EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

LESSON: ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH – PLANET EARTH

EARTH is the only planet in the solar system known to harbor life. Our planet has a molten – nickel –
iron core, which, along with the atmosphere, shield us from harmful radiation coming from the sun.

Earth is the only place in the known universe confirmed to host life and is the only one known for
sure to liquid water in the surface.

Reason why EARTH is unique one?

1. It has liquid water
2. Plate tectonics
3. It has atmosphere that shelters it from the worst of the sun’s rays

- Earth has 70% amount of liquid water covered the surface by liquid or frozen water.
- Earth sometimes called “Blue Planet”
- Planet Earth is habitable because it has the right distance from the sun. It is kept warm by an
insulating atmosphere, and it has the right chemical ingredients for life including WATER and
CARBON.
- It can provide WATER, OXYGEN, USEFUL BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTS FOR HUMAN, and has
SUITABLE WEATHER and CLIMATE.

Similarities of EARTH, VENUS, and MARS

1. They are all terrestrial planets, made of solid rocks and silicates
2. They all have an atmosphere
3. They all almost have the same time to rotate on their axis
4. EARTH and MARS both have water;
5. They all have carbon dioxide
6. All have landform

Differences of EARTH, VENUS, and MARS

1. Venus has no water
2. Venus and Mars don’t have oxygen
3. Earth has life forms

LESSON: THE SUBSYTEM

EARTH is called “water planet” or “blue planet” because seas cover more than two-thirds of its
surface. Earth is the only planet or moon in the solar system with rain that falls from clouds, runs
over the land, and collects the extensive oceans.

1. ATMOSPHERE - the gaseous layer above the Earth’s surface primarily composed of different
gasses such as nitrogen and oxygen.

2. BIOSPHERE - the zone of the Earth where all forms of life exist. This serves as the ecosystem
of all living and non – living organisms.

3. GEOSPHERE – the solid part of the Earth that consists the entire planet form the center of
the core to the outer crust. It includes CORE, MANTLE and CRUST.

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 4. HYDROSPHERE – the water part of life Earth that includes oceans and glaciers.

ATMOSPHERE
- 78% nitrogen
- 21% oxygen
- 1% argon, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, and other gasses
BIOSPHERE
- sea, land, and water
- called “LARGE ECOSYSTEM”
- thin layer of Earth’s surface
GEOSPHERE
- solid Earth
- Center of the core to the outer crust
- includes core, mantle, crust
HDRISPHERE
- water part
- Circulates among oceans, continents, glaciers, and atmosphere
- Oceans cover 71% of the Earth and contain 97.5% of its water

LESSON: MINERALS

MINERALS make up the beneath your feet, the soil that supplies plant, and the deep rock of Earth’s
mantle.

Graphite – is the mineral used in wooden pencil

Halite – is the mineral found in salt

CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS
1. Naturally occurring – a product of Earth’s natural processes.
2. Inorganic – it must be product of Earth’s physical processes.
3. Homogeneous solid – minerals should have definite volume and rigid shape.
4. Definite chemical composition – represented by a chemical formula
5. Orderly Crystalline Structure – atoms of minerals are arranged in an orderly and repeating
pattern.
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
a. COLOR – mineral’s color may change depending on the surface.
b. STREAK – color of mineral in powdered form.
c. HARDNESS – minerals resistance to scratching.
MOHS SCALE OF HARDNESS (Diamond is the Hardest with a scale 10)
10 – Diamond
9 – Corundum
8 – Topaz
7 – Quartz
6 – Orthoclase
5 – Apatite
4 – Fluorite
3 – Calcite
2 – Gypsum
1 – Talc
d. Cleavage – mineral’s resistance to being broken and fracture.
e. Crystalline – structure or habit

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 f. Diaphaneity / Amount of Transparency – ability to allow light to pass through it. This is
effective by chemical makeup of the mineral sample.
g. Luster – how light is reflected off a surface.
h. Tenacity – describes the minerals reaction to stress.
BRITTLENESS – a mineral turns into powder
MALLEABILITY – a mineral can be flattened by pounding with a hammer.
DUCTILITY – a mineral turns into powder
FLEXIBILITY BUT INELASTIC – minerals are bent but they remain in the new position.
FLEXIBLE AND ELASTIC – minerals are bent, (but they remain) and they bring back to their
original position.
SECTILITY – ability of minerals to be slice by a knife.

LESSON: ROCKS

EARTH is a solid rock to a depth of 2,900 kilometers, where mantle meets the liquid outer core. A
rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals. The aggregate minerals
forming the rocks are held together by chemical bonds. Grains can be different in color, texture, and
sizes.

Geologist group Rocks in three (3) categories:

1. Igneous
2. Sedimentary
3. Metamorphic

PETROLOGY – is the scientific study Rocks

- Classify rocks based on how they were formed.

THREE TYPES OF ROCKS

1. IGNEOUS – formed from hardening and crystallization of magma or molten material that
originates deep within the Earth.
TWO TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCK
a. EXTRUSIVE / VOLCANIC ROCK – forms when magma makes its way to Earth’s surface
as lava and then cools. The crystals are very small (fine grained) since the cooling
process is so fast.
b. INTRUSIVE / PLUTONIC – it cools slowly beneath the Earth surface are created by
magma. The intrusive igneous rocks have very large crystals (coarse grained)
IGNEOUS ROCKS ARE CLASSIFIED BASED ON
I. COMPOSITION
➢ FELSIC – light in color; feldspar and silicates
➢ MAFIC – dark in color; made up of magnesium and iron
➢ INTERMEDIATE – between mafic and felsic
➢ ULTRAMAFIC – very dark color
II. TEXTURE overall appearance of rock
➢ APHANISTIC – fine grained
➢ PHANERITIC – coarse grained
➢ PORPHYRITIC – large crystals with small crystals
➢ GLASSY – non-ordered solid from rapid quenching
➢ PYROCLASTIC – composite of ejected fragments
Examples: Obsidian, Pumice, Basalt, Granite, Diorite, Gabbro

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ROCK CYCLE – is a group of changes. Igneous rock can change into sedimentary rocks or into
metamorphic rock or into igneous. METAMORPHIC ROCK can change into IGNEOUS or
SEDIMENTARY. IGNEOUS ROCK forms when magma cools and makes crystals. Magma is a hot liquid
of melted minerals. The minerals can form crystals when they (form) cool. IGNEOUS ROCK can form
underground, when the magma cools slowly. On IGNEOUS ROCK can form above ground, when the
magma cools quickly.

2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – provide information about surface conditions that existed in the
Earth’s past. Particles of sand, shells, pebbles, and other fragments of materials called
sediments, accumulate in layers and over long period of time harden into rocks.
THREE TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK
a. CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – formed from accumulation of clasts: little pieces of
broken rocks and shells.
Examples: Conglomerate, Breccia, Sandstone, Shale.
b. CHEMICAL – formed when dissolved minerals precipitate from a solution.
Examples: Halite – formed when a body of seawater becomes closed off and
evaporates.
c. ORGANIC – rocks formed from the accumulation of animal debris.
Examples: coal – composed of organic matter in the form of plants fragments.

3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS – forms from pre-existing rocks: either metamorphic, igneous,

sedimentary.
Examples: Quartzite, Marble, Slate, Phyllite.

METAMORPHISM – transformation of one rock type into another.

THREE TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK
1. REGIONAL – due to changes in pressure and temperature over large region of the
crust.
2. CONTACT – mainly by heat due to contact with magma.

CLASSIFICATION
a. TEXTURE – refers to the size arrangements and grains within the rock.
b. FOLIATION – any planar arrangement of mineral grains or structural features within the rock.

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 * FOLIATED – appeared banded or layered, contains crystals
Example: Mica
* NON-FOLIATED – made up only few minerals.

LESSON: FOLDING AND FAULTING / ROCK FORMATION

The Earth’s surface has been continually deformed. This deformation is the results of forces that are
strong enough to move ocean sediments to an elevation many thousand meters above sea level.
This help explain the forces necessary to bend and fold rocks.

Rocks and minerals are all around us. It is a natural substance composed of solid crystals of different
minerals that have been fused together into a solid lump. They help us develop now (techniques)
technologies and are used in everyday life. In includes COSMETICS, CARS, BUILDING, MATERIALS,
ROADS, and APPLIANCES.

PLATE TECTONIC movement of the plates result in deformation (folding and faulting) of the Earth’s
crust.
FOLDING is the type of Earth movement resulting from the compression of rock because of high
temperature and pressure from the interior of Earth. Bending, Curving, Crumpling, or Buckling of
rocks into folds are usually visible on rock strata

1. MONOCLINE a one-sided slope connecting two horizontal or gently inclined strata.

2. ANTICLINE an upward fold on the rock.
3. SYNCLINE a downward fold on the rock.
4. OVERTURNED happens when one-fold is pushed over the other limb due to increasing
pressure.
5. RECUMBENT an extreme type of overturned fold in which the axial plain acquires on almost
horizontal altitudes.

FAULT they form cracks or fractures on the rocks. The movement is caused by low temperature that
make rocks brittle.
1. NORMAL (DIVERGENT) FAULT – occur when rock is being pulled apart due to known force in
this type of fault, rock generally moves down.
2. REVERSE (CONVERGENT) FAULT – happen when rock is being squeezed due to compression
force. It moves up
3. TRANSFORM (STRIKE-SLIP) FAULT – happens when rocks slide past each other in opposite
direction.
Example: San Andreas Fault

TYPES OF ROCKS
1. IGNEOUS ROCKS formed through solidified molten rock (volcanic).
Examples: Basalt, Pumice, Granite, Obsidian
2. SIDEMENTARY ROCKS combination of rock fragments seashells, fossils and chemicals are
compressed in layers and hardened.
Examples: Conglomerate, Sandstone, Limestones, Shells, Dolomite
3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS formed when other rocks are changed by heat, pressure and
chemical reactions.
Examples: Marble, Slate, Gneiss, Schists, Phyllite

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 LESSON: GEOLOGIC TIME

Geologic Time requires an understanding of the LAWS OF NATURE. It means that how things work
today is the same as they were before. It never changed. The discovery of fossils or rocks are very
helpful to scientists because it can be used as an instrument to interpret the past. SCIENTISTS
divided the history of Earth into a chain at time intervals. These time intervals are unequal in terms
of numbers of days or hours and vary lengths. The division of GEOLOGIC TIME is based on the
significant events on Earth. The layers on the surface of the Earth, from the recent origin down to
the most ancient, made possible to split geological time into EONS, ERAS, and PERIODS. These are
the periods that divide the history and evolution of Earth.
At present GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE is divided into big portions of lime known as EONS. Eons
are further divided into ERAS. Eras are divided into Periods.
PRECAMBRIAN EON is the point of time in which our planet started to form. There was no formation
of any organism.
PHANEROZOIC EON, living organisms as plants and animals existed. It continues the time of
multicellular life on Earth and the evolutionary process happened. This is further divided into the
PALEZOIC ERA, MESOZOIC ERA, CENOZOIC ERA.

EON ERA PERIOD BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

PRECAMBRIAN No evidence of life, oldest fossils known
origin of Earth.
CAMBRIAN Age of invertebrates, marine algae
vertebrates.
ORDOVICIAN Abundance of marine algae. Appearance of
first vertebrates.
PALEZOIC SILURIAN Jawed fishes appear Vascular Plants invaded
the land.
DEVONAN First appearance of amphibians and insects.
Age of fishes.
CARBONIFEROUS Animals are mostly amphibians, seeds
plants appear.
PERMIAN Reptiles, modern insects and conifers
appear.
PHANEROZOIC TRIASSIC First mammal exists. First dinosaur appears.
SURASSIC Plants with seed are dominant above the
lands
CRETACEOUS Extinction of dinosaurs and other animals.
Placental mammals exist. Flowering plants
appear
PHANEROZOIC CENOZOIC TERTIARY Humans appear. Herbaceous plants spread
and diversified.
GUATERNARY Age of man. Abundance of herbaceous
plants.

LESSON: EARTHQUAKE

PHILIPPINES – large archipelago 7,100 islands. It is located along the Western Pacific Basin between
two tectonic plates.
SUBDUCTION ZONE – RING OF FIRE

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GEOLOGICAL PROCESS & HAZARDS

• EARTHQUAKES is a sudden violent shaking of the ground.

BOHOL – 2013
• VOLCANIC ERUPTION – occurs when magma is released from a volcano
MT. PINATUBO – 1991
• LANDSLIDES – sliding down of mass of Earth on rock from mountain or cliff.
LEYTE – 2006

1. PYROCLASTIC FLOW and SURGES a mixture of ash, rock fragments and gas materials that
leave devastating effects on the area in which they flow.
2. BALLISTIC PROJECTILES these are rocks from an erupting volcano blasted into the air.
3. LAHAR it is a mudflow from a mixture of volcanic water and rock fragments. It moves down
the slopes of volcano into the surrounding area and destroying everything on its way.
4. VOLCANIC GASES present in toxic amount tapped in cavities in volcanic rocks dissolve in
magma or lava or through groundwater and is heated by volcanic activity.
5. ASH FALLS ashes produced during a volcanic eruption. It can destroy vegetation
malfunctions engine, collapse roofs, and endanger health of people.
6. TSUNAMIS substantial sea waves that occur when an underwater volcano erupts. Its wave
height could be higher than 5 meters. It can cause the death of humans, animals and
destruction of infrastructures or properties when it hits offshore.

EARTHQUAKES is another form of geological hazard. It is shaking of the ground due to the released
energy that forms seismic waves. Seismograph detects earthquakes that are less felt. Earthquakes
hazards include the following:
1. Unsecured things that are open
2. Electronic devices and appliances
3. Grounds breaking
4. Liquefaction
The strength and hardness of the soil are reduced. It happens when the groundwater mixed with
ground soil that makes the soil less stable.
5. Ground subsidence
Ground sink due to earthquake

LANDSLIDE is a geological hazard that includes movement of any debris masses of rock, or soil down
a slope. It can occur in the offshore and coastal environment but composed of a weak strength or
soil resting on a steep slope. Landslides hazards are falling debris from a steep slope, pieces of rocks
fall, and mudflow.

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 EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE pt. 2
CHAPTER: ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
LESSON 1.1 STATE THE DIFFERENT HYPOTHESIS EPLAINING THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE

What is Universe?
The universe or cosmos contains all galaxies, stars, and planets.

Our Solar System is located in the Milky Way galaxy, which is one of many galaxies in the Universe.

So far there are 51 galaxy that has been discovered but there are an estimated number of about 100
to 200 billion in all.

Astronomers there are at least one hundred billion galaxies in the observable universe. They’re
counted the galaxies in particular region, and multiplied this up to estimate the number for the
whole universe.

Optical telescopes have been used for astronomical observation since the time of Galileo, but the
technology has moved on significantly since then.

Cosmology is the branch of science that studies the origin, evolution and fate of the universe.

What are the theories behind the origin of the Universe?

Theories behind the origin of Universe
1. Big Bang
2. Steady State Theory
3. Pulsating Universe

Big Bang is the leading explanation about how the universe began.
In this theory, energy and matter divided and became distinct from each other. After the massive
explosion, dust and portion of the condensed matter and energy spread out.
At its simplest, it talks about the universe as we know it starting with a small singularity, then
inflating over the next 13.8 billion years to the cosmos that we know today.

Steady State it states that the universe has been present ever since and therefore has no beginning
and no end.
According to this theory, the density of matter in the expanding universe remains unchanged due to
a continuous creation of matter.

Pulsating Universe it combines both the Big Bang and the Big Crunch as a part of a cyclic event.
This theory, which is more commonly known as the oscillating or cyclic universe theory, postulates
that the universe goes through regular cycles of expansion and destruction.

The Big Crunch States that at a certain point in time, it will stop expanding and collapse into itself,
pulling everything with it until it eventually turns into the biggest black hole ever, is one of the
scenarios predicted by scientists in which the Universe may end.
That is, if the Big Bang describes how the Universe most possible began, the Big Crunch describes
how it will end as a consequence of that beginning.
LESSON 1.2 DESCRIBE THE DIFFERENT HYPOTHESIS EXPLAINING THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR
SYSTEM.

What is the Solar System?

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Our solar system consists of an average star we call the Sun and the planets.
It includes: the satellites of the planets; numerous comets, asteroids, and meteoroids; and the
interplanetary medium.

What are the theories on the origin of Solar System?

1. Theory of Vortices
2. Nebular Hypothesis
3. Laplace’s Nebular Theory
4. Leclerc-Buffon Idea
5. Chemical Composition Analysis
6. Solar Nebular Disk Model (SNDM)

Theory of Vortices postulates that the space was entirely filled with matter in various states,
whirling about the sun like a vortex.
Rene Descartes – he invented this theory in the mid 1600’s, he explained that once the particles in
the universe began to move, the overall motion would have been circular because there is no void in
nature.
Whenever a single particle moves, another particle must also move to occupy the space where the
previous particle once was.
This type of circular motion (vortex) would have created the orbits of the planets about the sun with
heavier objects spinning towards the outside of the vortex and lighter objects remaining closer to
the center.

Nebular Hypothesis in this theory, thin, dim clouds of dust and gas out in the cosmos would collapse
in on themselves under the force of gravity.
The nebular hypothesis is the most widely accepted model in the field of cosmology to explain the
formation and evolution of the Solar System.
Emmanuel / Immanuel Kant – he postulated the nebular hypothesis using Newton’s idea of gravity.
From this spinning disk, stars and planets would form, and from this type of formation, the rotation
of earth and the other planets would be explained.

Laplace’s Nebular Theory it is a theory that states a slowly rotating nebula (a cloud of vast gas and
dust) collapsed under gravity forming an oblate spheroid due to the increase in its spin rate.
Pierre Simon Laplace – a French Mathematician, he proposed this idea in the year of 1700.

Leclerc – Buffon Idea Georges-Louis Leclerc and Comte de Buffon conceived the idea that a comet
collided with the Sun sending matter off to form the planets.

Chemical Composition Analysis it was Harold Urey who initially studied the meteorites and their
chemical analysis. He concluded that meteorites contain matter that had changed very little in the
early history of the solar system. This set a new trend in understanding the solar system whose
origin can be based on its chemical composition.

Solar Nebular Disk Model developed by Soviet astronomer Viktor Safronov. According to this model,
our star system was formed 4.568 billion years ago when a small part of a giant molecular cloud
experienced a gravitational collapse.
Most of the collapsing mass collected in the center forming the Sun while the rest flattened into a
protoplanetary disk, out of which the planets, moon, asteroids, and other small solar system bodies
formed.