
gram or intervention participation). Peer-reviewed articles indexed in ERIC, MEDLINE,
and Google Scholar were explored (Aromataris & Riitano, 2014), as these databases
encompass articles across the domains of education research, life sciences, and other
academic literature, respectively. This search strategy enabled a comprehensive review
of digital literacy assessments tools that may have been developed or used across dis-
ciplines. Search terms used included a combination of “Digital Literacy”, “Digital quo-
tient”, “Digital citizenship”, “Measurement”, “Assessment”, and “Youth”. Relevant literature
cited within articles were also reviewed and shortlisted if they discussed an assessment
tool related to digital literacy and met general inclusion criteria (i.e., were developed or

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8 Page 5 of 24

modified for children, youth, or adolescents; were designed for implementation online;
and available in English).

Data extraction and synthesis

Following best practices for data extraction and synthesis of literature (Cooper &
Hedges, 2009; Paré & Kitsiou, 2017), titles and abstracts of articles identified through the
environmental scan (describing digital literacy programs) and peer-reviewed literature
search (for digital literacy assessment tools) were screened for relevance based on the
core inclusion and exclusion criteria. For articles identified within ERIC and MEDLINE
databases, potentially relevant articles were downloaded to the referencing software,
Mendeley, where duplicate records were removed. Similarly, titles and abstracts were
screened in Google and Google Scholar, however given the large number of hits gener-
ated by the search engines, only potentially relevant articles, reports, and curricula doc-
uments were downloaded to Mendeley for review based on screening of titles, abstracts,
and/or executive summaries against our inclusion criteria. One author screened the
identified records (MCB) and removed irrelevant literature according to the inclusion
and exclusion criteria. A second reviewer (JB) validated included records for content,
scope, and relevance (Waffenschmidt et al., 2019). A data abstraction form was designed
in Excel, and two researchers (MCB, JB) extracted the data of included records (Cooper
& Hedges, 2009; Paré & Kitsiou, 2017; Waffenschmidt et al., 2019). Discrepancies were
resolved through discussion among the researchers.
Eligible data from all identified digital literacy programs and assessment tools meeting
the inclusion criteria were synthesized (Cooper & Hedges, 2009; Paré & Kitsiou, 2017)
and are presented in Table 1. Data on the general characteristics of the included stud-
ies included program name, a brief description of the organization and/or program, key
program components, and program location. Data from all identified assessment tools
for digital literacy are summarized in Table 2. Summary data of the assessment tools
included year of publication, location where the tool was developed, age of target pop-
ulation, the goal of the assessment, key indicators assessed, whether the assessment is
skills based or questionnaire based, and length of the assessment (Paré & Kitsiou, 2017;
Petticrew & Roberts, 2006).

Digital literacy program and assessment tool development

Findings from the environmental scan were synthesized and analyzed (by MCB, JB, TRK)
to create a new digital literacy program tailored for youth (Petticrew & Roberts, 2006).
Key themes and topic areas identified through the environmental scan were shortlisted
to inform the development of a new program. Topic areas that were considered core dig-
ital literacy components in peer-reviewed literature, theoretical frameworks such as the
UNESCO Digital Literacy Global Framework (Law et al., 2018), or those described in the
majority of shortlisted programs were included in the newly developed program. Topic
areas were grouped by theme and consolidated to create the final list of program com-
ponents. Specific learning objectives were developed for each component, taking into
consideration our target population (i.e., youth) (Chatterjee & Corral, 2017). The newly
developed digital literacy program is evidence-based with topic areas and components
selected from seminal work in digital literacy and digital literacy education (British

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8 Page 6 of 24

Columbia Ministry of Education and Child Care, 2022; Law et al., 2018). The program
was designed to capture a breadth of information across each of the seven competen-
cies described in the Digital Literacy Global Framework (i.e., fundamentals of hardware
and software; information and data literacy; communication and collaboration; digital
content creation; safety; problem solving; and career-related competences) (Law et al.,
2018). As the primary audience for this curriculum is youth in Canada, content was
sourced from Canadian sources (e.g., Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada)
where possible (Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada, 2018).
Given that the purpose of the digital literacy assessment tool was to evaluate the pre/
post change in digital literacy following implementation of the newly developed pro-
gram, a new tool was developed (by MCB, JB, TRK) to assess various components of dig-
ital literacy identified in the program (Kishore et al., 2021). In our research process, we
sought to ensure the accuracy and relevance of our digital literacy assessment by con-
sulting previously validated measures of digital literacy (Lazonder et al., 2020; Perdana
et al., 2019; Saxena et al., 2018). These established measures served as valuable guides in
the formulation of questions tailored to address the key topics covered in our digital lit-
eracy program (Kishore et al., 2021). To accurately gauge the impact of our program on
participants’ digital literacy levels, we adopted a comprehensive approach, developing at
least one question within our assessment tool for each subtopic and skill area included in
our program (Kishore et al., 2021). This assessment tool will therefore enable evaluation
of the effectiveness of our program and enable specific areas of program improvement.

Results
Summary of digital literacy programs
A total of 13 relevant digital literacy frameworks, programs, and organizations were
identified through the environmental scan (Table 1). We classified the identified frame-
works, programs, and organizations into 6 broad categories: (A) school-based digital lit-
eracy and coding courses (n = 3), which included formal coding, engineering design, and
applied design and technologies courses and/or curricula that are integrated into the
mathematics and science curricula; (B) school-based digital literacy workshops (n = 5),
where programming for students is provided in the school setting by third party organ-
izations; (C) teacher education/training models (n = 4), where teachers receive formal
training and subsequently serve as facilitators or digital literacy lessons are co-taught
with digitally-savvy teachers; (D) structured lesson plans and educational resources
(n = 8), where parents and teachers are provided lesson plans or outlines, differentiation
strategies, and implementation tips that can be used to educate youth about digital liter-
acy concepts; (E) full-time bootcamp programs (n = 3), where individuals of any age can
participate in intensive and accelerated learning programs at varying skill levels; and (F)
part-time extracurricular programs (n = 4), where individuals of any age can participate
in before/after school and weekend programs, camps during school breaks, or drop-in
programming. Programs may fall under more than one category depending on the types
of programming offered by each organization. Among the 13 identified programs, 8
were Canada-wide, 2 were developed and delivered in Ontario, and 1 in each Manitoba,
British Columbia, and Nova Scotia.

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

 Table 1 Youth-focused digital literacy programs and frameworks
Program and/or organization name Type of program Description Key components Location

Formal education system

Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments

BC Ministry of Education and Child School-based digital literacy and coding A digital literacy framework to help educators Research and information literacy British Columbia,
Care: Digital Literacy Framework (British courses integrate technology and digital literacy-related Critical thinking, problem solving, and Canada
Columbia Ministry of Education and Child Structured lesson plans and educational activities into their classroom practice decision making
Care, 2022) resources The framework provides some basis for the Creativity and innovation
development of assessment tools for the digital Digital citizenship
literacy competencies Communication and collaboration
(2024) 11:8

Technology operations and concepts

Nova Scotia Ministry of Education and School-based digital literacy and coding The Nova Scotia government has developed Exploring technology Nova Scotia,
Early Childhood Development: Technol- courses a Technology education course to provide Communications technology Canada
ogy Education (Nova Scotia Ministry of students hands-on design problem-solving skills Design
Education and Early Childhood Develop- The course is designed to teach students to use Production technology
ment, 2022) a range of technological tools, processes, and Communications technology
applications; integrate technology education Computer programming
with other academic disciplines; design and cre-
ate devices and objects that solve technological
problems; and explain the consequences of
technology and how it affects society
Government of Ontario: STEM Skills and School-based digital literacy and coding The Ontario government introduced a new Coding Ontario, Canada
Connections (Government of Ontario, courses science and technology curriculum and de- Engineering design process
2022) streaming the Grade 9 science course Algorithms
The new STEM programming includes Data input, storage, processing, and
mandatory learning on coding, data literacy, output
mathematical modeling, and an emphasis on Project management and program
financial literacy design
Controlling large systems in action
Robotics

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Page 7 of 24
 Table 1 (continued)
Program and/or organization name Type of program Description Key components Location

Informal education system

Toronto Public Library (Toronto Public Part-time extracurricular programs The Toronto Public Library provides free pro- 3d printing Ontario, Canada
Library, 2022) grams and classes as well as access to comput- 3d design
ers and equipment for all age groups Audio recording and editing
Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments

Programming includes technology talks, hands- Coding

on coding workshops and other classes for a Image editing (e.g., adobe photoshop)
wide range of interests Robotics
Sewing (at fabrication studio)
Video recording and editing
(2024) 11:8

CoderDojo program (Kelly et al., 2023) Part-time extracurricular programs Coding clubs for children and youth to stimu- Scratch Manitoba, Canada
late digital capacity and adoption among rural Raspberry Pi Pico
young people administered by three branches Python
of the Western Manitoba Regional Library Unity
The CoderDojo program incorporates a ‘belt’ Web (HTML, CSS, animations)
system corresponding to beginner, intermedi-
ate, and advanced ‘Scratch’ skills
Let’s Talk Science (Let’s Talk Science, 2022) School-based digital literacy workshops Programs and resources for educators to Cybersecurity Canada
Teacher education/training models improve youth education and engagement in Coding
Structured lesson plans and educational STEM Artificial intelligence
resources Programming is available at no cost to schools, Robotics
early education centres, community organiza- Data privacy
tions, and parents/caregivers
Programming includes Career profiles in STEM,
hands-on activities exploring STEM concepts,
lesson plans for educators, interactive resources
(activities, eBooks, videos), national STEM pro-
jects using real-world data
Kids Code Jeunesse (Kids Code Jeunesse, School-based digital literacy workshops Programs that provide access to digital skills Artificial intelligence Canada
2022) Teacher education/training models education, with a focus on girls and under- JavaScript
Structured lesson plans and educational served communities Scratch
resources Programming includes online training for Micro:bit
educators, code in the classroom workshops for Python
educators and students, code clubs for youth,
online resources for parents and youth

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Page 8 of 24
 Table 1 (continued)
Program and/or organization name Type of program Description Key components Location

Canada Learning Code (CLC) (Canada School-based digital literacy workshops Programs that provide digital literacy education Basic digital skills Canada
Learning Code, 2022) Teacher education/training models and working to equip people living in Canada Coding
Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments

Structured lesson plans and educational with technical skills Robotics

resources 1-day and multi-day workshops for students HTML/CSS
7-week program for adults JavaScript
March Break and Summer Camps Ruby on rails
Code Mobile, a traveling computer lab on Python
wheels Graphic design
(2024) 11:8

Introductions to artificial intelligence

Introductions to blockchain
Pinnguaq (Pinnguaq, 2019) School-based digital literacy workshops Programs designed to support the develop- App development Canada
Teacher education/training models ment of STEAM skills through innovative Art and design
Structured lesson plans and educational technology, art, and play Computational thinking
resources Programming includes Free in-person and Computer fundamentals
Full-time bootcamp programs remote digital skills workshops, camps, and Digital storytelling
online programs for learners of all ages Engineering
Game design
Online safety
Root and stem
Sound design
Video production
Boys and Girls Clubs of Canada: Kid Tech Full-time bootcamp programs Program teaching youth digital skills in a fun, Digital skills Canada
Nation (Boys and Girls Club, 2022) Part-time extracurricular programs beginner-friendly, and collaborative environ- Coding concepts
ment Internet safety
The program focuses on engaging young Computational thinking
people that are typically underrepresented in
STEM fields (i.e., girls, racialized and Indigenous
children, and children from newcomer families)
Programming includes youth mentorship, digi-
tal literacy skill development, and coding

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Page 9 of 24
 Table 1 (continued)
Program and/or organization name Type of program Description Key components Location
Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments

Actua: STEM programming (Actua, 2022) Structured lesson plans and educational A network of 35 university and college App creation Canada
resources members that deliver coding and digital skills Robotics
Full-time bootcamp programs programming Artificial intelligence
Part-time extracurricular programs Programming includes school workshops, sum- Big data
mer camps, after-school programs, year-round
(2024) 11:8

clubs, and community outreach initiatives for

youth in Grades K–12 in every Canadian prov-
ince and territory
Media Smarts: A Day in the Life of the Jos Structured lesson plans and educational A classroom-based cybersecurity, privacy, and Cyberbullying Canada
(Maqsood & Chiasson, 2021) resources digital literacy game for elementary school Data privacy
students Online reputation
Privacy and ethics
Verifying the veracity of information
online
Online learning
Media Smarts: Use, Understand, Create School-based digital literacy workshops A framework developed for teaching digital Ethics and empathy Canada
(Media Smarts, 2022) Structured lesson plans and educational media literacy in Canadian schools Privacy and security
resources Provides teachers with supporting lessons and Community engagement
interactive resources that are linked to curricu- Digital health
lum outcomes for every province and territory Consumer awareness
Finding and verifying
Making and remixing
This table summarizes youth-focused digital literacy programs and frameworks across Canada. Programs noted under ‘formal education system’ refers to those offered in school settings, ‘informal education system’ refers
to other organizational setting such as community centers or non-profit organizations, and online learning refers to programs administered and accessed electronically (i.e., via digital devices such as computers and
smartphones)

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Page 10 of 24
Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8 Page 11 of 24

Table 2 Digital literacy program overview

Component Learning objectives Subcomponents

Digital fluency Ability to search in a systematic way for informa- Searching and processing
tion specified in a web search query Authenticating information
Ability to recognize and authenticate sources and Apps
information online Computing
Understand what apps are and how they can be Data
used to achieve/complete goals and tasks Data backups
Understand the difference between hardware and Data storage
software and how they work together
Understand what is considered data and where to
appropriately store data
Digital security and privacy Understands the concept of privacy in their every- Data sovereignty
day lives, and as it relates to using the Internet Data sharing
Awareness that many websites ask for information Cookies
that is private and has the ability to responsibly Privacy and security
handle such requests Passwords
Knowledge how to identify secure sites by looking Digital viruses
for privacy policies Identity theft
Knowledge of how and where to appropriately Data collection
back up information
Understands the reasons why people use pass-
words, the benefits of using passwords, and knows
strategies for creating and keeping strong, secure
passwords
Understands data collection techniques
Knowledge of digital worms/viruses and strategies
to avoid them
Knows strategies for guarding against identity
theft and scams that try to access his/her private
information online
Ethics and empathy Understands the concepts of ethical behaviour and Digital identity
online ethics Digital awareness
Understands their responsibility to protect the Copyright and plagiarism
privacy of themselves and others when sharing Harassment and cyberbullying
information online, and how it relates to data
sovereignty
Understands that the information they put online
leaves a digital footprint
Understands what cyberbullying means and what
they can do when they encounter it
Understands the concept of having ownership
over creative work and respecting the creative
work of others
Understands the importance of citing all sources
when they do research
Understands the concept of plagiarism, and when
and how it is okay to use the work of others
Consumer awareness Knowledge of online spam, the forms it can take, Phishing
and how to identify strategies for dealing with it Terms of service
Reading and understanding the implications of Digital advertising
website Terms of Service and privacy policies
Understands that the purpose of product websites
is to encourage buying the product and is aware of
methods used to promote products on these sites
Understands the ways websites and companies
collect data online and utilize it to personalize con-
tent for their users, as well as consider companies’
motives in doing so

A summary of key program components is presented in Table 1. Substantial overlap

was found in the topics addressed across identified programs. Topics included: introduc-
tion to computers, ethics and empathy, cybersecurity, data privacy, data literacy, com-
munity engagement, digital health, consumer awareness, digital media and arts, and

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8 Page 12 of 24

artificial intelligence (AI). Our team thoroughly reviewed key components of previously
developed programs and determined which elements were relevant for the development
of the current digital literacy program for youth.

Development of a tailored digital literacy program

Key program components were identified through the environmental scan. Four key
topic areas were selected given the number of times they were mentioned in other
programs and their importance to overall digital literacy for youth. The four key pro-
gram components include: (1) digital fluency, (2) digital privacy and safety, (3) ethics
and empathy, and (4) consumer awareness. Each component addresses several relevant
subcomponents. The learning objectives for this program were adapted from the Digi-
tal Literacy Framework for Grades 10–12 developed by the Ministry of Education and
Child Care of British Columbia (British Columbia Ministry of Education and Child Care,
2022). An overview of each program component’s learning objectives and subcompo-
nents is presented in Table 2.
The digital fluency component aims to provide youth with the skills needed to search
and authenticate information online, understand and operate applications, and the
basics of computers, data, and data storage. The digital privacy and safety component
of this program educates youth about the concept of privacy in their everyday lives and
how it relates to using the Internet, the importance of passwords, digital viruses, and

Fig. 1 Example of modifiable in-class activities included in the program

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8 Page 13 of 24

identity theft. The ethics and empathy component of the program educates youth about
digital citizenship, including their digital identity, digital awareness, and cyberbullying.
The ethics and empathy topic also addresses copyright and plagiarism on the internet.
The consumer awareness component aims to ensure that youth understand their rights
as consumers and how their information is being tracked and shared.
The program has been developed for both paper-based as well as online delivery. The
program has also been developed to adapt to various target audiences and geographic
locations across Canada (e.g., urban youth, remote Indigenous communities, etc.). The
adaptability of the program is primarily through the use of modifiable in-class activities
(Fig. 1). Areas throughout the program where real-world examples would be useful to
contextualize the information for learners are highlighted (Animikii, 2019). Preliminary
examples are provided in the program; however, educators and program coordinators
are encouraged to adapt the examples to fit their context and target audience. The full
curriculum can be found in the Additional file 1.

Digital literacy assessment tools

A total of 103 articles in MEDLINE and ERIC were identified after removing dupli-
cates, as well as 10,000+ hits in Google Scholar which were reviewed against the
inclusion/exclusion criteria as described in the “Methods” section. A total of 18
results across all databases/search engines met the inclusion criteria. Four of the
identified digital literacy assessment tools utilized complex software to assess digital
literacy and computer skills. The remaining 15 assessment tools measured digital lit-
eracy through the use of self-reported questionnaires. A summary of the relevant dig-
ital literacy assessment tools is presented in Table 3. While publication years ranged
from 2006 to 2023, most articles reviewed were published between 2018 and 2020.
While each tool evaluated its own distinct set of indicators, several indicators were
commonly found across assessment tools. These indicators included: searching and
processing, evaluating digital information, communication using technology, knowl-
edge and understanding of computers and technology, digital safety, and attitudes
towards digital literacy.

Development of a digital literacy assessment tool

Findings from the environmental scan were used to develop a digital literacy assess-
ment tool to assess change in digital literacy following completion of this program
(pre vs. post program implementation. Indicators identified among previously vali-
dated measures of digital literacy were used to guide the development of questions
specific to the key digital literacy topics covered in the program. A 15-item assess-
ment tool consisting 4–5 questions specific to each module in the program was
developed. Topics assessed from each module included: (1) Digital fluency: search-
ing and processing, authenticating information, computing, and the cloud; (2) Digi-
tal security and privacy: data sharing, passwords, data collection, digital viruses, and
identity theft; (3) Ethics and empathy: digital identity, harassment and cyberbul-
lying, copyright, and plagiarizing; (4) Consumer awareness: phishing, terms of ser-
vice, and digital advertising. In addition to module-specific questions, a brief baseline

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

 Table 3 Digital literacy assessment measures
Measure Year Country Population Purpose Indicators Type of test Length (items, time)

iSkills Assessment (Katz, 2007) 2007 United Young adults To measure students’ ability to Define Skill-based test 15 tasks, 75 min
States navigate, critically evaluate and Access
make sense of the wealth of infor- Evaluate
mation available through digital Manage
Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments

technology Integrate
Create
Communicate
ACTS21 Assessment (Griffin et al., 2012 Australia Adolescents To evaluate the skills of students Knowledge Skill-based test NR, NR
2012) Finland in the twenty-first century and Skills
Singapore to introduce the learning in the Attitudes
(2024) 11:8

USA curricula Values

Costa Rica Ethics
Netherlands
TEL Assessment (US Department 2018 United Adolescents To assess technological literacy Technology and society Skill-based test NR, 60 min
of Education, 2018) States knowledge and skills that identi- Design and systems
fies the understandings and appli- Information and communication
cations of technology principles technology
that are important for all students
International Computer and 2019 United Adolescents To investigate, in a range of coun- Understanding computer use Skill-based NR, 80 min
Information Literacy Study (ICILS) States tries, the ways in which young Gathering information test + Question-
Assessment (Fraillon et al., 2019) people are developing computer Producing information naire
and information literacy to sup- Digital communication
port their capacity to participate in Attitudes towards information and com-
the digital age munication technologies
Nicholas and Ng (2019) 2019 Australia Adolescents To investigate Australian students’ Social emotional Questionnaire 26 items, NR
perceptions of their ability to use Cognitive: Understanding multimodality
mobile technology for learning Cognitive: Assess and apply
and everyday activities Technical skills
Lazonder et al. (2020) 2020 Netherlands Children To assess how children’s skills to Operating browsers and search engines Questionnaire 16 items, NR
collect, create, transform, and Using keywords and queries
safely use digital information Evaluating information
progressed Safe and secure use of online informa-
tion

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Page 14 of 24
 Table 3 (continued)
Measure Year Country Population Purpose Indicators Type of test Length (items, time)

Saxena et al. (2018) 2018 India Young adults To assess the digital literacy and Smartphone/internet usage Questionnaire NR, NR
smartphone usage amongst den- Assessment of digital literacy
tal students including their perspi- Students’ attitudes towards implemen-
cacity about smartphone/internet tation of e-technology in the dental
usage for learning purposes curriculum
Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments

Hatlevik et al. (2017) 2017 Norway Adults (teachers) To examine the relationship Self-efficacy in basic information and Questionnaire 26 items, NR
between teacher’s self-efficacy, communication technologies
strategic use of information, Self-efficacy in online collaboration
digital competence, and use of Strategies to evaluate information
information and communication Use of information and communication
(2024) 11:8

technologies technologies
Digital competence
Information and communication 2017 Norway Adolescents To assess the overall measure- Searching and processing Questionnaire 14 items, NR
technologies (ICT) literacy scale ment invariance and potential Producing
(Hatlevik, 2017) differential item functioning of an Communicating
information and communication Evaluating digital information
technologies literacy measure
across gender
Nguyen and Habók (2020) 2020 Vietnam Young adults To assess students’ digital knowl- Searching and evaluating information Questionnaire 5 sections, NR
edge and their perceived skills, Creating
their attitudes toward the use Communicating
of digital technologies, and the Collaborating
frequency of use of technology E-safety
applications in English learning
Perdana et al. (2019) 2019 Indonesia Adolescents To measure students’ digital Knowledge Questionnaire 10 items, 60 min
literacy skills and prove whether Assembly
there were differences in student Content evaluation
skills based on education levels Internet searching
Hyper textual navigation
Jin et al. (2020) 2020 China Children and adolescents The development of an assess- Information and data literacy Questionnaire 80 items, 50 min
ment suitable for measuring DL Communication and collaboration
at primary and secondary school Digital content creation
levels Digital safety
Problem solving

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Page 15 of 24
 Table 3 (continued)
Measure Year Country Population Purpose Indicators Type of test Length (items, time)

Screenshots program evaluation 2021 United Children To evaluate the Screenshots Curriculum knowledge Questionnaire 43 items, 20 min
(Bickham et al., 2021) States program in increasing participants’ Online bullying
knowledge about key concepts of Online citizenship beliefs
digital citizenship and in shifting Online citizenship behaviour
Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments

beliefs and intended behaviors Conflict resolution

to align with prosocial and safe Responsiveness and relevance
online interactions

Youth Digital Citizenship Scale 2018 Korea Adults (teachers) To evaluate digital citizenship Self-identity Questionnaire 18 items, NR
(Kim & Choi, 2018) among adolescents from their Activity in online
teachers perspective Fluency for digital environment
(2024) 11:8

Ethics for digital environment

Security, privacy, and digital liter- 2021 Canada Children To assess cybersecurity, privacy, Cybersecurity Questionnaire 15 items, 15 min
acy knowledge measure (SPDLK) and digital literacy knowledge Privacy
(Maqsood & Chiasson, 2021) pre- and post-participation in the Digital literacy
"A Day in the life of Jos" digital
literacy program
Digital Citizenship Scale (DCS) 2017 United Adults To measure abilities, perceptions, Internet political activism Questionnaire 26 items, NR
(Choi et al., 2017) States and levels of participation of Technical skills
young adults in Internet based Local/global awareness
community Critical perspective
Networking agency
Be Internet Awesome Evaluation 2023 United Children To assess the impact of the Be Technology use Questionnaire 27 items, 30–40 min
(Jones et al., 2023) States Internet Awesome program for Knowledge of online safety concepts
youth (grades 4–6) on knowledge, Self-efficacy to handle online problems
attitudes, and behaviors related to Online privacy behaviors and attitudes
improved safety online Online harassment
Help-seeking from adults for online
problems
Online civility behaviors
Evaluation of Digital Competence 2020 Spain Adolescents To assess the level of digital Information Questionnaire 108 items, NR
for Compulsory Education Stu- competence through knowledge, Communication
dents (ECODIES) (Casillas-Martín abilities, and attitudes among Content creation
et al., 2020) compulsory education Safety
students Problem solving

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Page 16 of 24
Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8 Page 17 of 24

questionnaire was included to gather information regarding youth demographics as

well as their internet access and usage, communication, and social networking pat-
terns. The final measure adapted version can be found in the Additional file 1.

Discussion
Digital literacy has become increasingly important to navigate the complexities of a digi-
tal world, particularly among youth, and can be considered an essential skill to func-
tion in the twenty-first century (Pérez-Escoda et al., 2020; Richardson et al., 2022). This
study aimed to create a digital literacy program tailored for youth in Canada, as well as
an assessment tool to enable evaluation of digital literacy levels pre- and post-program
implementation to identify existing competencies and disparities in digital literacy levels.
To date, there is no national program which has been adopted for diverse youth across
the country, which creates challenges for measurement and evaluation of digital literacy
levels over time. The focus on youth populations was deliberate, because although youth
are generally considered to possess a higher digital quotient (Keach, 2014), their depend-
ence on digital platforms for everyday tasks places them at potentially increased risk of
misinformation, identity theft, and cyberbullying (Silveira et al., 2022).
While general digital literacy skills programs are a necessary component of national
strategies (Medhurst et al., 2023), it is important to recognize that vulnerable subgroups
of youth may require targeted digital literacy programs that address key gaps or chal-
lenges in order to minimize inequities (Vassilakopoulou & Hustad, 2023). Similar suc-
cessful initiatives have been implemented in the United States (Drazich et al., 2021),
with a strong emphasis on the inclusion of low-income populations, as well as in Indo-
nesia, where digital literacy models have placed a specific focus on women who may be
at increased risk of gender bias, specifically in the workplace (Kusumawardani et al.,
2022). While access and use of the internet and digital tools by youth in the western
world is near universal (Donelle et al., 2021; Secretariat & Secretariat, n.d.; Żerebecki &
Opree, 2022), there are variations of digital literacy across jurisdictions and sociodemo-
graphic groups (Bandura & Leal, 2022; Hadziristic, 2017; Human Rights Council, 2023).
Acknowledging these variations, and taking a targeted approach to program design, we
focused on developing a digital literacy program to address current gaps in Canadian
digital literacy curricula.
Our study found a range of programs across Canada dedicated to improving digital
literacy among youth. The majority of these programs focused on equipping youth with
computer science and data science skills such as coding data analytics, and develop-
ment of AI in order to foster an understanding of the impact of technology on every-
day life. The practical, hands-on experience provided by many of these programs aims
to prepare students for careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
(STEM). While skills-based programs are critical for youth to navigate an increasingly
digital world, a key limitation of many of the existing programs appears to be the prior-
itization of technical skills over critical concepts related to acceptable online behavior,
such as ethics, data ownership, safety, and privacy. This is problematic, as many youth
may not understand the implications of the risks associated with digital connectivity,
while they might be able to develop STEM skills. As a result, youth may not appreciate
the broader context of the complexities of digital technology, particularly in navigating

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8 Page 18 of 24

online resources, which makes them susceptible to misinformation (Human Rights

Council, 2023; Nan et al., 2022). Teaching youth how to identify and evaluate trustwor-
thy sources of information, as well as how to differentiate between fact and opinion, can
help them navigate the world of digital media with greater confidence, accuracy, and
nuance (Hämäläinen et al., 2021; Magis-Weinberg et al., 2021).
Among the reviewed programs, the “Use, Understand, Create” initiative (Media
Smarts, 2022) took a more holistic lens as it addressed these broader concepts of digi-
tal literacy (e.g., ethics, privacy, community engagement, and media literacy) in addition
to digital skills. The Media Smarts team developed a comprehensive framework provid-
ing educators with guidance on how to incorporate these complex skills and topics into
the classroom. While this program covers key aspects of digital literacy, the program is
structured as classroom resources and lesson plans for educators, which requires spe-
cific training and skills to implement effectively—a potential implementation challenge.
Flexibility in program delivery is a crucial consideration for appropriate implementa-
tion as well as uptake by youth (Nascimbeni & Vosloo, 2019; Oostermeijer et al., 2022).
By ensuring that individuals with varying levels of training (i.e., educators with formal
training to parents with limited technological experience) can successfully implement
the program, our digital literacy program can be adopted in a range of settings due its
flexibility and accessibility.
Despite the breadth of digital literacy curricula identified by our environmental scan,
the majority of programs did not demonstrate flexibility in terms of mode of delivery and
administration. This ability to adapt is especially important for improving the uptake,
usability, and sustainability of digital literacy programs among youth, particularly as
technology and the associated risks are constantly evolving (Nascimbeni & Vosloo,
2019). Based on the strengths and limitations of existing curricula, we developed a user-
friendly program which could be delivered not only by educators in schools, but also by
parents or other adults who could aid youth in understanding and applying the mod-
ule content at home and/or other public settings (i.e., community centers). To ensure
ongoing relevance of the program content, each module uses specific examples, which
program administrators can tailor to their target audience to appeal to demographic
diversity, geographic location, cultural relevance, or recent incidents based on the lat-
est technological developments. For example, with recent advancements in AI (Bohr
& Memarzadeh, 2020; Collins et al., 2021; Vinuesa et al., 2020), it is critical for youth
to understand its applications in everyday life, potential benefits, as well as associated
risks by including topics such as AI-driven advertising on social media which may use
browser history data to push targeted ads (Bohr & Memarzadeh, 2020; Davenport et al.,
2020). Another aspect of this adaptability is the format of delivery, as the digital literacy
program can be delivered in-person, online, or via a smartphone-based app—further
increasing the usability and sustainability of the content.
In addition to tailored examples and interactive content, a distinguishing factor of
this digital literacy program is the emphasis on data sovereignty. Data sovereignty refers
to meaningful control or ownership of one’s data (Bhawra et al., 2021; Hudson et al.,
2023). Many smartphone-based apps and digital platforms unethically collect consumer
data, leaving consumers with little to no control of how their data is used, stored, or
repurposed (Anom, 2022; Hemker et al., 2021). This is especially problematic among

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8 Page 19 of 24

communities which have been historically colonized, including racialized and Indig-
enous Peoples (Hudson et al., 2023), whose personal information has often been mis-
used particularly in the medical field (Goodman et al., 2017; Smye et al., 2023; Wylie &
McConkey, 2019). Research indicates that users are more inclined to interact with and
share data on online platforms that prioritize user control over their own data and place
a strong emphasis on privacy (Prince, 2018). As a result, it is critical for consumers to
be aware of their rights to data privacy and ownership, thus this digital literacy program
emphasizes the control over data and connected concepts including consent and self-
determination. By connecting digital privacy and safety to data sovereignty, the program
empowers youth to understand their rights and make informed decisions about the data
they share.
The impact of this digital literacy program will depend on several factors, including
the implementation strategy, as well as broader contextual factors. Key considerations
for implementation include: (i) setting (i.e., in your community, is this program best
delivered in a school, community center, or other organization as part of extracurricular
programming?), (ii) mode of administration (i.e., is it most feasible to deliver this pro-
gram in-person or adapt for delivery online or via a mobile app?), and (iii) stakeholders
(i.e., who is best suited to deliver this program in your community – educators, parents,
etc.?). Other contextual factors that need to be considered include available resources
for administration and promotion of the program. While we found a range of resources
and programming for digital literacy, there was little evidence of program evaluation
(at least publicly available reports), which is an important factor in assessing the overall
impact, design, and delivery of these programs (Reddy et al., 2023). Hence, we developed
a digital literacy assessment tool to assess changes in literacy levels between pre- and
post-program implementation. This tool will enable quantifying changes in digital lit-
eracy levels within a population both prior to and following program implementation.
For example, individual-level change (i.e., specific improvements across module topic
areas) can be empirically determined using statistical tests such as paired T-tests, which
thereby allows program administrators and evaluators to determine the extent and type
of impact the digital literacy program is having within a population.

Strengths and limitations

This study makes an important contribution to both the literature, as well as resources
to practically apply and evaluate digital literacy among youth. The cross-disciplinary
nature of this topic required flexibility in the search strategy, thus an environmental scan
and literature review were selected as the primary methods to enable review of relevant
organizational websites, grey literature, and reference lists as deemed relevant. However,
it is possible that some relevant digital literacy programs and/or assessment tools may
not have been captured by our search strategy, particularly given the geographic exclu-
sion criteria limiting our search to Canadian programs and English language articles.
Moreover, programs or curricula that did not explicitly frame the content as promoting
‘digital literacy’—but may have focused on related content such as data security—were
likely also not captured by our search. While the developed digital literacy program and
assessment toolkit is specific to address current gaps in Canada, both of these resources
can be applied and/or adapted by other jurisdictions.

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8 Page 20 of 24

Conclusion
It is evident that digital literacy is a critical life skill for navigating today’s digital
world, and therefore requires dedicated educational strategies to ensure that youth
are equipped with the skills to maximize its benefits while mitigating potential risks.
Based on existing evidence and informed by foundational frameworks such as the
UNESCO Digital Literacy Global Framework, this study developed a comprehensive
digital literacy framework and assessment tool which could be used to evaluate the
effectiveness of program implementation in a variety of settings, ranging from com-
munity centres to schools.
Given the growing importance of digital competencies, a youth-focused pro-
gram and assessment tool are crucial for understanding and addressing digital lit-
eracy among this vulnerable cohort. While our study uncovered several promising
programs and tools, it was evident that many lacked the flexibility and adaptability
necessary to implement across varied settings. Our program’s adaptability allows
for customization to various sociodemographic target groups, including culturally
diverse and geographically remote communities. Each module uses specific examples
which can be tailored by program administrators for their target audience to appeal to
demographic diversity or recent concerns (i.e., web-based scams, specific data privacy
issue in a community), as well as the latest technological developments. Moreover,
the corresponding assessment tool is necessary for ongoing evaluation and to enable
ongoing improvements to digital literacy curricula for diverse populations of youth.
Future work in this area will include a formal evaluation of both the newly developed
digital literacy program and the assessment tool among Canadian populations. Addi-
tional research is required focusing on the development of a comprehensive global
digital literacy program, which can be further adapted to specific jurisdictions and
other vulnerable groups such as seniors. Overall, implementing digital literacy pro-
grams can better prepare youth for an increasingly digital world, while minimizing
potential risks associated with technology use.

Abbreviations
ERIC Education Resources Information Center
AI Artificial intelligence
STEM Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
NR Not reported

Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at https://​doi.​org/​10.​1186/​s40561-​024-​00293-x.

Additional file 1: 1. A tailored digital literacy program for youth. 2. A digital literacy assessment measure for youth.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Taniya Uruthirakumar for her help with data abstraction and creation of summary tables,
as well as Nadine Elsahli for her support in collating this manuscript. Thank you to the Canadian Internet Registration
Authority (CIRA) for supporting our digital health research programs and digital literacy initiatives.

Author contributions
JB and TRK conceptualized this manuscript, MCB conducted the environmental scan and literature review, and MCB,
JB and TRK conducted a review of all shortlisted programs and assessment tools, including creation of the final digital
literacy program and assessment tool categories. All authors contributed to writing the full draft, reviewing, and approv-
ing the final manuscript.

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8 Page 21 of 24

Funding
This research was supported by the Canada Research Chairs Program (TRK).

Availability of data and materials

All referenced digital literacy programs and assessment tools used to develop the current manuscript have been cited
and summarized in the included data summary tables.

Declarations
Competing interests
The authors have no competing interests to declare.

Received: 10 August 2023 Accepted: 1 February 2024

References
Actüa. (2022). Actua academy. https://​actua.​ca/​actua-​acade​my
Ahmed, S., Vaska, M., & Turin, T. C. (2016). Conducting a literature review in health research: Basics of the approach, typol-
ogy and methodology. Journal of National Heart Foundation of Bangladesh, 5(2), 44–51.
Animikii Inc. (2019). Decolonizing digital: Contextualizing indigenous data sovereignty. Animikii Indigenous Innovation.
https://​www.​animi​kii.​com/​news/​decol​onizi​ng-​digit​al-​conte​xtual​izing-​indig​enous-​data-​sover​eignty
Anom, B. Y. (2022). The ethical dilemma of mobile phone data monitoring during COVID-19: The case for South Korea
and the United States. Journal of Public Health Research, 11(3), 22799036221102492. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1177/​22799​
03622​11024​91
Aromataris, E., & Riitano, D. (2014). Systematic reviews: Constructing a search strategy and searching for evidence. Ameri-
can Journal of Nursing, 114(5), 49–56. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1097/​01.​NAJ.​00004​46779.​99522.​f6
Aydin, M. (2021). Does the digital divide matter? Factors and conditions that promote ICT literacy. Telematics and Infor-
matics, 58, 101536. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​tele.​2020.​101536
Bach, A. J., Wolfson, T., & Crowell, J. K. (2018). Poverty, literacy, and social transformation: An interdisciplinary exploration of
the digital divide. Journal of Media Literacy Education, 10(1), 22–41. https://​doi.​org/​10.​23860/​JMLE-​2018-​10-1-2
Bandura, R., & Leal, E. I. M. (2022). The digital literacy imperative. https://​www.​csis.​org/​analy​sis/​digit​al-​liter​acy-​imper​ative
Bhawra, J., Buchan, M. C., Green, B., Skinner, K., & Katapally, T. R. (2022). A guiding framework for needs assessment evalua-
tions to embed digital platforms in partnership with Indigenous communities. PLoS ONE, 17(12), e0279282. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1371/​journ​al.​pone.​02792​82
Bickham, D. S., Moukalled, S., Inyart, H. K., & Zlokower, R. (2021). Evaluating a middle-school digital citizenship curriculum
(screenshots): Quasi-experimental study. JMIR Mental Health, 8(9), e26197. https://​doi.​org/​10.​2196/​26197
Bhawra, J., Skinner, K., Favel, D., Green, B., Coates, K., & Katapally, T. R. (2021). The food equity and environmental data sov-
ereignty (FEEDS) project: Protocol for a quasi-experimental study evaluating a digital platform for climate change
preparedness. JMIR Research Protocols, 10(9), e31389. https://​doi.​org/​10.​2196/​31389
Bohr, A., & Memarzadeh, K. (2020). The rise of artificial intelligence in healthcare applications. Artificial Intelligence in
Healthcare. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​B978-0-​12-​818438-​7.​00002-2
Boys and Girls Clubs of Canada. (2022). What we do. https://​www.​bgccan.​com/​en/​what-​we-​do/
British Columbia Ministry of Education and Child Care. (2022). Digital literacy—A digital literacy framework. Retrieved 3
August 2023, from https://​www2.​gov.​bc.​ca/​gov/​conte​nt/​educa​tion-​train​ing/k-​12/​teach/​resou​rces-​for-​teach​ers/​
digit​al-​liter​acy
Burr, C., Taddeo, M., & Floridi, L. (2020). The ethics of digital well-being: A thematic review. Science and Engineering Ethics,
26(4), 2313–2343. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s11948-​020-​00175-8
Canada Learning Code. (2022). Learning with us. https://​www.​canad​alear​ningc​ode.​ca/​learn​ing-​with-​us/
Casillas-Martín, S., Cabezas-González, M., & García-Valcárcel Muñoz-Repiso, A. (2020). Análisis psicométrico de una prueba
para evaluar la competencia digital de estudiantes de Educación Obligatoria. RELIEVE - Revista Electrónica De Investi-
gación y Evaluación Educativa. https://​doi.​org/​10.​7203/​relie​ve.​26.2.​17611
Charlton, P., Doucet, S., Azar, R., Nagel, D. A., Boulos, L., Luke, A., Mears, K., Kelly, K. J., & Montelpare, W. J. (2019). The use of
the environmental scan in health services delivery research: A scoping review protocol. British Medical Journal Open,
9, e029805. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1136/​bmjop​en-​2019-​029805
Chatterjee, D., & Corral, J. (2017). How to write well-defined learning objectives. The Journal of Education in Perioperative
Medicine, 19(4), E610.
Choi, M., Glassman, M., & Cristol, D. (2017). What it means to be a citizen in the internet age: Development of a reliable
and valid digital citizenship scale. Computers and Education, 107, 100–112. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​compe​du.​2017.​
01.​002
Cooper, H., & Hedges, L. V. (2009). Research synthesis as a scientific process. In H. Cooper, L. V. Hedges, & J. C. Valentine
(Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis and meta-analysis (2nd ed., pp. 3–13). Russel Sage Foundation.
Collins, C., Dennehy, D., Conboy, K., & Mikalef, P. (2021). Artificial intelligence in information systems research: A systematic
literature review and research agenda. International Journal of Information Management, 60, 102383. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1016/j.​ijinf​omgt.​2021.​102383
Davenport, T., Guha, A., Grewal, D., & Bressgott, T. (2020). How artificial intelligence will change the future of marketing.
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 48(1), 24–42. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s11747-​019-​00696-0

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8 Page 22 of 24

Donelle, L., Facca, D., Burke, S., Hiebert, B., Bender, E., & Ling, S. (2021). Exploring Canadian children’s social media use,
digital literacy, and quality of life: Pilot cross-sectional survey study. JMIR Formative Research, 5(5), e18771. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​2196/​18771
Drazich, B. F., Nyikadzino, Y., & Gleason, K. T. (2021). A program to improve digital access and literacy among community
stakeholders: Cohort study. JMIR Formative Research, 5(11), e30605. https://​doi.​org/​10.​2196/​30605
Fraillon, J., Ainley, J., Schulz, W., Duckworth, D., & Friedman, T. (2019). IEA international computer and information literacy
study 2018 assessment framework. Springer International Publishing. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​978-3-​030-​19389-8
Goodman, A., Fleming, K., Markwick, N., Morrison, T., Lagimodiere, L., & Kerr, T. (2017). “They treated me like crap and I
know it was because I was native”: The healthcare experiences of Aboriginal Peoples living in Vancouver’s inner city.
Social Science and Medicine, 1982(178), 87–94. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​socsc​imed.​2017.​01.​053
Government of Canada. (2023). Digital literacy exchange program. https://​ised-​isde.​canada.​ca/​site/​digit​al-​liter​acy-​excha​
nge-​progr​am/​en/​digit​al-​liter​acy-​excha​nge-​progr​am
Government of Canada. (2016). Security and prosperity in the digital age: Consulting on Canada’s approach to cyber security.
https://​www.​publi​csafe​ty.​gc.​ca/​cnt/​rsrcs/​pblct​ns/​2016-​scrty-​prspr​ty/​2016-​scrty-​prspr​ty-​en.​pdf
Government of Ontario. (2022). Strand a STEM skills and connections: Key changes—science and technology, grades 1–8.
Government of Ontario. https://​www.​dcp.​edu.​gov.​on.​ca/​en/​sci-​tech-​key-​chang​es/​strand-a
Graafland, J. (2018). New technologies and 21st century children: Recent trends and outcomes. https://​one.​oecd.​org/​docum​
ent/​EDU/​WKP(2018)​15/​en/​pdf
Griffin, P., McGaw, B., & Care, E. (Eds.). (2012). Assessment and teaching of 21st century skills. Springer. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1007/​978-​94-​007-​2324-5
Haddock, A., Ward, N., Yu, R., & O’Dea, N. (2022). Positive effects of digital technology use by adolescents: A scoping
review of the literature. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(21), 14009. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​3390/​ijerp​h1921​14009
Hadziristic, T. (2017). The state of digital literacy in Canada: A literature review. https://​brook​field​insti​tute.​ca/​wp-​conte​nt/​
uploa​ds/​Brook​field​Insti​tute_​State-​of-​Digit​al-​Liter​acy-​in-​Canada_​Liter​ature_​Worki​ngPap​er.​pdf
Hämäläinen, E. K., Kiili, C., Räikkönen, E., & Marttunen, M. (2021). Students’ abilities to evaluate the credibility of online
texts: The role of internet-specific epistemic justifications. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 37(5), 1409–1422.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1111/​jcal.​12580
Hatlevik, O. E. (2017). Examining the relationship between teachers’ self-efficacy, their digital competence, strategies to
evaluate information, and use of ICT at school. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 61(5), 555–567. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1080/​00313​831.​2016.​11725​01
Hatlevik, O. E., Scherer, R., & Christophersen, K.-A. (2017). Moving beyond the study of gender differences: An analysis of
measurement invariance and differential item functioning of an ICT literacy scale. Computers and Education, 113,
280–293. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​compe​du.​2017.​06.​003
Hemker, S., Herrando, C., & Constantinides, E. (2021). The transformation of data marketing: How an ethical lens on
consumer data collection shapes the future of marketing. Sustainability, 13(20), 20. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​su132​
011208
Hudson, M., Carroll, S. R., Anderson, J., Blackwater, D., Cordova-Marks, F. M., Cummins, J., David-Chavez, D., Fernandez, A.,
Garba, I., Hiraldo, D., Jäger, M. B., Jennings, L. L., Martinez, A., Sterling, R., Walker, J. D., & Rowe, R. K. (2023). Indigenous
peoples’ rights in data: A contribution toward indigenous research sovereignty. Frontiers in Research Metrics and
Analytics. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3389/​frma.​2023.​11738​05
Human Rights Council. (2023). Human Rights Council hears that digital, media and information literacy programmes should
be considered an integral part of education efforts given their importance for the exercise of rights in the digital age.
United Nations. https://​www.​ohchr.​org/​en/​news/​2023/​07/​human-​rights-​counc​il-​hears-​digit​al-​media-​and-​infor​
mation-​liter​acy-​progr​ammes-​should-​be
Jin, K.-Y., Reichert, F., Cagasan, L. P., de la Torre, J., & Law, N. (2020). Measuring digital literacy across three age cohorts:
Exploring test dimensionality and performance differences. Computers and Education, 157, 103968. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1016/j.​compe​du.​2020.​103968
Jones, L. M., Mitchell, K. J., & Beseler, C. L. (2023). The impact of youth digital citizenship education: Insights from a cluster
randomized controlled trial outcome evaluation of the be internet awesome (BIA) curriculum. Contemporary School
Psychology. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s40688-​023-​00465-5
Joshi, S. V., Stubbe, D., Li, S.-T.T., & Hilty, D. M. (2019). the use of technology by youth: Implications for psychiatric educa-
tors. Academic Psychiatry, 43(1), 101–109. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s40596-​018-​1007-2
Kannan, P., Bhawra, J., Patel, P., & Katapally, T. R. (2022). Preserving rural school health during the COVID-19 pandemic:
Indigenous citizen scientist perspectives from a qualitative study. AIMS Public Health, 9(2), 216–236. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​3934/​publi​cheal​th.​20220​16
Katz, I. R. (2007). Testing information literacy in digital environments: ETS’s iSkills assessment. Information Technology and
Libraries, 26(3), 3. https://​doi.​org/​10.​6017/​ital.​v26i3.​3271
Keach, S. (2014). Ofcom tests your tech-savviness with new DQ quiz | T3. https://​www.​t3.​com/​news/​ofcom-​tests-​your-​tech-​
savvi​ness-​with-​new-​dq-​quiz
Kelly, W., McGrath, B., & Hubbard, D. (2023). Starting from ‘scratch’: Building young people’s digital skills through a coding
club collaboration with rural public libraries. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 55(2), 487–499. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1177/​09610​00622​10909​53
Kids Code Jeunesse. (2022). Resources for educators. https://​kidsc​odeje​unesse.​org/​resou​rces-​for-​educa​tors
Kim, M., & Choi, D. (2018). Development of youth digital citizenship scale and implication for educational setting. Journal
of Educational Technology and Society, 21(1), 155–171.
Kishore, K., Jaswal, V., Kulkarni, V., & De, D. (2021). Practical guidelines to develop and evaluate a questionnaire. Indian
Dermatology Online Journal, 12(2), 266–275. https://​doi.​org/​10.​4103/​idoj.​IDOJ_​674_​20
Korte, M. (2020). The impact of the digital revolution on human brain and behavior: Where do we stand? Dialogues in
Clinical Neuroscience, 22(2), 101–111. https://​doi.​org/​10.​31887/​DCNS.​2020.​22.2/​mkorte

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8 Page 23 of 24

Kusumawardani, E., Tristanti, T., & Kusumawardani, E. (2022). Digital literacy model to empower women using commu-
nity-based education approach. World Journal on Educational Technology: Current Issues, 14(1), 175–188. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​18844/​wjet.​v14i1.​6714
LaBonte, R., Nagle, J., & Barbour, M. K. (2021). Pandemic pedagogy in Canada: Lessons from the first 18 months. https://​
canel​earn.​net/​wp-​conte​nt/​uploa​ds/​2021/​11/​CANeL​earn-​Pande​mic-​Pedag​ogy-​in-​Canada.​pdf
Law, N., Woo, D., de la Torre, J., & Wong, G. (2018). A global framework of reference on digital literacy skills for indicator
4.4.2. UNESCO. https://​uis.​unesco.​org/​sites/​defau​lt/​files/​docum​ents/​ip51-​global-​frame​work-​refer​ence-​digit​al-​
liter​acy-​skills-​2018-​en.​pdf
Lazonder, A. W., Walraven, A., Gijlers, H., & Janssen, N. (2020). Longitudinal assessment of digital literacy in children:
Findings from a large Dutch single-school study. Computers and Education, 143, 103681. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​compe​du.​2019.​103681
Let’s Talk Science. (2022). Educational resources. https://​letst​alksc​ience.​ca/​educa​tional-​resou​rces
Lupton, D. (2021). Young people’s use of digital health technologies in the global north: Narrative review. Journal of
Medical Internet Research, 23(1), e18286. https://​doi.​org/​10.​2196/​18286
Machete, P., & Turpin, M. (2020). The use of critical thinking to identify fake news: A systematic literature review.
Responsible Design, Implementation and Use of Information and Communication Technology, 12067, 235–246.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​978-3-​030-​45002-1_​20
Magis-Weinberg, L., Ballonoff Suleiman, A., & Dahl, R. E. (2021). Context, development, and digital media: Implications
for very young adolescents in LMICs. Frontiers in Psychology. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3389/​fpsyg.​2021.​632713
Maqsood, S., & Chiasson, S. (2021). Design, development, and evaluation of a cybersecurity, privacy, and digital
literacy game for tweens. ACM Transactions on Privacy and Security, 24(4), 28:1-28:37. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1145/​
34698​21
Medhurst, K., Altrows, L., & Foreman, A. (2023). Establishing a common framework for digital skills in Canada recom-
mendations report. https://​bowva​lleyc​ollege.​ca/-/​media/​bvc/​school-​of-​conti​nuing-​learn​ing/​towes/​recom​
menda​tions_​report.​ashx?​la=​en&​hash=​E276A​EDCBE​604E2​07C57​0CC5C​2550B​0AD77​F394F
Media Smarts. (2022). Use, understand and engage: A digital media literacy framework for Canadian Schools. https://​
media​smarts.​ca/​teach​er-​resou​rces/​use-​under​stand-​engage-​digit​al-​media-​liter​acy-​frame​work-​canad​ian-​schoo​ls
Nan, X., Wang, Y., & Thier, K. (2022). Why do people believe health misinformation and who is at risk? A systematic
review of individual differences in susceptibility to health misinformation. Social Science and Medicine, 314,
115398. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​socsc​imed.​2022.​115398
Nascimbeni, F., & Vosloo, S. (2019). Digital literacy for children: Exploring definitions and frameworks. https://​www.​unicef.​
org/​globa​linsi​ght/​media/​1271/​file/%​20UNI​CEF-​Global-​Insig​ht-​digit​al-​liter​acy-​scopi​ng-​paper-​2020.​pdf
National Center for Educational Statistics. (2022). More than 98 percent of public schools made concerted efforts to
promote pandemic-related learning recovery during the 2021–22 school year. https://​nces.​ed.​gov/​whats​new/​press_​
relea​ses/​08_​04_​2022.​asp
Nguyen, L. A. T., & Habók, A. (2022). Digital literacy of EFL Students: An empirical study in Vietnamese universities.
Libri, 72(1), 53–66. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1515/​libri-​2020-​0165
Nicholas, H., & Ng, W. (2019). Mobile digital literacy of Australian adolescent students. International Journal of Digital
Literacy and Digital Competence, 10(3), 32–48. https://​doi.​org/​10.​4018/​IJDLDC.​20190​70103
Nova Scotia Ministry of Education and Early Childhood Development. (2022). High school technology education.
https://​curri​culum.​novas​cotia.​ca/​engli​sh-​progr​ams/​techn​ology-​educa​tion
Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada. (2018). For individuals. https://​www.​priv.​gc.​ca/​en/​for-​indiv​iduals/
Oostermeijer, S., Williamson, M., Nicholas, A., Machlin, A., & Bassilios, B. (2022). Implementing and delivering youth
mental health services: Approaches taken by the Australian primary health network ‘lead sites.’ International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(17), 10494. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​ijerp​h1917​10494
Pandya, A., & Lodha, P. (2021). Social connectedness, excessive screen time during COVID-19 and mental health: A
review of current evidence. Frontiers in Human Dynamics. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3389/​fhumd.​2021.​684137
Paré, G., & Kitsiou, S. (2017). Chapter 9: Methods for literature reviews. In F. Lau & C. Kuziemsky (Eds.), Handbook of
eHealth evaluation: An evidence-based approach (pp. 157–180). University of Victoria.
Perdana, R., Yani, R., Jumadi, J., & Rosana, D. (2019). Assessing students’ digital literacy skill in senior high school Yog-
yakarta. JPI (jurnal Pendidikan Indonesia), 8(2), 2. https://​doi.​org/​10.​23887/​jpi-​undik​sha.​v8i2.​17168
Pérez-Escoda, A., Jiménez-Narros, C., Perlado-Lamo-de-Espinosa, M., & Pedrero-Esteban, L. M. (2020). Social networks’
engagement during the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain: Health media vs. Healthcare Professionals. International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(14), 14. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​ijerp​h1714​5261
Petticrew, M., & Roberts, H. (2006). Systematic reviews in the social sciences a practical guide. Blackwell Publishing Co.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​97804​70754​887
Pinnguaq. (2019). Home. Pinnguaq. https://​pinng​uaq.​com/
Prince, C. (2018). Do consumers want to control their personal data? Empirical evidence. International Journal of
Human-Computer Studies, 110, 21–32. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ijhcs.​2017.​10.​003
Quayyum, F., Cruzes, D. S., & Jaccheri, L. (2021). Cybersecurity awareness for children: A systematic literature review.
International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 30, 100343. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ijcci.​2021.​100343
Quintana, M. G. B., Careaga-Butter, M., & Fuentes-Henríquez, C. (2020). Critical and prospective analysis of online edu-
cation in pandemic and post-pandemic contexts. Aloma: Revista De Psicologia, Ciències De L’educació i De L’esport,
38(2), 23–32. https://​doi.​org/​10.​51698/​aloma.​2020.​38.2.​23-​32
Reddy, P., Chaudhary, K., & Hussein, S. (2023). A digital literacy model to narrow the digital literacy skills gap. Heliyon,
9(4), e14878. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​heliy​on.​2023.​e14878
Richardson, S., Lawrence, K., Schoenthaler, A. M., & Mann, D. (2022). A framework for digital health equity. NPJ Digital
Medicine, 5(1), 1. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1038/​s41746-​022-​00663-0
Rideout, V., Peebles, A., Mann, S., & Robb, M. B. (2022). The common sense census: Media use by tweens and teens.
https://​www.​commo​nsens​emedia.​org/​sites/​defau​lt/​files/​resea​rch/​report/​8-​18-​census-​integ​rated-​report-​final-​
web_0.​pdf

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Buchan et al. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8 Page 24 of 24

Saxena, P., Gupta, S. K., Mehrotra, D., Kamthan, S., Sabir, H., Katiyar, P., & Sai Prasad, S. V. (2018). Assessment of digital literacy
and use of smart phones among Central Indian dental students. Journal of Oral Biology and Craniofacial Research,
8(1), 40–43. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jobcr.​2017.​10.​001
Schreurs, K., Quan-Haase, A., & Martin, K. (2017). Problematizing the digital literacy paradox in the context of older adults’
ICT use: Aging, media discourse, and self-determination. Canadian Journal of Communication, 42(2), 359–377.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​22230/​cjc.​2017v​42n2a​3130
Secretariat, T. B., & Secretariat, T. B. (n.d.). Smartphone use and smartphone habits by gender and age group, inactive—Open
Government Portal. Retrieved 25 July 2023, from https://​open.​canada.​ca/​data/​en/​datas​et/​f62f8​b9e-​8057-​43de-​a1cb-​
5affd​0a5c6​e7
Shahid, M., & Turin, T. C. (2018). Conducting comprehensive environmental scan in health system and policy research: A
process for assessing the subject matter landscape. Journal of Biomedical Analytics, 1(2), 71–80. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
30577/​jba.​2018.​v1n2.​13
Silveira, P., Morais, R., & Petrella, S. (2022). A communication study of young adults and online dependency during the
COVID-19 pandemic. Societies, 12(4), 4. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​soc12​040109
Smye, V., Browne, A. J., Josewski, V., Keith, B., & Mussell, W. (2023). Social suffering: Indigenous peoples’ experiences of
accessing mental health and substance use services. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health, 20(4), 3288. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​ijerp​h2004​3288
The Lancet Child and Adolescent Health. (2018). Growing up in a digital world: Benefits and risks. The Lancet Child and
Adolescent Health, 2(2), 79. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​S2352-​4642(18)​30002-6
Toronto Public Library. (2022). Digital innovation hubs: Free access to technology, software and classes. https://​www.​toron​
topub​licli​brary.​ca/​using-​the-​libra​ry/​compu​ter-​servi​ces/​innov​ation-​spaces/
US Department of Education. (2018). Technology and engineering literacy framework for the 2018 national assessment of
educational progress. https://​www.​nagb.​gov/​conte​nt/​dam/​nagb/​en/​docum​ents/​publi​catio​ns/​frame​works/​techn​
ology/​2018-​techn​ology-​frame​work.​pdf
van der Velden, M., & El Emam, K. (2013). “Not all my friends need to know”: A qualitative study of teenage patients,
privacy, and social media. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association : JAMIA, 20(1), 16–24. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​1136/​amiaj​nl-​2012-​000949
Vassilakopoulou, P., & Hustad, E. (2023). Bridging digital divides: A literature review and research agenda for information
systems research. Information Systems Frontiers, 25(3), 955–969. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s10796-​020-​10096-3
Vernon, L., Modecki, K. L., & Barber, B. L. (2018). Mobile phones in the bedroom: Trajectories of sleep habits and subse-
quent adolescent psychosocial development. Child Development, 89(1), 66–77. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1111/​cdev.​12836
Vinuesa, R., Azizpour, H., Leite, I., Balaam, M., Dignum, V., Domisch, S., Felländer, A., Langhans, S. D., Tegmark, M., & Fuso
Nerini, F. (2020). The role of artificial intelligence in achieving the sustainable development goals. Nature Communi-
cations, 11, 233. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1038/​s41467-​019-​14108-y
Waffenschmidt, S., Knelangen, M., Sieben, W., Bühn, S., & Pieper, D. (2019). Single screening versus conventional double
screening for study selection in systematic reviews: A methodological systematic review. BMC Medical Research
Methodology, 19, 132. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1186/​s12874-​019-​0782-0
Wylie, L., & McConkey, S. (2019). Insiders’ insight: Discrimination against indigenous peoples through the eyes of
health care professionals. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 6(1), 37–45. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​
s40615-​018-​0495-9
Żerebecki, B. G., & Opree, S. J. (2022). The direct and indirect effects of social technology use on children’s life satisfaction.
International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 34, 100538. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ijcci.​2022.​100538

Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Terms and Conditions
Springer Nature journal content, brought to you courtesy of Springer Nature Customer Service Center GmbH (“Springer Nature”).
Springer Nature supports a reasonable amount of sharing of research papers by authors, subscribers and authorised users (“Users”), for small-
scale personal, non-commercial use provided that all copyright, trade and service marks and other proprietary notices are maintained. By
accessing, sharing, receiving or otherwise using the Springer Nature journal content you agree to these terms of use (“Terms”). For these
purposes, Springer Nature considers academic use (by researchers and students) to be non-commercial.
These Terms are supplementary and will apply in addition to any applicable website terms and conditions, a relevant site licence or a personal
subscription. These Terms will prevail over any conflict or ambiguity with regards to the relevant terms, a site licence or a personal subscription
(to the extent of the conflict or ambiguity only). For Creative Commons-licensed articles, the terms of the Creative Commons license used will
apply.
We collect and use personal data to provide access to the Springer Nature journal content. We may also use these personal data internally within
ResearchGate and Springer Nature and as agreed share it, in an anonymised way, for purposes of tracking, analysis and reporting. We will not
otherwise disclose your personal data outside the ResearchGate or the Springer Nature group of companies unless we have your permission as
detailed in the Privacy Policy.
While Users may use the Springer Nature journal content for small scale, personal non-commercial use, it is important to note that Users may
not:

1. use such content for the purpose of providing other users with access on a regular or large scale basis or as a means to circumvent access
control;
2. use such content where to do so would be considered a criminal or statutory offence in any jurisdiction, or gives rise to civil liability, or is
otherwise unlawful;
3. falsely or misleadingly imply or suggest endorsement, approval , sponsorship, or association unless explicitly agreed to by Springer Nature in
writing;
4. use bots or other automated methods to access the content or redirect messages
5. override any security feature or exclusionary protocol; or
6. share the content in order to create substitute for Springer Nature products or services or a systematic database of Springer Nature journal
content.
In line with the restriction against commercial use, Springer Nature does not permit the creation of a product or service that creates revenue,
royalties, rent or income from our content or its inclusion as part of a paid for service or for other commercial gain. Springer Nature journal
content cannot be used for inter-library loans and librarians may not upload Springer Nature journal content on a large scale into their, or any
other, institutional repository.
These terms of use are reviewed regularly and may be amended at any time. Springer Nature is not obligated to publish any information or
content on this website and may remove it or features or functionality at our sole discretion, at any time with or without notice. Springer Nature
may revoke this licence to you at any time and remove access to any copies of the Springer Nature journal content which have been saved.
To the fullest extent permitted by law, Springer Nature makes no warranties, representations or guarantees to Users, either express or implied
with respect to the Springer nature journal content and all parties disclaim and waive any implied warranties or warranties imposed by law,
including merchantability or fitness for any particular purpose.
Please note that these rights do not automatically extend to content, data or other material published by Springer Nature that may be licensed
from third parties.
If you would like to use or distribute our Springer Nature journal content to a wider audience or on a regular basis or in any other manner not
expressly permitted by these Terms, please contact Springer Nature at

[email protected]