UNIT-III
THE GROWTH OF ENGLISH VOCABULARY
5. Describe the methods through which the vocabulary increased.
New words have come into the English language from foreign sources over
centuries and the vocabulary has been constantly growing. The following are
the methods or types by which the vocabulary increased.
1. By imitation or onomatopoeia: An oldest method of word-making. It has
been postulated as one of the most important sources of word-making
in all languages.
(e.g.) ‘Colon’, ‘Bang’, ‘Pop’, ‘Buzz’, ‘Click’, ‘Whiz, ‘Rumble’, ‘Mumble’, ‘Hiss’,
‘Giggle’ etc…
2. New significance to old words: ‘Manufacture’ literally means ‘to make
by hand’ but now it means ‘obstruct’ or ‘block’, ‘radical’ previously
meant ‘thorough’ and later the meaning changed to ‘basic’.
3. Change of the part of speech: From the noun ‘park’ we get the verb ‘to
park’ and from ‘pocket’, ‘to pocket’. Parts of the body which are nouns
can be used as verbs. ‘to shoulder the responsibility’, ‘to eye someone
with suspicion’ ‘to head for victory’. The noun ‘blood’ is used as an
adjective for ‘revenge’ and ‘lip service’ and so on.
4. Adding of prefixes or suffixes: The Anglo-Saxon made extensive use of
this method. The suffixes they used are ‘Dom’, ship-kingdom,
‘freedom’ and ‘fellowship’. The prefixes are ‘for’ ‘in’, ‘dis’-‘forbid’,
‘invert’, disappear etc.
5. By abbreviation: ‘Exam’ for examination and maths’ for mathematics
as known to all. ‘Photo’ for photograph, ‘bike’ for bicycle and ‘pram’ for
perambulator are the other examples of this method Such
abbreviations have come to be regarded as whole words.
6. Telescoping is a method by which two words are combined into one
'dout' is a telescopic form of the words 'do' and council is also al' and 'one'
meaning set at one or 'reconcile' is also a good example
7.Meta-analysis is another method by which we have Nome more
words. Examples of this type are an Strange (originally 'a norange'), an
ickname for 'a nick name' and a nepson for an epson)
Portmanteau words: When a part of one word is combined with another
part of a new word carrying with it the ideas of both words, such words
are known as Portmanteau words. Tragic-comedy is a good example of
this type and melodrama, phonogram, television electrocute are other
examples.
9. Words are coined from initials PLUTO (Pipe Line Under The Ocean),
UNESCO (United Nations Educational Scientific Cultural Organization) and
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) are a few examples.
10. Back formation: This process having transformed an adverb or a noun to
participle or verb. The next step was the formation of an infinitive of a verb
out of this though there is a totally a mistaken idea behind this process. Thus
beggar, peddler, hawker and editor have given new words beg, peddle, hawk
and edit.
11. Corruption or misunderstanding the word bloody has been
misunderstood for buy our lady and dickens for devil's kins
12. False etymology is another source of expansion of vocabulary. In the
book of Genesis, verse 18 reads - "It is not good that a man should be alone,
I will meet him." The word meet is an adjective meaning proper or suitable.
But later it was taken to be mate and we have a new word ‘helpmate’. Other
words of this type are posthumous and salt seller.
13. Slang words such as chap pinch and black guard arr turned into literary
vocabulary.
14. These are words derived from proper names such as utopian,
Pickwickian, Lilliputian and Miltonic.
15. There are compound words like weekday, gold-fish, railway, waterproof,
bookcase, etc.
16. A deliberate coinage is a type by which new words are introduced
whenever a new invention is made. Microscope, astronaut and airman are
some of the examples.
17. Many words are the expressions which we owe to Shakespeare.
Multitudinous, dauntless, sick of, lack- lustre are some of the innumerable
contributions. Somme of his words have become household usages also.
CHANGE OF MEANING
6. Write an essay on change of meaning.
(or)
Give an account of inflections.
Words are not static and they have not always had the same meaning that
they bear today. The meanings of words have undergone changes over
centuries. They have no independent or intrinsic meaning. A particular word
may evoke different ideas, for different persons in different ages The word
illain is a good example in the early days of manorial system. The word
meant a very lowly labourer; 200 years later it referred to a person of
uncouth manners and behaviour and currently it means an evil-doer.
The methods by which words have changed their meanings and the reasons
behind these changes are manifold but the following categories would
appear to be the chief
Generalization
This is a very frequent means by which a change of meaning occurs in a
word. That is to say, a turn which at one time had a specialized (and
restricted) meaning comes, in course of time, to have a wider application. A
typical example is the word ‘box’. Originally it was the name of a tree. Being
rare and expensive box-wood was used for making jewel-box and the like.
Gradually any expensive tree was referred to with the word box: cedar box,
oak box and walnut box. Now we have wooden box, steel box, plastic box
and a box in a theatre and so on.
The term tragedy is no longer employed in its strictly dramatic sense but has
come to refer to mean any occurrence of great calamity.
Specialisation
This activity of the language is just the opposite of the previous one.
Generalization of many words which were of wider and more general
significance has turned to possess a specialization in its meaning and usage.
During the Old English period the birds of any species were known as fowls
and during the middle Ages fowl (transformed spelling of fugol) took a
specialized meaning by referring to only one of the species of birds.
Followed by differentiation of meaning some words undergo a change of
meaning by a process which is a combination of the two viz. generalization
and specialization. We call this process differentiation. If a friend tells us he
would send us a wire. We do not expect to perceive a bit of metallic filament
from him. We know that wire in this case means a telegram. Now-a-days we
talk about giving a ring by which we mean that we would make a phone call.
Likewise many words have extended their sense to mean many things out of
their usual contexts.
Such words are board, book, room etc
Association of Ideas
Words have changed their original, fundamental meaning to some incidental
or associated characteristic of the type of person so designated. It is a semi-
metaphorical use of the word. For instance, the word Hitler refers to the
dictator of Germany and we all know that people suffered greatly during his
regime. We can now refer to any person possessing the characteristic of
Hitler with the same name - Hitler.
(e.g.) "Do you think you are a Hitler?"
Polarisation (or) Colouring
It sometimes happens that in course of time a word acquires a definite
colouring or emotional significance for which etymologically there is no
justification. For instance. from the middle to the end of the eighteenth
century, the term gothic was used in a derogatory sense meaning uncivilized
or barbarous. Likewise, there are two words 'patriotism' and 'nationalism' we
approve of patriotism but if we disapprove we call it nationalism.
Loss of Distinctive Colouring
This does not occur often but there are a few words which have undergone a
change of meaning in this direction. It most easily happens in the case of
words with a religious or political significance, especially those which in the
beginning were applied to minorities or to unpopular views. As controversy
lies down as suspicion is caused by the lapse of time, the words in question
have become depolarized and their distinctive colouring is lost. The word
'Christian' is a good example, as it was originally a term of derision, but now
has come to mean a collection of nobility and many other virtues.
Metaphorical Application
Almost any word or expression is capable of being used metaphorically but in
major cases it is deliberately employed. So we are concerned with two
classes, viz.
(a) Those where the literal use is still preserved so that the metaphorical
application constitutes a new meaning or a new word, and
(b) Those where the metaphorical use has gained importance more than the
literal one.
(e.g.) Of the former are keen, dull, sharp, bright.
Examples of the second case are sad and silly.
There, are cases in which the literal meaning still remains but having become
subordinates has bee ill neglected to second or even to the third places.
Euphemism
Euphemism is the description given to that figure of speech by which one
seeks to hide the real nature of Something unpleasant by giving it a less
offensive name. There are certain words which have changed their meaning
though being frequently used in this way. For example, passing and decease
have both become synonyms for death and to pass away is used instead of
“to die”. Idiot literally means a private person. Later any man (like a mad
man) who is kept out of the society has come to be called an idiot.
Prudery
A number of euphemistic expressions are traceable to a false sense of
delicacy and refinement rather than a genuine desire to avoid giving pain or
embarrassment, in other words, to prudery Examples are ‘financier’ for
money lender, ‘sanitary engineer’ for plumber. Expectorate is a substitute for
spit and belly is a substitute to stomach. In the same way the term toilet or
public convenience is a prudery for lavatory.
Reversal of Meaning
A word may change its meaning to the point of actually reversing it for any
reason. One such word is grocer. Today it refers to a retail trader but
sometime in the past it meant as its derivation suggests ‘engross meaning a
whole sales. There is the adjective restive which does not mean at rest but
‘deposit’.
Popular Misunderstanding
Misunderstandings have been responsible for a change of meaning in certain
words. The word helpmate, which has been already spoken about here, is a
good example. The word ‘to demean’ originally meant to conduct
(demeanour) but owing to a mistaken idea that it was connected with the
adjective mean. Pester has developed in the same way through an
etymological blunder which made it a derivative of past
