MATHEMATICS

LOGIC
Principles of Logic
Foundations of Valid Reasoning
Logic is the study of reasoning and the structure of arguments. Understanding the
principles of logic allows us to construct valid statements and evaluate their
truthfulness.
Key Components of Logical Statements
1. Propositions:
• A proposition is a declarative statement that is either true (T) or false
(F), but not both.
• Examples:
• "The sky is blue." (This can be evaluated as true or false.)
• "2 + 2 = 5." (This is a false statement.)
2. Negation:
• The negation of a proposition pp (not pp) is true if pp is false, and false
if pp is true.
• Symbolically: ¬p¬p
• Example: If pp is "It is raining," then ¬p¬p is "It is not raining."
3. Conjunction:
• The conjunction of two propositions pp and qq (p and q) is true only if
both pp and qq are true.
• Symbolically: p∧qp∧q
• Example: "It is raining and it is cold" is true only if both conditions are
met.
4. Disjunction:
• The disjunction of two propositions pp and qq (p or q) is true if at least
one of them is true.
• Symbolically: p∨qp∨q
• Example: "It is rainy or it is sunny" is true if at least one of the conditions
is true.
5. Implication:
• An implication p→qp→q states "If pp then qq." It is false only
when pp is true and qq is false.
• Example: "If it rains, then the ground will be wet" (false if it rains but the
ground isn’t wet).
6. Biconditional:
• A biconditional p↔qp↔q means "p if and only if q." It is true when both
propositions are the same (both true or both false).
• Example: "A shape is a square if and only if it has four equal sides."
Constructing Logical Statements
To construct logical statements, follow these principles:
• Identify Propositions: Determine what statements can be assigned a truth
value.
• Combine Propositions: Use conjunctions, disjunctions, implications, or
biconditional statements to create more complex logical statements.
• Check Validity: Evaluate if the combined statements logically follow each other
and maintain truth.
Examples:
• Combination:
• p:p: "The food is ready."
• q:q: "The guests have arrived."
• Statement: "The food is ready and the guests have arrived." (This
is p∧qp∧q).
• Implication:
• Statement: "If the food is ready, then the guests will be happy." (This
is p→qp→q).
Let's dive straight into logical connectives! Logical connectives are symbols or words
used to connect propositions to form compound propositions. Here are the primary
logical connectives you'll encounter:
1. Conjunction (AND)
• Symbol: ∧∧
• A conjunction is true if both propositions are true.
• Example:
• Let p:"It is raining"p:"It is raining"
• Let q:"It is cold"q:"It is cold"
• The conjunction p∧qp∧q means "It is raining AND it is cold."
2. Disjunction (OR)
• Symbol: ∨∨
• A disjunction is true if at least one proposition is true.
• Example:
• With the same propositions, p∨qp∨q means "It is raining OR it is cold."
• Note: In logic, this “OR” is called inclusive; it can also be true if both are
true.
3. Negation (NOT)
• Symbol: ¬¬
• Negation reverses the truth value of a proposition.
• Example:
• ¬p¬p means "It is not raining." If pp is true, ¬p¬p is false.
4. Implication (IF...THEN)
• Symbol: →→
• An implication is true unless a true proposition leads to a false one.
 • Example:
• p→qp→q means "If it is raining (p), then it is cold (q)."
5. Biconditional (IF AND ONLY IF)
• Symbol: ↔↔
• A biconditional is true if both propositions are either true or both are false.
• Example:
• p↔qp↔q means "It is raining if and only if it is cold."
Truth Tables
To better understand these connectives, we can use truth tables, which show all
possible truth values of the propositions involved.
Table for Conjunction (p∧qp∧q):
| pp | qq | p∧qp∧q |
|---------|---------|----------------|
|T|T|T|
|T|F|F|
|F|T|F|
|F|F|F|
Table for Disjunction (p∨qp∨q):
| pp | qq | p∨qp∨q |
|---------|---------|----------------|
|T|T|T|
|T|F|T|
|F|T|T|
|F|F|F|
Table for Negation (¬p¬p):
| pp | ¬p¬p |
|---------|---------------|
|T|F|
|F|T|
Understanding these logical connectives is crucial for forming compound
propositions and developing logical reasoning skills. Would you like to see examples
of how to combine these connectives into more complex statements?
Alright! Let’s dive right into Truth Tables and how to use them to determine the truth
values of logical statements.
What is a Truth Table?
A truth table is a mathematical table used to determine the truth values of logical
expressions based on their components. Each row of the table represents a possible
combination of truth values for the propositions involved.
Components of a Truth Table
• Propositions: These are the basic statements that can be either true (T) or false
(F).
• Logical Connectives: These include:
• AND (∧)
 • OR (∨)
• NOT (¬)
• IMPLIES (→)
• BICONDITIONAL (↔)
Steps to Create a Truth Table
1. List all the propositions involved.
2. Determine the number of rows: This is based on the number of propositions.
For n propositions, you will have 2n2n rows.
3. Fill in the truth values for each proposition in columns:
• Alternate T and F in the first column.
• Alternate every two T’s and F’s in the second column, and so on.
4. Apply logical connectives to determine the output for compound statements.
Example
Let’s consider the statement p∧qp∧q (read as "p AND q").
1. Identify propositions: Here, we have two propositions pp and qq.
2. Number of Rows: Since there are 2 propositions, we'll have 22=422=4 rows.
3. Truth Table:
|p|q|p∧q|
|-----|-----|-------|
|T|T|T|
|T|F|F|
|F|T|F|
|F|F|F|
Explanation of Rows
• Row 1: Both p and q are true, hence p∧qp∧q is true.
• Row 2: p is true, but q is false, leading p∧qp∧q to be false.
• Row 3: p is false and q is true; thus, p∧qp∧q is false.
• Row 4: Both p and q are false, so p∧qp∧q is false.
Practice!
Try creating a truth table for the logical statement p∨qp∨q (p OR q) on your own.
Use the same structure: identify the propositions, determine the rows, and fill in the
truth values.