QUANTUM COMPUTING

A
Seminar Report
Submitted to
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad
in Partial Fulfilment of the requirements for the Award of the Degree
of

Bachelor of Technology
In Information Technology

By
Mididoddi Praneeth 22E15A1207

Under the Guidance of

Mrs Anjima Ajith
Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science of Engineering

Department Information Technology

BHARAT INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to JNTU Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE, Accredited by NAAC)
Ibrahimpatnam – 501 510, Hyderabad, Telangana
2020-2024 Batch
 BHARAT INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to JNTU Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE, Accredited by NAAC)
Ibrahimpatnam – 501 510, Hyderabad, Telangana

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Seminar work entitled “Quantum Computing” is a beneficial
Semianr work carried out by

Mididoddi Praneeth 22E15A1207

in the department of Information Technology at Bharat Institute of Engineering and

Technology, Hyderabad is submitted to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,
Hyderabad in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Tehnology degree in Information Technology during 2024-25.

Guide: Head of the Departemnt:

Mrs Anjima Ajith Dr.Nirpesh Kumar
Assistant Professor Associate Professor
Dept. of CSE, Dept. of Physics,
BIET, Hyderabad. BIET, Hyderabad.

Principal
BIET, Hyderabad.

Viva-Voce held on: ______________

List of examiners Signature with date
1. Internal Examiner
2. External Examinar
 BHARAT INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to JNTU Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE, Accredited by NAAC)
Ibrahimpatnam – 501 510, Hyderabad, Telangana

DECLARATION

We, Mididoddi Praneeth (22E15A1207) hereby declare that this Seminar Report titled
“Quantum Computing” is a genuine work carried out by us in the B.Tech (Information
Technology) degree course of Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,
Hyderabad and has not been submitted to any other course or university for the award of
the degree by us.

Mididoddi Praneeth 22E15A1207

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Over a span of one year, BIET has helped us transform ourselves from were amateurs in
the field of Computer Science into skilled engineers capable of handling any given
situation in real time. We are highly indebted to the institute for everything that it has
given us.

I would like to express my gratitude towards the principal of our institute, and the Head
of the CSE Department. for their kind cooperation and encouragement which helped us
complete the project in the stipulated time.

Although we have spent a lot of time and put in a lot of effort into this Seminar project it
would not have been possible without the motivating support and help of our project
guide Mrs.Anjima Ajith . I thank him for his guidance, constant supervision and for
providing necessary information to complete this project.. Our thanks and appreciations
also go to all the faculty members, staff members of BIET, who have helped me put this
project successful .

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ABSTRACT

Quantum computing is a modern way of computing that is based on the science of

quantum mechanics and its unbelievable phenomena. It is a beautiful combination
of physics, mathematics, computer science and information theory. It provides
high computational power, less energy consumption and exponential speed over
classical computers by controlling the behavior of small physical objects i.e.
microscopic particles like atoms, electrons, photons, etc. Here, we present an
introduction to the fundamental concepts and some ideas of quantum computing.

This paper starts with the origin of traditional computing and discusses all the
improvements and transformations that have been done due to their limitations
until now. Then it moves on to the basic working of quantum computing and the
quantum properties it follows like superposition, entanglement and interference.
To understand the full potentials and challenges of a practical quantum computer
that can be launched commercially, the paper covers the architecture, hardware,
software, design, types and algorithms that are specifically required by the
quantum computers. It uncovers the capability of quantum computers that can
impact our lives in various viewpoints like cyber security, traffic optimization,
medicines, artificial intelligence and many more.

At last, we concluded all the importance, advantages and disadvantages of

quantum computers. Small-scale quantum computers are being developed
recently. This development is heading towards a great future due to their high
potential capabilities and advancements in ongoing research. Before focusing on
the significances of a general-purpose quantum computer and exploring the power
of the new arising technology, it is better to review the origin, potentials, and
limitations of the existing traditional computing. This information helps us in
understanding the possible challenges in developing exotic and competitive
technology. It will also give us an insight into the ongoing progress in this field.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……………………………………………………………….4
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………...……………….5
LIST OF FIGURES………………………….…………………………….........…….….7
1. INTRODUCTION………………………….………………………………………….8
1.1 Quantum Physics………………….……………………………………….....8
1.2 Quantum Computiing…………….……………………………………….....9
2. BRIEF HISTORY…………….……………………………………………………...11
3. DATA REPRESENTATION…….……….…….……………………………………12
3.1 Qubits…………………………….…………………...……………………..12
3.2 Quantum Gates………………….……………………………………….….13
4. QUANTUM PHYSICS APPROACH….………………….………………………...14
5. SHOR’S ALGORITHM……….…………………………….…………………....…16
6. APPLICATIONS……………….……………………………………………….....…20
6.1 Quantum Cryptology….…………………………………………………....20
6.2 Artificial intelligence….……………………………………………….…....21
6.3 Teleportation………….…………………………………………………......22
7. CONCLUSION……………….………………………………...…………….…...….23
8. FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS.………………………………….…………….….…24
9. REFERENCE…………….………………………………………………………..…25

6
LIST OF FIGURES

TITLE PAGE NO.

QUANTUM COMPUTING -------
Figure 1.2 Block Diagram………………………………………………..10
QUANTUM GATES -------
Figure 3.2…………………………………………………………………13
QUANTUM PHYSICS APPROACH -------
Figure 4.1………………………………………………………………....15
APPLICATIONS -------
Figure 6.2 Artificial Intelligence……………………………………….....21
Figure 6.3 Teleportation…………………………………………………..22

Chapter 1

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1.INTRODUCTION

Quantum Computing is a Multidisciplinary field of computer science, Physics and

Mathematics that utilizes quantum mechanics to solve complex problems faster than
on classical computers.Quantum Computers can solve complex problems that are
currently impossible for supercomputers.Computers based on this theory are so

smaller and faster than digital computers. A Quantum computer is a machine that
performs calculations based on the laws of quantum mechanics, which is the behavior
of particles at the sub-atomic level. Quantum computer use Q-bits to do operation.
Electorn , proton can be use as Q-bits. Superposition and Entanglement are main
building block of Quantum computing and these property speed up Quantum
computer exponentially.Every time we add a Q-bit we double the computation power
of Quantum Computer. Quantum computers could be used for machine learning,
Optimization, and Simulating physical systems. It is an Area of computer science that
uses the principles of quantum theory.

1.1. QUANTUM PHYSICS

In the 1930s Max Planks came up with a new interpretation for the energy distribution of
the light spectrum. He started it all by unwillingly postulating that the energy
of the photon was not described by a continuous function, as believed by classical
physicists, but by tiny chucks, which he called quanta. He was about to start the greatest
revolution in science in this century quantum mechanics.

Some facts about the electrons acc to the Quantum Physics:-

●They can be both particles and waves:- I hope you remember an experiment we did in
our 12th standard the Double Slit experiment in which a beam of light passed through a
double slit and strike a screen behind the slits an interference pattern of bright and dark
bands is formed on the screen. This proves that electrons act like waves but when
the electron propagates through space like a wave, it interacts at a point like a particle.

8
●An object can be in two places at once:- According to this property, an electron can
be placed at two positions at the same. This is the main property of an electron which is
the base model behind the Qubits which we are going to learn in this seminar later.

●According to a property of particles they have two copies and they are present in two
different universes and they are very far from each other but still, if we do some kind of
changes in one particle then it also reflects in another. It seems like a movie script but
some research proves that.
And now scientists also trying to use this concept to transfer the data at a very higher
speed.

1.2. WHAT IS QUANTUM COMPUTING?

Quantum computing is a type of computation that uses the power and properties of
quantum states, such as superposition, interference, and entanglement, to perform
calculations. And the devices that perform quantum computations are known as quantum
computers. Superposition and entanglement are two features of quantum physics on
which these supercomputers are based. This empowers quantum computers to handle
operations at speeds exponentially higher than conventional computers and at much
lesser energy consumption.

A bit is a fundamental unit of information, classically represented as a 0 or 1

inyour digital computer. Each classical bit is physically realized through amacroscopic
physical system, such as the magnetization on a hard disk or thecharge on a capacitor. A
document, for example, comprised of n-characters storedon the hard drive of a typical
computer is accordingly described by a string of 8nzeros and ones. The key difference
between classical computer and a quantumcomputer lies in this aspect, where a classical
computer obeys the well understoodlaws of classical physics, a quantum computer is a
device that harnesses
physical phenomenon unique to quantum mechanics (especially quantum interference) tor
ealize a fundamentally new mode of information processing.In a quantum computer, the
fundamental unit of information (called a quantum bitor qubit), is not binary but rather
more quaternary in nature. This qubit propertyarises as a direct consequence of its
adherence to the laws of quantum mechanicswhich differ radically from the laws of
classical physics. A qubit can exist notonly in a state corresponding to the logical state 0

9
or 1 as in a classical bit, butalso in states corresponding to a blend or superposition of
these classical states. Inother words, a qubit can exist as a zero, a one, or simultaneously
as both 0 and 1,with a numerical coefficient representing the probability for each state.

Figure 1.2

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 Chapter 2
2.BRIEFHISTORY

The idea of a computational device based on quantum mechanics was first

explored in the 1970's and early 1980's by physicists and computer scientists such
as Charles H. Bennett of the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center, Paul A.
Benioff of Argonne National Laboratory in Illinois, David Deutsch of the
University of Oxford, and the late Richard P. Feynman of the California Institute
of Technology (Caltech). The idea emerged when scientists were pondering the
fundamental limits of computation. They understood that if technology continued
to abide by Moore's Law, then the continually shrinking size of circuitry packed
onto silicon chips would eventually reach a point where individual elements
would be no larger than a few atoms. Here a problem arose because at the atomic
scale the physical laws that govern the behavior and properties of the circuit are
inherently quantum mechanical in nature, not classical. This then raised the
inherently quantum mechanical in nature, not classical. This then raised the
question of whether a new kind of computer could be devised based on the
principles of quantum physics.

Feynman was among the first to attempt to provide an answer to this question by
producing an abstract model in 1982 that showed how a quantum system could be used to
do computations. He also explained how such a machine would be able to act as a
simulator for quantum physics.

Later, in 1985, Deutsch realized that Feynman's assertion could eventually lead to a
general purpose quantum computer and published a crucial theoretical paper showing that
any physical process, in principle, could be modeled perfectly by a quantum computer.

1994 - Peter Shor came up with a quantum algorithm to factor very large numbers in
polynomial time. ৯

1997 - Lov Grover develops a quantum search algorithm with O(VN) complexity

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 Chapter 3

3.DATA REPRESENTATION

In the classical model of a computer, the most fundamental building block, the bit, can
only exist in one of two distinct states, a 0 or a 1.

In digital computers, the voltage between the plates in a capacitor represents a bit of
information: a charged capacitor denotes bit value 1 and an uncharged capacitor bit value
0.

In a quantum computer the rules are changed, we use an atom as a bit, qubit which exists
in the classical 0, 1 state and coherent superposition of both.

3.1 QUBITS

Qubits represent atoms, ions, photons or electrons and their respective control devices
that are working together to act as computing memory and a processor

A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of two states denoted by |0>
and 1>. A single bit of this form is known as a qubit

A physical implementation of a qubit could use the two energy levels of an atom.

An excited state representing |1> and a ground state representing |0>.

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3.2 QUANTUM GATES

Classical computational gates are Boolean logic gates that perform manipulationsof the
information stored in the bits.In quantum computing these gates are represented by
matrices, and can bevisualized as rotations of the quantum state on the Bloch sphere.As in
the case of classical computing, where there exists a universal gate (thecombinations of
which can be used to compute any computable function), namely,the NAND gate which
results from performing an AND gate and then a NOT gate,in quantum computing it was
shown (Barencoet al., 1995) that any multiple qubitlogic gate may be composed from a
quantum CNOT gate (which operates on amultiple qubit by flipping or preserving the
target bit given the state of the control bit, an operation analogous to the classical
XOR , i.e., the exclusive OR gate) andsingle qubit gates.One feature of quantum gates
that distinguishes them from classical gates is thatthey are reversible: the inverse of a
unitary matrix is also a unitary matrix, andthus a quantum gate can always be inverted by

another quantum gate.

Figure 3.2

13
 Chapter 4

4.QUANTUM PHYSICS APPROACH

Superposition of qubits is what gives quantum computers their inherent parallelism.

According to physicist David Deutsch, this parallelismallows a quantum computer to
work on a million computations at once, while your desktop PC works on one. A 30-
qubit quantum computer would equal the processing power of a conventional computer th
at could run at10 teraflops (trillions of floating-point operations per second). Today’s
typicaldesktop computers run at speeds measured in gigaflops (billions of floating-
pointoperations per second).Quantum computers also utilize another aspect of quantum
mechanics knownas Entanglement.

One problem with the idea of quantum computers is that if youtry to look at the
subatomic particles, you could bump them, and thereby changetheir value. If you look at
a qubit in superposition to determine its value, the qubitwill assume the value of either 0
or1,spiffyquantum computer into a mundane digital computer). To make a practicalquant
um computer, scientists have to devise ways of making measurementsindirectly to
preserve the system’s integrity. Entanglement provides a potentialanswer. In quantum
physics, if you apply an outside force to two atoms, it cancause them to become
entangled, and the second atom can take on the propertiesof the first atom. So if left
alone, an atom will spin in all directions. The instant it is disturbed it chooses one spin, or
one value; and at the same time, the secondentangled atom will choose an opposite spin,
or value. This allows scientists toknow the value of the qubits without actually looking at
(them.Quantum computers encode information as a series of quantum-mechanical
statessuch as spin directions of electrons or polarization orientations of a photon
thatmight represent a 1 or a 0, might represent a combination of the two or mightrepresent
a number expressing that the state of the qubit is somewhere between 1and 0, or a
superposition of many different numbers at once.Superposition is essentially the ability of
a quantum system to be in multiplestates at the same time — that is, something can be
“here” and “there,” or “up”and “down” at the same time.
Entanglement is an extremely strong correlation that exists between
quantum particles — so strong, in fact, that two or more quantum particles can beinextric
distances. The particles remain perfectly correlated even if separated by great distances. T
he particles are so intrinsically connected, they can be said to “dance” ininstantaneous,

14
perfect unison, even when placed at opposite ends of the universe.This seemingly
impossible connection inspired Einstein to describe entanglementas “spooky action at a
distance.”
WHAT IS REQUIRED TO BUILD A QUANTUM COMPUTER?
Simply put: we need qubits that behave the way we want them to. These qubitscould be
made of photons, atoms, electrons, molecules or perhaps something else.Scientists at IQC
are researching a large array of them as potential bases for quantum computers. But
qubits are notoriously tricky to manipulate, since anydisturbance causes them to fall out
of their quantum state (or
“decohere”).Decoherence is the Achilles Heel of quantum computing, but it is notinsurmo
untable. The field of Quantum Error Correction examines how to staveoff decoherence
and combat other errors. Every day, researchers around the worldare discovering new
ways to make qubits cooperate.

Figure 4.1

15
 Chapter 5

5.SHOR’S ALGORITHM

The problem we are trying to solve is: given an odd composite number N, find an integer
d, strictly between 1 and N, that divides N. We are interested in odd values of N because
any even value of N trivially has the number 2 as a prime factor. We can use a primarily
testing algorithm to make sure that N is indeed composite.

Moreover, for the algorithm to work, we need N not to be the power of a prime.

This can be tested by taking square, cubic, k-roots of N, fork log2(N), and checking that
none of these is an integer. (This actually excludes that N = M* for some integer M andk
> 1.)

Since N is not a power of a prime, it is the product of two co-prime numbers greater than
1. As a consequence of the Chinese remainder theorem, the number 1 has at least four
distinct roots modulo N, two of them being 1 and-1. The aim of the algorithm is to find a
square rootb of one, other than 1 and-1; such a b will lead to a factorization of N, as in
other factoring algorithms like the quadratic sieve.

In turn, finding such a b is reduced to finding an element a of even period with a certain
additional property (as explained below, it is required that the condition of Step 6 of the
classical part does not hold). The quantum algorithm is used for finding the period of
randomly chosen elements a, as order-finding is a hard problem on a classical computer.

Shor's algorithm consists of two parts:

1. A reduction, which can be done on a classical computer, of the factoring problem to the
problem of order-finding.

2. A quantum algorithm to solve the order-finding problem.

16
CLASSICAL PART

1)Pick a random number a <N

2)Compute gcd(a, N). This may be done using the Euclidean algorithm.

3)If gcd(a, N) ≠ 1, then there is a nontrivial factor of N, so we are done.

4)Otherwise, use the period-finding subroutine (below) to find r, the period of the
following function:

f(x) = a ^ x mod N

i.e. the order of ain ( mathbb Z N )^ * which is the smallest positive integer for which f(x
+ r) = f(x) or f(x + r) = a ^ (x + r) mod N = a ^ x mod N

1. If r is odd, go back to step 1.

2. If a ^ (r / 2) equiv-1 (mod N), go back to step 1.

3. gcd(a²±1, N) is a nontrivial factor of N. We are done.

For example: : N = 15 gcd(4 ± 1, N)

Quantum part: Period-finding subroutine

The quantum circuits used for this algorithm are custom designed for each choice of N
and the random a used in f(x) = a mod N. Given N, find Q = 2 ^ q such that N ^ 2 <= Q <
2N ^ 2, which implies Q/r > N. The input and output qubit registers need to hold
superpositions of values from 0 to Q-1, and so have q qubits each. Using what might
appear to be twice as many qubits as necessary guarantees that there are at least N
different x which produce the same f(x), even as the period r approaches N/2.

Proceed as follows:

17
1. Initialize the registers to

where x runs from 0 to Q-1. This initial state is a superposition of Q states.

2. Constructf(x) as a quantum function and apply it to the above state, to obtain

Q-1/2x) f(x)). I

This is still a superposition of Q states.

3. Apply the quantum Fourier transform to the input register. This transform (operating
on a superposition of power-of-two Q = 2º states) uses a Qth root of unity such e2i/Q to
distribute the amplitude as= of any given) state equally among all O of the y) states, and
to do so in a different way for each different x:

UQFT 2) = Q-1/2 Σωy).

y

This leads to the final state

Q ΣΣ) 15(2)).

This is a superposition of many more than Q states, but many fewer than Q² states.
Although there are Q terms in the sum, the state
y) f(xo)) can be factored out
whenever xo and x produce the same value. Let

● w= 2/Q be a Qth root of unity,

● be the period of f,

● x be the smallest of a set of x which yield the same given f(x)

● (we have xor), and

● b run from 0 tol(Q-To-1)/T] so that To + rb < Q.

18
Then is a unit vector in the complex plane (is a root of unity and randy are integers), and
the coefficient of Q¹ [y) | f(x)} in the final state is
Σ r: f(x)=f(10) wy = (+b) = 0 Σ b
Each term in this sum represents a different path to the same result, and quantum
interference occurs constructive when the unit vectors point in nearly the same direction
in the complex plane, which requires that point along the positive real axis.

3. Perform a measurement. We obtain some outcome y in the input register and f(20) in
the output register. Since f is periodic, the probability of measuring some pair yand
f(xo) is given by
2 Q-1 Σ z: f(x)=f(10) wy 2 -2 -bry =Q-2 b

Analysis now shows that this probability is higher, the closer unit vector omega ^ (ry) is
to the positive real axis, or the closer yr/Q is to an integer.
Unless r is a power of 2, it won't be a factor of Q.

4. Perform Continued Fraction Expansion on y / rho to make an approximation of it, and

produce some c / (r') by it that satisfies two conditions:

● A: r' < N

● B: |y / Q + (- c) / (r')| < 1/2 * Q

By satisfaction of these conditions, r' would be the appropriate period r with high
probability.

5. Check if f(x) = f(x+r) a = 1 (mod N) If so, we are done.

6. Otherwise, obtain more candidates forrby using values near y, or multiples of r'. If any
candidate works, we are done.

7. Otherwise, go back to step 1 of the subroutine.

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 Chapter 6

6.APPLICATIONS

This new conceptualization of quantum computing will result in the following benefits:

➤Increase in computing power

➤Advances in security

➤Artificial Intelligence

➤The sci-fi concept of teleportation.

If functional quantum computers can be built, they will be valuable in factoring large
numbers, and therefore extremely useful for decoding and encoding secret information.

If one were to be built today, no information on the Internet would be safe. Our current
methods of encryption are simple compared to the complicated methods possible in
quantum computers.

Quantum computers could also be used to search large databases in a fraction of the time
that it would take a conventional computer.

Other applications could include using quantum computers to study quantum mechanics,
or even to design other quantum computers.

Utilizing quantum parallelism, quantum computers will well serve the purpose of
performing difficult mathematical calculations that are impossible using semiconductor
computers.

6.1 QUANTUM CRYPTOLOGY: ADVANCES IN SECURITY

The expected capabilities of quantum computation promise great improvements in the

world of cryptography. Ironically the same te chnology also poses current cryptography

20
techniques a world of problems. The ability to break the RSA coding system will render
almost all current channels of communication insecure.

6.2 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

The theories of quantum computation suggest that every physical object, even the
universe, is in some sense a quantum computer. Ultimately this suggests that computers
will be capable of simulating conscious rational thought, maybe the quantum computer
will be the key to achieving true artificial intelligence.

Figure 6.2

21
6.3 TELEPORTATION

Teleportation is the ability to make an object or a person to disintegrate in one place while
a perfect replica appears in another.In physics, teleportation has never been taken
seriously because of the
uncertainty principle. According to the uncertainty principle, the duplicating process willd
isturb or destroy the original objects; the more an object is duplicated, the moreit is
destroyed.The detail information regarding how the duplication is made and
how theoriginal object is destroyed is unknown. Therefore, it will reach a point where
onecannot extract enough information from the original to make a perfect
replica.However, scientists at IBM and elsewhere have discovered a way to make
a perfect replica using a distinctive feature of quantum mechanics called EPR (Einstein-
Podolsky-Rosen) effect.Quantum computing provides at least a theoretical basis for
teleportation

Figure 6.3

22
 Chapter 7

7.CONCLUSION

Quantum computers seem to be a good technology to succeed classical

computers.However, there still are a lot of problems which have to be solved first. Some
of the biggest are the decoherence, data storage, the need of a noise free environmentand
the question which is the best hardware scheme for quantum computers .
Once scientists can use atoms to complete complex computations, the day when
acomputer will be the size of 1 atom. These new machines can be deployed in waysthat
are not available today.For example, a nanomachine can be built and programmed to
enter human cells tofight diseases or even resuscitate those who have just died.Yet, this
approach will not be available until scientists can manipulate atomsusing the quantum
physics approaches of entanglement and superposition.In 2001, a 7 qubit machine was
built and programmed to run Shor’s algorithm tosuccessfully factor 15.What algorithms
will be discovered next?

23
 Chapter 8

8.FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS

At present, quantum computers and quantum information technology remains in

its pioneering stage. At this very moment obstacles are being surmounted that will provid
e the knowledge needed to thrust quantum computers up to their rightful position as the fa
stest computational machines in existence. Error correction hasmade promising progress
to date, nearing a point now where we may have thetools required to build a computer
robust enough to adequately withstand
theeffects of decoherence. Quantum hardware, on the other hand, remains anemerging
field, but the work done thus far suggests that it will only be a matter time before we have
devices large enough to test Shor's and other
quantumalgorithms. Thereby, quantum computers will emerge as the superior computatio
nal devices at the very least, and perhaps one day make today's moderncomputer obsolete.
Quantum computation has its origins in highly specializedfields of theoretical physics, but
its future undoubtedly lies in the profound effectit will have on the lives of all mankind.

24
9.REFERENCES

1. Daniel Klöck, Quantum Computers, Department of Computer Engineering,

Polytechnic University of Cottbus

2. A. Einstein, B. Podolsky, and N. Rosen, "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of

Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?" (1935)

(http://prola.aps.org/pagegif/PR/v47/i10/p777_1/p777)

3. A. Barenco (Oxford), C. H. Bennett (IBM), R. Cleve (Calgary), D. P. DiVincenzo

(IBM), N. Margolus (MIT), P. Shor (AT&T), T. Sleator (NYU), J.Smolin (UCLA), H.
Weinfurter (Innsbruck), "Elementary D gates for quantum computation" (Physical
Review A, March 22, 1995 (AC5710))

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum computer.

5. http://www.howstuffworks.com/quantum-computer.htm.

6. http://www.qubit.org

7. http://www.wired.com/wiredenterprise/2013/03/quantum-computing-photons

8. http://iqc.uwaterloo.ca/welcome/quantum-computing-101

9. http://www.buzzfeed.com/willio/quantum-computing-explained-in-simple- terms-460x

10. http://www.techradar.com/news/computig/the-mind-blowing-possibilities- of-

quantum-computing-663261

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