MRT 351-2 Geophysics

Seismic Methods
Part - II
Seismic Wave Reflection and Transmission
Ray paths in layered media

• At an interface between two rock layers there is generally a change of

propagation velocity resulting from the difference in physical
properties of the two layers
• At such an interface, the energy within an incident seismic pulse is
partitioned into transmitted and reflected pulses.
• The relative amplitudes of the transmitted and reflected pulses
depend
❑on the velocities and densities of the two layers, and
❑the angle of incidence on the interface
Seismic Wave Reflection and Transmission
Normally incident seismic rays

• Consider a compressional ray of

amplitude A0 normally incident on an
interface between two media of differing
velocity and density

• A transmitted ray of amplitude A2 travels

on through the interface in the same
direction as the incident ray and a
reflected ray of amplitude A1 returns back
along the path of the incident ray
Seismic Wave Reflection and Transmission
Normally incident seismic rays

• The total energy of the transmitted and reflected rays must equal the
energy of the incident ray

• The relative proportions of energy transmitted and reflected are

determined by the contrast in acoustic impedance Z across the
interface

Acoustic impedance Z = Rock density ρ x Wave velocity v

Seismic Wave Reflection and Transmission
Normally incident seismic rays

• It is difficult to relate acoustic impedance to a tangible rock property

but, in general, the harder a rock, the higher is its acoustic impedance

• The smaller the contrast in acoustic impedance across a rock interface

the greater is the proportion of energy transmitted through the
interface

• More energy is reflected if the contrast is greater

Seismic Wave Reflection and Transmission
Normally incident seismic rays

• The reflection coefficient R is a numerical measure of the effect of an

interface on wave propagation

• It is calculated as the ratio of the amplitude A1 of the reflected ray to

the amplitude A0 of the incident ray

R = A1/A0
Seismic Wave Reflection and Transmission
Normally incident seismic rays

• Since the materials are different at the interface, the relations

between stress and strain in each layer will be different

• The orientation of stress and strain to the interface also becomes

important

• The solution of this physical problem is given by the Zoeppritz’s and

Knott’s Equations (-> equations governing the amplitudes)
Seismic Wave Reflection and Transmission
Normally incident seismic rays

• For a normally incident ray of a P-wave

𝜌2 𝑣2 − 𝜌1 𝑣1 𝑍2 − 𝑍1
𝑅= =
𝜌2 𝑣2 + 𝜌1 𝑣1 𝑍2 + 𝑍1

-1 ≤ R ≤ +1
• If R = 0, all the incident energy is transmitted
• If R = +1, all the incident energy is reflected
• If R = -1 all the energy is reflected with a phase change of π (180°) in the
reflected wave
Seismic Wave Reflection and Transmission
Normally incident seismic rays

• The transmission coefficient T is calculated as the ratio of the

amplitude A2 of the transmitted ray to the amplitude A0 of the
incident ray
T = A2/A0

• For a normally incident ray, from the Zoeppritz’s Equations

2𝑍1
𝑇=
𝑍2 + 𝑍1
Seismic Wave Reflection and Transmission
Normally incident seismic rays

• Values of reflection coefficient R for interfaces between different rock

types rarely exceed ±0.5 and are typically much less than ±0.2
• Thus, normally the bulk of seismic energy incident on a rock interface
is transmitted and only a small proportion is reflected
• Using an empirical relationship between velocity and density, it is
possible to estimate the reflection coefficient from velocity
information alone
𝑣
𝑅 = 0.625 ln 1ൗ𝑣2
Seismic Wave Reflection and Refraction
Obliquely incident seismic rays

• When a P-wave ray is obliquely

incident on an interface of acoustic
impedance contrast, reflected and
transmitted P-wave rays are generated
as in the case of normal incidence
• Additionally, some of the incident
compressional energy is converted
into reflected and transmitted S-wave
rays that are polarized in a vertical
plane
Seismic Wave Reflection and Refraction
Obliquely incident seismic rays

• According to the Zoeppritz’s

equations, the amplitudes of the four
phases are a function of the angle of
incidence θ
• Snell’s Law of Refraction applies to
seismic rays also
Ray parameter p = sin i/ v
• According to Snell’s Law, p remains
constant along any one ray
Seismic Wave Reflection and Refraction
Obliquely incident seismic rays

sin θ1/ v1 = sin θ2/ v2

sin θ1/ sin θ2 = v1 / v2

• When critical refraction occurs

sin θc/ v1 = sin 900/ v2
θc = sin-1 (v1 / v2)
Seismic Reflection and Refraction Surveying
• From a near-surface seismic source S there are three types of ray path
by which energy reaches the surface at a distance from the source
(direct, reflected and refracted)
• It may be recorded by a suitable detector as at D, a horizontal
distance x from S
Seismic Reflection and Refraction Surveying
• Direct ray
Velocity = v1
Travel time tdir = x / v1
(A straight line)
• Reflected ray
Velocity = v1
Travel time trefl = (x2 + 4z2)1/2 /v1
(A hyperbola)
• Refracted ray
𝑥 2𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑐
Travel time 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟 = +
𝑣2 𝑣1
(A straight line)
Seismic Reflection and Refraction Surveying
• By suitable analysis of the travel-time curve for reflected or refracted
rays it is possible to compute the depth to the underlying layer

• This provides two independent seismic surveying methods for

locating and mapping subsurface interfaces
❑reflection surveying
❑refraction surveying
Seismic Reflection and Refraction Surveying
• Some general remarks about the two methods

❑The first arrival of seismic energy at a surface detector offset from a surface
source is always a direct ray or a refracted ray

❑The direct ray is overtaken by a refracted ray at the crossover distance xcros

❑Beyond this offset distance the first arrival is always a refracted ray

❑Within the critical distance xcrit, refracted energy will not be returned to the
surface

❑At the critical distance, the travel times of reflected rays and refracted rays
coincide because they follow effectively the same path
Seismic Reflection and Refraction Surveying
• In refraction surveying, recording ranges are chosen to be sufficiently
large to ensure that the crossover distance is well exceeded in order
that refracted rays may be detected as first arrivals of seismic energy

• In reflection surveying, reflected phases are sought that are never

first arrivals and are normally of very low amplitude (geological
reflectors tend to have small reflection coefficients)
❑Consequently, reflections are normally concealed in seismic records by higher
amplitude events such as direct or refracted body waves, and surface waves
❑Reflection surveying methods therefore have to be capable of discriminating
between reflected energy and many types of synchronous noise
Seismic Data Acquisition Systems
• The fundamental purpose of seismic surveys is to record the ground
motion caused by a known source in a known location

• The record of ground motion with time constitutes a seismogram

• It is the basic information used for interpretation through either

modelling or imaging
Seismic Data Acquisition Systems
• The essential instrumental requirements are to
❑generate a seismic pulse with a suitable source
❑detect the seismic waves in the ground with a suitable transducer
❑record and display the seismic waveforms on a suitable seismograph

• There is a limit to the smallest structures that can be detected, known

as the resolution of the survey

• The resolution is basically determined by the pulse length

❑For a pulse of any particular length there is a minimum separation below
which the pulses will overlap in time in the seismic recording
Seismic Data Acquisition Systems
Seismic sources

• A seismic source is a localized region within which the sudden release

of energy leads to a rapid stressing of the surrounding medium

• The main requirements of the seismic source are

❑Sufficient energy across the broadest possible frequency range, extending up
to the highest recordable frequencies
❑Energy should be concentrated in the type of wave energy which is required
for a specific survey, either P-wave or S-wave, and generate minimum energy
of other wave types (coherent noise)
Seismic Data Acquisition Systems
Seismic sources

• The main requirements of the seismic source [contd…]

❑The source waveform must be repeatable. Seismic surveys almost always
involve comparing the seismograms generated by a series of sources at
different locations
❑The source must be safe, efficient, and environmentally acceptable
Seismic Data Acquisition Systems
Seismic sources and the seismic spectrum
Seismic Data Acquisition Systems
Seismic sources

• Explosive sources • Marine sources

• Non-explosive land ❑Air guns
sources ❑Water guns
❑Vibroseis® ❑Marine Vibroseis®
❑Weight drops and ❑Spaarkers
hammers ❑Boomers
❑Guns ❑Pingers
Seismic Data Acquisition Systems
Seismic transducers

• Seismic energy recording requires conversion of the ground motion to

an electrical signal
• For this purpose a transducer is needed
• Transducers are sensitive to some component of ground motion
(displacement, velocity or acceleration of the ground particles)
• They can record required range of frequencies and amplitudes
• Usually the vertical component of the velocity is recorded (easier to
detect and record)
❑It has maximum sensitivity to P-waves relative to S-waves and surface waves
Seismic Data Acquisition Systems
Seismic transducers

• Devices used on land to detect seismic ground motions are known as

seismometers or geophones

• In water, the passage of a compressional seismic wave is marked by

transient pressure changes and these are detected by hydrophones towed
or suspended in the water column or, in very shallow water, laid on the sea
bed

• Detectors may comprise individual geophones or hydrophones, or arrays of

these devices connected together in series or parallel to provide a summed
output
Seismic Data Acquisition Systems
Seismic transducers

• Geophones are made to

several designs, but the
most common is the
moving-coil geophone
• A cylindrical coil is
suspended from a spring
support in the field of a
permanent magnet which is
attached to the instrument
casing
Seismic Data Acquisition Systems
Seismic transducers

• The magnet has a cylindrical pole piece inside the coil and an
annular pole piece surrounding the coil

• The geophone moves with the ground surface during the passage of
a seismic wave, causing relative motion between the suspended coil
and the fixed magnet

• Movement of the coil in the magnetic field generates a voltage

across the terminals of the coil
Seismic Data Acquisition Systems
Seismic transducers

• The oscillatory motion of the coil is inherently damped because the

current flowing in the coil induces a magnetic field that interacts
with the field of the magnet to oppose the motion of the coil

• The amount of this damping can be altered by connecting a shunt

resistance across the coil terminals to control the amount of current
flowing in the coil
Seismic Data Acquisition Systems
Seismic transducers

• The output of a moving-coil geophone is proportional to the velocity

of the coil
• The coil velocity is related to the very low particle velocity associated
with a seismic ground motion and not to the much higher
propagation velocity of the seismic energy
• The sensitivity of a geophone is measured in output volts per unit of
velocity (typically 10 V per ms-1)
• It is determined by the number of windings in the coil and the
strength of the magnetic field
Seismic Recording Systems
• The electrical signals from the
transducers must be recorded in real
time

• Before the 1960s the majority of

seismograms were recorded as wiggly
traces written directly to paper or
photographic film charts

• All seismic data are now recorded by

digitizing the analogue transducer
output, and storing the series of digital
samples in some computer format