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CHAPTER.1
Bricks, Beads and Bones
The Harappan Civilization
What are the archaeological sources/evidences available to understand about the
Harappan Civilization?[CW]
The Harappan seal- the most distinctive artefact of the Harappan or Indus valley
civilisation. It is made of a stone called steatite, which contain animal motifs and
signs from a script that remains undeciphered.
We also know a great deal about the lives of the people from their houses, pots,
ornaments, tools and seals.
Which were the areas from where the objects of Harappan culture mainly
discovered? [HW]
The objects were mostly found from areas as far as in Afghanistan, Jammu,
Baluchistan (Pakistan) and Gujarat (Map 1).
Which is the approximate period of Indus Valley Civilization?
This unique culture is dated between c. 2600 and 1900 BCE.
What do you mean by Early Harappan and Late Harappan? [CW]
There were earlier and later cultures, often called Early Harappan and Late
Harappan, in the same area.
Both these cultures shared some common elements.
How do we know about the break between the Early and Late Harappan? [CW]
Evident from large-scale burning at some sites, as well as the abandonment of
certain settlements it appears that there was a break between the Early Harappan
and the Harappan civilization.
List the items of food available to people in Harappan cities. [CW]
The Harappans ate a wide range of plant and animal products, including fish.
Archaeologists have been able to reconstruct dietary practices from finds of
charred grains and seeds.
The archaeo-botanists, who are specialists in ancient plant remains found at
Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame. Millets are
found from sites in Gujarat. Finds of rice are relatively rare.
Animal bones also found at Harappan sites. Studies done by archaeo-zoologists or
zoo-archaeologists indicate that these animals were domesticated.
We do not know whether the Harappans hunted these animals themselves or
obtained meat from other hunting communities. Bones of fish also found.
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Explain about the Agricultural technologies/strategies adopted by the Harappan
people.
Or
How archaeologists trace the evidences of agricultural technologies from the
Harappan sites? [CW]
1.It is difficult to reconstruct actual agricultural practices.
2. Seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and were used
for ploughing.
3.Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at
Banawali (Haryana).
4.Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan
(Rajasthan),
5.The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that
two different crops were grown together.
6.Archaeologists have also tried to identify the tools used for harvesting.
7.Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was
probably required for agriculture.
8.Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in
Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sind.
It is also likely that water drawn from wells was used for irrigation. Besides, water
reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used to store water for
agriculture.
Mohenjo-Daro, a planned Urban Centre
Explain about the city of Mohenjo-Daro [CW]
Or
The development of planned urban centres.
*Perhaps the most unique feature of the Harappan civilization was development
of urban centers.
*Mohenjo-Daro was divided into two sections -higher and lower settlements
*Although Mohenjo-Daro is said to be the most well-known site, the first site to be
discovered was Harappa.
*The settlement is divided into two sections, one smaller but higher and the other
much larger but lower.
*Archaeologists designate these as the Citadel and the Lower Town respectively.
*In the Citadel, buildings were constructed on mud brick platforms. It was walled,
and physically separated from the Lower Town.
*The Lower Town was also walled. Several buildings were built on platforms
*Labor force were engaged on a large scale
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*All building activities within the city were restricted to a fixed area on the
platforms.
*The settlement was first planned and then implemented.
*Other signs of planning include bricks, sun-dried or baked, were of a
standardized ratio.
Alexander Cunningham, the first Director-General of the [Reading]
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), often called the father of Indian archaeology,
noted that the amount of brick taken from the ancient site was enough to lay bricks
for “about 100 miles” of the railway line between Lahore and Multan.
Thus, many of the ancient structures at the site were damaged. In contrast,
Mohenjodaro was far better preserved
Laying out drains (general)
Would you agree that the drainage system in Harappan cities indicates town
planning? Give reasons for your answer. [CW]
One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was the carefully planned
drainage system.
The Lower Town was planned in such a way that roads and streets were laid out
along an approximate “grid” pattern, intersecting at right angles.
The streets with drains were laid out first and then houses built along them.
If domestic waste water had to flow into the street drains, every house needed to
have at least one wall along a street.
Explain about the Domestic architecture in Mohenjo-Daro [CW]
1. The Lower Town at Mohenjodaro provides examples of residential buildings.
2. Many were centered on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides.
3. The courtyard was probably the centre of activities such as cooking and
weaving, particularly during hot and dry weather.
3. There was a concern for privacy: as there were no windows in the walls along the
ground level.
4. The main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard.
5. Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected
through the wall to the street drains.
6. Some houses have remains of staircases to reach a second storey or the roof.
7. Many houses had wells.
Scholars have estimated that the total number of wells in Mohenjodaro was about
700.
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Why Citadel was so significant? [CW]
1. The archaeologists say that the structures were used for special public purposes
on the Citadel.
2. These include the warehouse and Great Bath –
Warehouse a massive structure of which the lower portions remain as it is made
out of bricks, while the upper portions, probably of wood, decayed long ago.
3. Great Bath was a large rectangular tank surrounded by a corridor on all four
sides.
4. There were two flights of steps on the north and south leading into the tank,
which was made watertight by setting bricks on edge and using a mortar of
gypsum.
5. There were rooms on three sides, in one of which was a large well.
6. Water from the tank flowed into a huge drain.
7.The uniqueness of the structure, as well as the context in which it was found has
led scholars to suggest that it was meant for some kind of a special ritual bath.
Tracking Social Differences (Harappa)
How do archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society?
What are the differences that they notice? [CW]
• Archaeologists generally use certain strategies to find out whether there
were social or economic differences amongst people living within a particular
culture.
• These include studying of burials. (Similar to the massive pyramids of Egypt.
Many of these pyramids were royal burials, where an enormous quantity of
wealth was buried).
• *At burials in Harappan sites, the dead were generally laid in pits.
Sometimes, there were differences in the way the burial pit was made.
• But It is not sure about this variations be an indication of social differences.
• Some graves contain pottery and ornaments. Perhaps it may be indicating a
belief that, these could be used in the afterlife.
• Jewellery has been found in burials of both men and women.
• In the excavations at the cemetery in Harappa in the mid-1980s, an
ornament consisting of three shell rings, a jasper (a kind of semi-precious
stone) bead and hundreds of micro beads was found near the skull of a male.
• In some instances the dead were buried with copper mirrors. But on the
whole, it appears that the Harappans did not believe in burying precious
things with the dead.
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• Another strategy to identify social differences is to study artifacts, which
archaeologists broadly classify as utilitarian and luxuries.
• The utilitarian category includes objects of daily use made out of ordinary
materials such as stone or clay. These include querns, pottery, needles, flesh-
rubbers (body scrubbers), etc., and are usually found distributed throughout
settlements.
• For Luxurious artifacts, the archaeologists assume that objects which were
rare or made from costly, non-local materials or with complicated
technologies. The little pots of faience (a material made of ground sand or
silica mixed with colour and a gum and then fired) were probably considered
precious because they were difficult to make
[ The little pots of faience]
• Rare objects made of valuable materials are generally concentrated in large
settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa and are rarely found in the
smaller settlements. For example, miniature pots of faience, perhaps used as
perfume bottles, are found mostly in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.
Finding Out About Craft Production
Explain Chanhudaro, a centre of craft industry[Present Sind in Pakistan] [HW]
Locate Chanhudaro on Map 1.
• Chanhudaro is a tiny settlement (less than 7 hectares) as compared to
Mohenjo-Daro (125 hectares).It was almost exclusively devoted to craft
production, including bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making
and weight-making.
• The variety of materials used here to make beads is remarkable. Stones like
carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite;
metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or
burnt clay were mainly used.
• Some beads were made of two or more stones, cemented together, some of
stone with gold caps. The shapes were numerous – disc shaped, cylindrical,
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spherical, and barrel-shaped. Some were decorated by incising or painting
and some had designs engraved onto them.
Techniques for making beads
• Techniques for making beads were differed according to the material.
Steatite, a very soft stone, was easily worked. Some beads were moulded out
of a paste made with steatite powder.
• Archaeologists’ experiments have revealed that, the red colour of carnelian
[stone]was obtained by firing the yellowish raw material and beads at
various stages of production
. [ red stone]
• Nodules (shapeless object) were chipped into rough shapes, and then finely
flaked into the final form.
• Grinding, polishing and drilling completed the process. Specialized drills have
been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal and more recently at Dholavira.
• Shell objects were mainly made in Nageshwar and Balakot (Nageshwar and
Balakot on Map 1). Both these settlements are near the coast.
• Similarly, it is likely that finished products (such as beads) from Chanhudaro
and Lothal were taken to the large urban centers such as Mohenjo-Daro and
Harappa.
How archaeologists were identifying centers of craft production? [CW]
In order to identify centers of craft production, archaeologists usually look for the
following:
• Raw material such as stone nodules, whole shells, copper ore; tools;
unfinished objects; rejects and waste material.
• In fact, waste is one of the best indicators of craft work.If shell or stone is cut
to make objects, then pieces of these materials will be discarded as waste at
the place of production. Sometimes, larger waste pieces were used up to
make smaller objects.
Strategies for Procuring Materials
Question: List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan
civilisation and discuss how these might have been obtained. [CW]
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• A variety of materials were used for craft production. While some such as
clay were locally available .But the materials like stone, timber and metal had
to be procured from outside the alluvial plain.
• Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest that this was one important
means of transporting goods and people across land routes.
• Riverine routes along the Indus and its tributaries, as well as coastal routes
were also probably used for transporting materials
Materials from the subcontinent and beyond [CW]
• The Harappans established settlements such as Nageshwar and Balakot in
areas where shell was available.
• Other such sites were Shortughai, in far-off Afghanistan was the best source
of lapis lazuli, a blue stone which was highly valued.
[ lapis lazuli, a blue stone]
• Lothal was near sources of carnelian (from Bharuch in Gujarat), steatite (from
south Rajasthan and north Gujarat) and metal (from Rajasthan).
• Another strategy for procuring raw materials may have been to send
expeditions to areas such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and
south India (for gold).These expeditions established communication with
local communities.
• The Ganeshwar- Jodhpura culture existed in the Khetri area with its
distinctive non-Harappan pottery and an unusual wealth of copper objects.It
is possible that the inhabitants of this region supplied copper to the
Harappans.
[carnelian] [steatite]
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Q.Critically examine the evidence for the trade between Harappa and Oman and
other Arabian states [CW]
• Recent archaeological finds suggest that copper was also probably brought
from Oman, on the southeastern tip of the Arabian peninsula.
• Chemical analyses have shown that both the Omani copper and Harappan
artefacts have traces of nickel, suggesting a common origin.
• A large Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of black clay has been found at
Omani sites also. Such thick coatings prevent the percolation of liquids.
• Harappans exchanged these vessels for Omani copper.
• In the Mesopotamian myths also a number reference about Harappan
objects like Haja-bird (Indian peacock)
• It is likely that communication with Oman, Bahrain or Mesopotamia was by
sea.
• Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha as a land of seafarers. Besides, we find
depictions of ships and boats on seals.
Q.Explain about Seals, Script, Weights of Harappan Civilization [CW]
1. Seals and sealing were used to facilitate long-distance communication. Imagine
a bag of goods being sent from one place to another. Its mouth was tied with rope
and on the knot was affixed some wet clay on which one or more seals were
pressed, leaving an impression. If the bag reached with its sealing intact, it meant
that it had not been tampered with. The sealing also conveyed the identity of the
sender.
2. An enigmatic script (difficult to understand)
Harappan seals usually have a line of writing, probably containing the name and
title of the owner. Scholars suggested that the motif (generally an animal)
conveyed a meaning to those who could not read.
Most inscriptions are short, the longest containing about 26 signs.
Although the script remains undeciphered to date, it was evidently not alphabetical
(where each sign stands for a vowel or a consonant) as it has just too many signs –
somewhere between 375 and 400.
It is apparent that the script was written from right to left as some seals show a
wider spacing.
Writing on variety of objects : A variety of objects on which writing has been
found: seals, copper tools, rims of jars, copper and terracotta tablets, jewellery,
bone rods, even an ancient signboard!
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[Harappan Script]
3. Weights
Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a stone
called chert and generally cubical (Fig. 1.2), with no markings.
The lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. up to
12,800), while the higher denominations followed the decimal system.
The smaller weights were probably used for weighing jewellery and beads.
Metal scale-pans have also been found.
[weights and measures]
Discuss the functions that may have been performed by rulers in Harappan
society [CW]
• There is no concrete evidence on the existence of king or palace.A large
building found at Mohenjo-Daro was labelled as a palace by archaeologists
but no spectacular finds were associated with it.
• A stone statue was labelled and continues to be known as the “priest-king”.
This is because archaeologists were familiar with Mesopotamian history and
its “priest-kings” and have found parallels in the Indus region.
• There are different opinions among the archaeologists on kings
1. Some of the opinion that, Harappa society had no rulers, and that everybody
enjoyed equal status.
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2. Others feel that, there was no single ruler but several, that Mohenjodaro had a
separate ruler, Harappa another, and so on.
3. Yet others argue that there was a single state, given the similarity in artefacts,
the evidence for planned settlements, the standardized ratio of brick size, and the
establishment of settlements near sources of raw material.
As of now, the last theory seems the most plausible, as it is unlikely that entire
communities could have collectively made and implemented such complex
decisions.
What were factors that led to the End of the Harappa Civilization? [CW]
1. Expansion of population and new settlements. By c. 1800 BCE most of the
mature Harappan sites in regions such as Cholistan had been abandoned.
2. Simultaneously, there was an expansion of population into new settlements
in Gujarat, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.
3. Transformation of material culture. In a few Harappan sites that continued to
be occupied after 1900 BCE, there appears to have been a transformation of
material culture, marked by the disappearance of the distinctive artefacts of
the civilisation – weights, seals, special beads.
4. Rural way of life. Writing, long-distance trade, and craft specialization also
disappeared. House construction techniques deteriorated and large public
structures were no longer produced.
5. Other factors: Several other explanations have been put forwarded.These
range from climatic change, deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting
and/or drying up of rivers, to overuse of the landscape. Some of these
“causes” may hold for certain settlements, but they do not explain the
collapse of the entire civilization. It appears that a strong unifying element,
perhaps the Harappan state, came to an end.
What was Cunningham’s confusion? [HW]
• Cunningham was the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of
India.
• When he began archaeological excavations in the mid-nineteenth century,
archaeologists preferred to use the written word (texts and inscriptions) as a
guide to investigations.
• But Cunningham’s main interest was in the archaeology of the Early Historic
(c. sixth century BCE-fourth century CE) and later periods. He used the
accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent
between the fourth and seventh centuries CE to locate early settlements. He
also collected, documented and translated inscriptions found during his
surveys.
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• A site like Harappa, which was not part of the itinerary of the Chinese
pilgrims and was not known as an Early Historic city, did not fit within his
framework of investigation.
• So, although some of the Harappan artifacts reached Cunningham, he did
not realise how old these were.
• He tried to place a Harappan seal within the time-frame with which he was
familiar.
• This was because he thought that Indian history began with the first cities in
the Ganga valley . Given his specific focus, it is not surprising that he missed
the significance of Harappa.
A new old civilization [ For Reading]
Discuss the different efforts made by the archaeologists to correctly date the
Indus valley civilization.
1. seals were discovered at Harappa by archaeologists such as Daya Ram Sahni in
the early decades of the twentieth century, in layers that were definitely much
older than Early Historic levels .It was then that their significance began to be
realised.
2.Another archaeologist, Rakhal Das Banerji found similar seals at Mohenjodaro,
leading to the conjecture that these sites were part of a single archaeological
culture.
3. In 1924, John Marshall, Director -General of the ASI, announced the discovery of
a new civilisation in the Indus valley to the world. It was then that the world knew
not only of a new civilisation, but also of one contemporaneous with Mesopotamia.
John Marshall’s stint as Director-General of the ASI marked a major change in
Indian archaeology. He was the first professional archaeologist to work in India, and
brought his experience of working in Greece and Crete (island in Greece) to the
field. More importantly, like Cunningham he too was interested in spectacular finds
and was equally keen to look for patterns of everyday life. Marshall tended to
excavate along regular horizontal units, measured uniformly throughout the
mound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. This meant that all the artefacts
recovered from the same unit were grouped together, even if they were found at
different stratigraphic[rock] layers.
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Extra Question:
Describe the efforts and methods of John Marshall to correctly date the Indus
valley civilisation.
New techniques and questions
Discuss how R.E.M. Wheeler rectified the problems faced by the earlier
excavators? [For Reading]
It was R.E.M. Wheeler, after he took over as Director-General of the ASI in 1944,
who rectified this problem. Wheeler recognized that it was necessary to follow the
stratigraphy of the mound rather than dig mechanically along uniform horizontal
lines. As an ex-army brigadier, he brought with him a military precision to the
practice of archaeology. With the partition of the subcontinent and the creation of
Pakistan, the major sites are now in Pakistani territory. This has spurred Indian
archaeologists to try and locate sites in India. An extensive survey in Kutch has
revealed a number of Harappan settlements and explorations in Punjab and
Haryana have added to the list of Harappan sites. While Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhi
Garhi and most recently Dholavira have been discovered, explored and excavated
as part of these efforts, fresh explorations continue.
How archaeologists reconstruct religious practices? [CW]
Early archaeologists thought that certain objects which seemed unusual or
unfamiliar may have had a religious significance.
a.Mother goddesses: These included terracotta figurines of women, heavily
jewelled, some with elaborate head-dresses. These were regarded as mother
goddesses.
b.Priest-king:Rare stone statuary of men in an almost standardized posture, seated
with one hand on the knee – such as the “priest-king” – was also similarly classified.
c.The Great Bath and fire altars:In other instances, structures have been assigned
ritual significance. These include the Great Bath and fire altars found at Kalibangan
and Lothal.
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d.Seals which depict ritual scenes: Attempts have also been made to reconstruct
religious beliefs and practices by examining seals, some of which seem to depict
ritual scenes. Others, with plant motifs, are thought to indicate nature worship.
Some animals – such as the one-horned animal, often called the “unicorn” –
depicted on seals seem to be mythical, composite creatures.
E. Proto-Shiva:
In some seals, a figure shown seated cross-legged in a “yogic” posture, sometimes
surrounded by animals, has been regarded as a depiction of “proto-Shiva”, that is,
an early form of one of the major deities of Hinduism.
f. Linga: Besides, conical stone objects have been classified as lingas.
[Mother Godess] [Priest King] [Fire Altars]
[Great Bath]
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Map work
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Home Work
1. Which were the areas from where the objects of Harappan culture mainly
discovered?
2. List the items of food available to people in Harappan cities
3. How do archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan
society? What are the differences that they notice?
4. Explain Chanhudaro, a center of craft industry[Present Sind in Pakistan]
5. What is lapis lazuli?
6. Which products did Nageshwar and Balakot sites famous for?
7. What was Cunningham’s confusion?
8. On the outline map of India locate the following places associated with
Harappan Civilization
1. Harappa
2. Mohenjo-Daro
3. Kalibangan
4. Manda
5. Dholavira
6. Balkot
7. Lothal
8. Chanhu daro
9. Banawali
10.Nageswar
11.Rangpur
12.Amri
[The first 6 places must be marked in one map and the other 6 are to be marked
in second map]
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