Octocoral Taxonomy Laboratory Manual

Results of the International Workshop on the Taxonomy of Octocorals March 20-26, 2005. University of Kerala, India

Table of Contents
Forward ...........................................................................................................................4 Equipment .......................................................................................................................5 Specimen Fixation...........................................................................................................6 Sclerite Preparation.........................................................................................................7 Sclerite Mounting.............................................................................................................8 Technique Notes .............................................................................................................9 General Notes ............................................................................................................... 10 Sclerite Notes ................................................................................................................ 11 Indo-Pacific Octocorals Lobophytum .................................................................................................................. 12 Sarcophyton .................................................................................................................. 13 Sinularia ........................................................................................................................ 14 Dampia.......................................................................................................................... 15 Cladiella ........................................................................................................................ 16 Klyxum .......................................................................................................................... 17 Paraminabea.................................................................................................................18 Rhytisma .......................................................................................................................19 Nephthea....................................................................................................................... 20 Stereonephthya ............................................................................................................. 21 Dendronephthya............................................................................................................ 22 Lemnalia........................................................................................................................ 24 Paralemnalia ................................................................................................................. 25 Scleronephthya ............................................................................................................. 26 Capnella ........................................................................................................................ 27 Xenia ............................................................................................................................. 28 Heteroxenia................................................................................................................... 29 Efflatounaria ..................................................................................................................30 Cespitularia ................................................................................................................... 31 Anthelia ......................................................................................................................... 32 Sansibia ........................................................................................................................ 33 Sympodium ................................................................................................................... 34 Clavularia ...................................................................................................................... 35 Paratelesto ....................................................................................................................36 Coelogorgia................................................................................................................... 37 Studeriotes ....................................................................................................................38 Nephthyigorgia .............................................................................................................. 39 Chironephthya ............................................................................................................... 40 Briareum........................................................................................................................ 41 Alertigorgia .................................................................................................................... 43 Iciligorgia ....................................................................................................................... 44 Solenocaulon ................................................................................................................ 45 Subergorgia................................................................................................................... 46 Annella .......................................................................................................................... 47

Melithaea....................................................................................................................... 48 Mopsella........................................................................................................................ 49 Clathraria....................................................................................................................... 50 Acabaria ........................................................................................................................ 51 Parisis ........................................................................................................................... 52 Keroeides ...................................................................................................................... 53 Acanthogorgia ............................................................................................................... 54 Anthogorgia................................................................................................................... 55 Muricella........................................................................................................................ 56 Euplexaura .................................................................................................................... 57 Bebryce ......................................................................................................................... 58 Echinomuricea .............................................................................................................. 59 Paracis .......................................................................................................................... 60 Villogorgia ..................................................................................................................... 61 Echinogorgia ................................................................................................................. 62 Paraplexaura ................................................................................................................. 63 Menella.......................................................................................................................... 64 Astrogorgia.................................................................................................................... 65 Rumphella ..................................................................................................................... 66 Hicksonella.................................................................................................................... 67 Pinnigorgia .................................................................................................................... 68 Pseudopterogorgia ........................................................................................................ 69 Leptogorgia ................................................................................................................... 70 Guaiagorgia................................................................................................................... 71 Ellisella .......................................................................................................................... 72 Junceella ....................................................................................................................... 73 Verrucella ...................................................................................................................... 74 Plumigorgia ................................................................................................................... 75 Stephanogorgia ............................................................................................................. 76 Isis................................................................................................................................. 77 Caribbean Octocorals Gorgonia .......................................................................................................................78 Pterogorgia.................................................................................................................... 79 Pseudopterogorgia ........................................................................................................ 80 Eunicea ......................................................................................................................... 81 Plexaura ........................................................................................................................ 82 Plexaurella ....................................................................................................................83 Pseudoplexaura ............................................................................................................ 84 Muricea ......................................................................................................................... 85 Diodogorgia................................................................................................................... 86 Appendix A.................................................................................................................... 87 References.................................................................................................................... 89 Notes............................................................................................................................. 90

Forward
It is not uncommon for people with similar interests to eventually find each other. Such was the case with the International Workshop on the Taxonomy of Octocorals held in 2005. Students and faculty gathered in India where they shared their extensive knowledge base of Indo-Pacific octocorals. It became clear by the end of the workshop that there are many concerns that need to be addressed if taxonomic work on octocorals in the Pacific, Malay Archipelago, Indian Ocean, and Red Sea is to continue. There is a strong urgency to reevaluate the older literature, which contains the systematics of octocoral taxonomy and there are too few researchers involved, funded, or attracted to this kind of work. Many of the collections in Europe and the United States are not readily accessible to students in remote locations. These students also may not be aware of the collections or how to access them. Further, working with soft coral taxonomy is difficult and very time consuming. Fortunately, there is hope. By the end of this workshop we realized that our knowledge of octocorals is growing and improving. With the publication of Soft Corals and Sea Fans by Fabricius and Alderslade, an introduction to fundamental differences at the family and genus level became available to divers, educators, researchers, and aquarists. Now, taking this a step is a hands-on laboratory manual that is designed for use in conjunction with the Soft Corals and Sea Fans book. The manual does not include a key because it is assumed users will have some fundamental background in octocorals. The manual provides methodology to sample specimens and identify main features where as the book offers a more detailed account of families and genera. Page numbers to Soft Corals and Sea Fans are referenced for ease of access to additional information. An inclusion of common Caribbean octocorals has been added that were not covered in the workshop. There are bound to be errors so I apologize in advance for any that have occurred. It is also likely as more work is done on octocoral systematics that some of this information may become dated but the bulk of the material should remain useful. This manual would not have been possible had it not been for the support and contributions of many people. First and foremost is Ms. Lee Mei Wah (Samantha) who contributed many of the photographs. I would also like to convey my sincere thanks to the workshops course directors Drs. Philip Alderslade and Leen van Ofwegen. I am also grateful to Dr. Yehuda Beneyahu and Dr. Getz Reinicke for their mentorship and contributions. My thanks to all the students at the workshop, they offered hours of conversation and inspiration. Many are now actively involved in octocoral work and contributing to the Octocoral Resource network at www.octocoralresearch.com. I hope this Octocoral Taxonomy Laboratory Manual will encourage researchers, aquarists, and students of the biological sciences to delve deeper into understanding the amazing diversity of soft coral fauna associated with tropical coral reefs. Perhaps we will inspire a new generation of octocoral taxonomists, which are so desperately need. Michael P. Janes December, 2006

Equipment

Stereomicroscopes are useful for examining colony morphology, calyces, polyp armatures, and internal structures such as gorgonian axiss. Compound microscopes are necessary to observe sclerites. The overall shape of sclerites and surface details are important diagnostic features. A compound microscope combined with a Filar Micrometer is an effective way to measure sclerite sizes.

A simple dissection kit will contain most of the tools used to sample octocorals. Teasing needles or fine-pointed dental tools are helpful when working with sclerites on glass slides. A scalpel with a disposable blade is necessary because blades become badly worn when cutting octocoral tissue. Sclerites will chip and dull blades so it is good to keep extras on hand. Use a shallow dish to orient larger samples for photographs or to observe them under a stereomicroscope. By filling the dish with freshwater it will reduce light reflections that would otherwise be visible from moist sample surfaces exposed to air. Also useful are cutting plates, microscope glass slides, and dropper bottles with Sodium hypochlorite. Be extremely cautious when using and disposing of caustic chemicals.

Specimen Fixation
Most live octocorals will contract their polyps when handled or physically disturbed. In some, the polyps can completely retract into the coenenchyme. Colonies should be narcotized or anesthetized whenever possible. This is difficult with wild collecting, but easy when samples come from an aquarium. Prepare a solution of the following:

Magnesium sulfate solution

5 grams Magnesium sulfate 45 milliliters De-ionized water Combine in a glass flask and mix until completely dissolved. Allow to rest until the solution reaches room temperature. Add the solution in 5 ml increments at 15-20 minute intervals to the specimen maintained in seawater. Continue additions until the specimen is unresponsive to touch. Make and add more solution if needed. Remove from the anesthetizing agent and place into fixative. Place the coral colony in a small volume of seawater, just enough to cover it and illuminate the container from above. Do not agitate the water. Slowly the polyps will reemerge and extend. Add the magnesium sulfate (also sold as Epsom Salt) solution as described above. When the colony is completely relaxed, transfer it to a fixing jar. There are two options that work well for fixing octocoral tissue: Formalin fixation
20 milliliters 37% Formalin 500 milliliters Filtered natural seawater or Synthetic seawater Place the specimen in a glass vessel containing the seawater. Gently add the formalin to the container and stir gently. Try to disturb the coral as little as possible. Cover the container and leave for 24 hours. Remove the specimen from the formalin solution and rinse in running fresh water for 5-12 hours. Preserve in ethanol.

Hellys Modified Seawater Fixative

20 grams Potassium dichromate 40 grams Zinc chloride 800 milliliters sterile seawater (natural filtered or synthetic) Combine chemicals in a glass container and mix until dissolved. Use gloves and work safely with the zinc chloride. The solution can be stored until ready for use. Prior to using add: 12.5 milliliters Formalin Combine and mix well. Add specimens and agitate gently every few hours if possible. For example most small xeniid colonies are fixed in 12 to 20 hours. Rinse samples in running water for up to 8 hours or several changes of water over a 24-hour period. Place samples in ethanol. This may require a few changes also to remove any remaining fixative. Dispose of used fixative and wash containers thoroughly.

Formalin is the easiest fixative but may not retain nuclear details. Hellys is very good for histological work by preserving cellular structure.

Sclerite Preparation
Fixed specimens are removed from storage and placed on a cutting surface. Sampling should be done from various parts of the colony as outlined in the manual under genera descriptions.

When sampling surface sclerites make a deep cut and remove a good amount of tissue. If the cut is made to shallow into the surface, then the surface sclerites may be broken off or some of them missed all together. Place cut pieces on a glass slide using a numbering sequence to identify different regions sampled (i.e. 1 polyp, 2, stalk, etc). Two to three samples can comfortably fit on a glass microscope slide. Older slides work very well for wet mounts. Sometimes a little skin oil, such as that from the forehead rubbed onto the slide before use helps to hold the dissolving agent in place and keeps the droplets from running. Add 2 to 3 small drops of sodium hypochlorite (Clorox, Bleach) 5% solution onto the microscope slide. This is used to dissolve organics away from the sclerites. It will also remove epiphytes such as sponge and algae that are commonly found present on octocoral colonies. Some of this debris is seen as contaminants when viewing with a compound microscope and needs to be differentiated from unusual sclerites.

After about five minutes, the sample tissue will break down and form a layer of foam or bubbles on the top of the sodium hypochlorite droplet obscuring sclerites underneath. If a little bit of the tissue remains just gently agitate it.

Once all the tissue has dissolved away, a fine teasing needle is used to pull the top layer of foam off the droplet by moving it to the side. It can then be removed by blotting with a paper towel. A drop of distilled water can be added to rinse the sclerites and spread them out a little. The slide is ready to examine under a compound microscope. Be sure to use a microscope designated for wet mounts as some labs keep them separated from dry use only microscopes.

Sclerite Mounting
Once sclerites have been removed from tissue they can both be observed and photographed in a temporary wet mount. Another option is to place them in a permanent mounting. Obviously, permanently mounted sclerites have the advantage of being available for future examination and they can be sent off to other researchers or institutions. The down side is that it takes a little more time to prepare the mounting medium and make the slides. To permanently mount sclerites, rinse and wash them with distilled water. For a large sample this can be done in a glass test tube. Smaller samples can be done on a standard microscope slide or Durcupan ACM Fluka preparation well slide. Once the sclerites (on the basis of Araldite) are washed thoroughly add a drop or two of neutrally buffered 20 milliliters Single component A/M Epoxy Resin Hydrogen peroxide. Rinse and 20 milliliters Single component B hardener dry. Prepare a Permanent 0.8 milliliters Single component C accelerator mounting medium such as Mark a small glass jar with 20 and 40-milliliter levels using measured Durcupane or Depex. The amounts of de-ionized water. Dry the jar thoroughly. Add reagent A neutral medium should have a notably different refractive index and B to the marks on the jar. Add reagent C and mix gently but completely. Avoid adding any air bubbles. Cover and store in the than calcite (1.52); otherwise freezer at 0 degrees C. (32 degrees F.). Prior to use remove the medium the sclerites are not visible in from the freezer and warm to room temperature. This may take a few hours. Durcupan has a syrupy texture that becomes more viscous as it the mounting. ages. Older mixed Durcupan may require warming over a flame for it to Place sclerites on a be usable. A new mixture should be made when it becomes too thick to clean slide with distilled water. work with. Store the mixture frozen after each use. Move or position the sclerites to minimize overlapping or having

too many clustered together. Dry the slides in a low temperature oven or on a slide warmer until the distilled water evaporates. Then add a drop of the viscous Durcupane or other mounting medium onto the slides. Add a cover slip with firm, even pressure. Press downwards until the medium reaches the edges of the cover slip. Label slides and return them to a low temperature oven (93 C / 200 F) or slide warmer for 6 to 8 hours or until resin is hard and dry. Store in a dark environment for many years!

Technique Notes
Usually three sclerite samples can be placed wet mounted on a slide, and sometimes four samples depending on the sclerite sizes. Dirty slides (i.e. cheap ones) often work better for holding a bleach droplet than a clean slide. A little facial oil can be wiped onto the slide to keep bleach from running. Some slide code options when sampling fleshy soft corals: 1) 2) 3) 4) Surface lobe Interior lobe Surface base Interior base
1) 2) 3) 4)

Polyp Branch Interior Branch Surface Base

It is important to take samples from a representation of all regions of the colony. Improper identification often occurs when only a small part of the colony is examined. Field collections should always include a complete colony, including basal material. When sampling polyps try to take the sample from branch ends where polyps are usually denser. If the sample comes from too low on the branch then the polyps could be missed. A stereomicroscope can be removed from its base, propped up on a stack of books or something similar and placed against the glass wall of an aquarium. This allows for in situ observation of coral details like siphonozooids, basal material, mucous production, polyp details, etc It is good to document with photographs, soft corals in an expanded and contracted state, which helps with identifying morphology. Large cut samples can be placed in a dish with enough water to cover them to reduce glare when viewing them under a dissecting microscope. There are two simple methods to observe sclerites in tissue: 1) Place a drop of Phenol-xylol (Xylene) on a cavity (well) microscope slide and put the polyp into it. View the polyp through the microscope. This method is temporary as the tissue hardens in the Xylene. 2) Remove coral polyps and place in a 1% solution of KOH (Potassium hydroxide) for a few days. The tissue slowly goes clear. Once the sclerites are visible through the tissue, remove the polyps and store in 70% ethanol.

General Notes
There are a number of octocoral features that link the soft coral and gorgonian groups together. There is only one known example of a single polyp octocoral species. It is found in deep water environments off New Zealand. Polyps expand by taking up water, creating a positive exerted pressure. Siphonoglyph cilia beat downward to create a positive pressure for inflation with water. They will beat upwards to deflate or produce a negative pressure. Polypary is the same as capitulum. Mesenterial filaments are also heavily ciliated and may assist in adjusting colony water pressure. Two filaments are found on the asulcal side or dorsal side, located opposite the siphonoglyph. Polyp Connection Morphology: o Foundry polyps will almost always have a gastric canal that attaches down to the substratum. Additional polyps usually terminate in the coenenchyme. o Substrate attachments can be stolons, very thin sheet like basal membranes, all the way up to large membranes 6 to 8 inches (15-20 cm) thick. Invagination is a retraction of the polyps to protect them from environmental stress (i.e. predation, low tide, etc) The invagination point occurs in the polyp below the end of the pharynx. The degree of contraction can vary. In thick coenenchyme the point of invagination can be below the surface causing the polyp to disappear, with the surrounding coenenchyme possibly closing up tight over the polyp. This leaves only a dot of color or slight depression in the surface as a clue to the polyps presence. Siphonozooids usually do not have tentacles and at best they are little lumps or warts. In most cases the tentacles will lack pinnules. There is no apparent reason why some octocoral genera end in ea while others end in ya, e.g. Nephthea and Dendronephthya. Drawing technique for sketching sclerites: o Draw as large an image as possible. o Draw in an air-conditioned environment so your hand wont stick to the paper. o Prepare a rough outline in pencil focusing at mid depth of the image. o Focus up and pencil in surface details. o Focus down and pencil in surface details. o Ink over pencil and add dots for shading. o Scan into a computer in grayscale, convert to black & white, and then touch up image in an image-processing program like Photoshop. Ghosts from pencil disappear once the image is converted to black & white. Upon completion, shrink the image to hide minor inconsistencies in lines and dots.

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Sclerite Notes
Scale bars and drawings used in the book Soft Corals and Sea Fans equate to: o 0.1 mm = 100x (10 ocular x 10 lens) on microscope slide. o 0.5 mm = 40x (10 ocular x 4 lens) on microscope slide. Sclerites occur in the coenenchyme. They are a calcium carbonate material with a calcite crystalline structure. Colored sclerites have complex molecules bound up in the crystal matrix or coated on the surface to give them their color. Soft corals usually have an upper and lower base, lobes or branches, and polyps. All of which can contain sclerites both internal and at the surface. The back, smooth portion of the polyp free of pinnules is the rachis. Very important: sclerites can and often do vary greatly from the inner and outer areas of the lower base and lobe or branch areas. These four areas need to be sampled separately for proper identification. Avoid sampling from the bottom of the base where strange sclerites or horny material may form. Also avoid sampling from the transitional area between the stalk and lobes / branches. Wedge shaped sections should be taken from the surface tissue for sampling. Tubercles are the structures on the surface of a sclerite. They can be either simple, which are smooth with only a few warts or complex having a rough, warty surface and little smooth area. Very important: It is better to section too deep and get some inner sclerites than to remove tissue to shallow or close to the surface. Some sclerites can be broken off in shallow sections. The name of the sclerite form you give them in your analysis is not too important. It should just be descriptive, as in club-like. The term tubercle is used in published species descriptions. For common discussion the word wart is sufficient. Sclerite contaminants may be present when sampled but it is usually only a few. This can come from specimens fixed together or rubbing against each other when handled or even from uptake in the water column. Modern software programs can be used to clean up digital images of sclerites. Another option is to use a package like Automontage from the U.K. to prepare a composite image from many digital images of a sclerite taken at different focusing depths. Example: Raw Image Clean Image

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Page: 94-97

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Alcyoniidae Genus:

Lobophytum
Sampling: Lobe Exterior, Lobe Interior, Base Exterior, and Base Interior. Sclerites: Clubs in the surface layer are not well formed. Base exterior clubs only have
a slightly developed handle. The surface lobe sclerites are also usually poorly formed clubs. Interior sclerites of the lobes can contain fat spindles. The interior spindles of the base and lobes are often ringed with girdles of warty tubercles and can be up to 2 mm long.

Notes: Dimorphic. 99% of the times Lobophytum will have only

single lobes, no secondary branches. Sinularia will have secondary and tertiary branches.

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Page: 90-93

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Alcyoniidae Genus:

Sarcophyton
Sampling: Capitulum Surface, Capitulum Interior, Base Surface, and Base Interior. Sclerites: Club shaped sclerites in the surface of the capitulum and stalk. Stalk
sclerites are usually shorter and fatter club shapes compared to those in the capitulum. Spindles are found in the interior of both regions.

Notes: Dimorphic and almost always non-lobed. They have the longest naturally
occurring autozooids in soft corals. There are twenty to thirty nominal species. Some species will look like a Sarcophyton with a distinct capitulum and no lobes but sclerite examination under the microscope reveals they are actually Lobophytum species. *A unique feature of the species S. trocheliophorum is the very unusual large, oval shaped sclerites in the base. There are three clads currently being worked on to work out these genera. The Sarcophyton clad, Lobophytum clad, and an intermediate clad.

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Page: 78-81

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Alcyoniidae Genus:

Sinularia
Sampling: Polyps need to be dug out of coenenchyme. Take deep samples form
surface to the interior. Extract surface lobe, surface base, interior lobe, and interior base (4 locations). Sclerites from the surface often have long handles on the club that can be damaged easily. Avoid sampling base too close to the bottom because the sclerites can be fused.

Sclerites: Can be examined in situ while diving. Tearing off a small section will reveal
very large interior sclerites, 2 to 5 mm. Surface tissue contains long handled clubs. Club features like tubercle forms define various species. Spindle sclerites can be found in the interior of the lobes and base.

Notes: Monomorphic. There are 130 nominal species. Polyps only

occur in lobes or branches. This genus has the most diverse morphology of all soft corals. Sinularia flexibilis and a few other species will not have sclerites in the lobes. In some species like S. polydactila the base sclerites will fuse together to cement the base column. The fossilized form of this cement is Spiculite. *Sinularia is one of the few soft corals that can grow in wave surge zones. Very few soft corals can grow in wave surge zones.

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Page: 82-83

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Alcyoniidae Genus:

Dampia
Sampling: Lobe Surface, Lobe interior, Base Surface and Base Interior. Sclerites: Club shaped sclerites found in the surface of the lobes. Lobe interior, base surface, and lobe surface all contain various spindle forms. Lobe interior has spindles with fine, complex warty surfaces. Same sclerite forms as in Sinularia. Around 90 sclerites form the calyces. Notes: Calyces formed around the polyps. Dampia has fewer polyps than those found
in most Sinularia species. DNA clad belongs to the Sinularia group.

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Page: 84-85

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Alcyoniidae Genus:

Cladiella
Sampling: Lobe Surface, Lobe Interior, Base Surface, and Base Interior. Collect a
surface sample with polyps to locate platelet sclerites.

Sclerites: Surface sclerites are often smaller versions of the interior ones. Lobes
contain two types of sclerites, dumbbells that are gray with a granular appearance, and platelets. Although there is often not much difference between base and lobe sclerites it is necessary to compare them for species identification.

Notes: The zooxanthellae are primarily in the polyps so when they retract the colony is
usually whitish. Monomorphic.

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Page: 86-87

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Alcyoniidae Genus:

Klyxum
Sampling: Lobe Surface, Lobe Interior, Base Surface, and Base Interior. Sclerites: Polyp sclerites can be scale like or flattened rods. Body sclerites are long,
spindle or rod shaped with cone shaped tubercles. Longer rod shaped sclerites can sometimes be found around the polyps.

Notes: Often referred to in older literature as Alcyonium

however true species of Alcyonium do not occur in the Indian and Indo-Pacific Oceans. They are only found in cold temperate waters. Monomorphic. Polyps are usually dark brown with a lighter body color. These corals produce a lot of mucous when disturbed. Known in the ornamental trade as Colt Coral.

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Page: 98-99

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Alcyoniidae Genus:

Paraminabea
Sampling: Lobe Surface, Lobe Interior, Base Surface, and Base Interior. Sclerites: Six or Eight radiate capstans found in the lobes and base surface. There are
no sclerites in the polyps. Colony color is derived from sclerites that are yellow or orange. There is a narrower, smooth dividing bar on lobe surface capstans than those found in the base surface.

Notes: Dimorphic. Colonies always colored yellow, red or

orange. Polyps are white or orange. No Zooxanthellae. Generally colonies are single stalked. Found in caves or on overhangs. Siphonozooids are difficult to see in preserved material.

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Page: 88-89

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Alcyoniidae Genus:

Rhytisma
Sampling: Interior, Surface, and Polyps. Polyps are large and can be pulled out of the
coenenchyme for examination.

Sclerites: Tissue can contain large spindles over 1 mm long. The sclerites form a
honeycomb like network around polyps. The polyps contain spindles forming a collaret and points. Sclerites are colorless.

Notes: Encrusts on dead rock similar to Briareum species and can sometimes have a
pale purple color similar to Briareum. Basal tissue is from 1 to 4 mm thick. Colonies are often purple, yellow, or red.

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Page: 104-105

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Nephtheidae (Arborescent colonies with a tree or bush shape. Turtles are their
main predator. Polyps have short gastric canals that merge to form a larger canal that runs the length of the branch into the stalk.)

Genus:

Nephthea
Sampling: Polyps, Branch Base, Stalk Surface,
and Stalk Interior.

Sclerites: Species are described from sclerites in

the polyps, branch base, and stalk. Branch interior contain only spindles. Supporting bundles are found close to the polyps, often inconspicuous. Stalk surface often contains capstans and capstan-like sclerites. Colorless sclerites.

Notes: Monomorphic, non-retractile, zooxanthellate. Grows up to 0.5 m tall. Similar to Litophyton. Polyps on the secondary branches only, none present on the stalk.

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Page: 108-109

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Nephtheidae Genus:

Stereonephthya
Sampling: Polyps, Branch (top) Surface, Branch (top) Interior, Branch (bottom)
Surface, Branch (bottom) Interior.

Sclerites: Rods are always present in polyp branches,

if not then it is not Stereonephthya. Rods also occur in the tentacles. These sclerites have to be differentiated from the polyp. To observe the polyp and tentacle rods place a polyp on a slide with diluted bleach. If the bleach is too strong then only the tentacle rods will be revealed. Sclerites arranged en chevron at the base of the tentacles on the polyp surface below the oral disc.

Notes: Normally this genus will not have a stalk or it will be very difficult to identify.
Polyps present all the way down the branches to the base. Supporting bundles stick out past the polyps making a prickly surface. No Zooxanthellae, colonies can be one or multi-colored in red, white, yellow, or pink.

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Page: 112-115

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Nephtheidae Genus:

Dendronephthya
Sampling: Polyps, Branch Surface, Top Stalk Surface, Middle Stalk Surface, Bottom
Stalk Surface, and Stalk Interior.

Sclerites: Often colored. Various spindle forms. There are some club-like sclerites in
the polyp sometimes that have a spear like shape on the distal end. Very long surface spindles always cover branches. Polyps will have sclerites in support around the polyp head. Sclerites are sometimes present in the polyp neck.

Notes: A complex animal with possibly hundreds of species or

variations of species. The literature is currently very bad and useless. Ms. Tixier-Durivault revised the genus but did a very poor job, which cannot be relied on. Various categories of growth forms that including umbellate, glomerate, foliose, and divaricate. A collar of polyps may be present around the stalk. Commensal organisms such as shrimp live on the coral.

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Page: 112-115

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Nephtheidae Genus:

Dendronephthya

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Page: 120-121

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Nephtheidae Genus:

Lemnalia
Sampling: Polyp, Stalk Top Surface, Stalk Middle Surface, Stalk
Base Surface, and Stalk Interior.

Sclerites: The sclerites are always colorless. Polyp bodies

contain straight or curved rod-like sticks, some with a few thorns on the side. Tentacles may or may not contain lobed granular scales. Tiny rod shaped sclerites can also be present in the tentacles.

Notes: Photosynthetic. Colonies can be brown to yellow in color. There are no

supporting bundles present. Polyps arranged symmetrically in rows along branches. Usually there is a long, bare stalk that is rough to the touch, which feels like sand paper. Polyps are usually small. Live animals have a very strong odor.

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Page: 122-123

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Nephtheidae Genus:

Paralemnalia
Sampling: Polyp, Stalk Interior, Stalk Top Surface, Stalk Middle
Surface, and Stalk Base Surface. (Stalk is the same as the common basal area)

Sclerites: The polyp sclerites usually have larger tubercles than

the tentacle sclerites. Granular scale sclerites are found in the tentacles. Sclerites are colorless. Stalk and branch sclerites from the interior are different than those found in Lemnalia species.

Notes: Colonies share a common base. There are long, primary finger like branches
that arise from the base. Polyps are zooxanthellate and retractile. The polyps occur on finger branches but not the lower, basal region. Paralemnalia should always have asparagus shaped fingers.

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Page: 110-111

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Nephtheidae Genus:

Scleronephthya
Sampling: Base Surface, Stalk Top Surface, Stalk Interior, Branch Surface and Polyp. Sclerites: The sclerites will always be colorless. Large, tall, rounded tubercles are
found on the sclerites in the base, branch and surface. Tentacles contain knobby rods. The collaret is easily viewed in contracted specimens.

Notes: Colonies are generally small and grow in darker areas. The polyp mouths are red or orange. Polyps never retract, only contract. Alcyonium gracillium (Japan & Korea) is the same as Scleronephthya gracillium. Also, Stereonephthya imbricans is the same as Scleronephthya imbricans. Colonies are azooxanthellate. Dense sclerite clustering in stalk and branches can create wrinkle pigments in body tissue.

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Page: 124-125

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Nephtheidae Genus:

Capnella
Sampling: Polyps, Branch Interior, Branch Surface and Base. Sclerites: Always colorless. There are leafy or warty clubs in the polyps and
sometimes spindles. Branch sclerites in the surface are spiny capstans and ones with leafy forms. Both the branch interior and base sclerites are warty ovals with large tubercles. Some of the tubercles can have complex, thorny structures.

Notes: Lobes range from blunt to point shape. The polyps are nonretractile. Tentacles fold over the mouth and polyps bend up and inward against the body wall. Capnella imbricate is different from all other species. It has a gray color when polyps contract and leafy club shaped sclerites.

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Page: 138-139

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Xeniidae Genus:

Xenia
Sampling: (1) Base Surface, (2) Top of Stalk Surface, and (3) Polyp. Sclerites: Small, platelets or spheroids up to about 0.04 mm in diameter. In some
species sclerites may be absent. White in color but occasionally there can be the appearance of opalescence.

Notes: Zooxanthellate. Monomorphic. Species vary in size. Dome shaped capitulum. In the wild Primary and secondary stalks are usually free of autozooids. Polyps are nonretractile, just contractile. Heteroxenia sclerites are typically darker and granular. Positions of sclerites, density, and variations in zooxanthellae contribute to colony color and an opalescent effect. There are about 53 nominal species but many of the type specimens are missing.

28

Page: 140-141

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Xeniidae Genus:

Heteroxenia
Sampling: Stalk, Anthocodiae, Autozooid polyp, Siphonozooids. Sclerites: Minute, flat, slightly elongated discs or platelets with a course surface
texture. Siphonozooid sclerites are only slightly smaller. Sclerite sizes throughout colonies are usually similar, up to 0.03 mm in diameter. With small xeniid sclerites they can sometimes appear rod-like or spindle shaped but these are just platelets seen on edge under magnification. Sclerites are colorless and may be white or translucent.

Notes: Colonies dimorphic but siphonozooids may only be present seasonally or in

sexually mature colonies. Polyps are only contractile, not retractile. Colonies are often shades of cream to brown and appear lighter in color when preserved. They are rarely iridescent or opalescent in life. Zooxanthellate.

29

Page: 144-145

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Xeniidae Genus:

Efflatounaria
Sampling: Base Surface, Top of Stalk Surface, and Branch Surface. Sclerites: Flat platelets or spheroid in shape. Textured surface. White in color but take
on a dark color when illuminated from underneath on a typical slide mounting. Sclerites can be absent on rare occasion.

Notes: Colonies are branched with upright lobes. The lobes are covered in polyps with
a small part of the lower stalk free of polyps. Zooxanthellate. Colonies have a wide range of soft colors. Polyps are highly contractile.

30

Page: 146-147

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Xeniidae Genus:

Cespitularia
Sampling: Base Surface, Stalk Surface, Branch Surface and Polyp. Sclerites: Small, slightly oval platelets up to 0.04 mm in diameter. Grainy textured
surface. Sclerites are not present in a few species. Opalescence effect in colony color is a result of reflected light on sclerites.

Notes: Colonies are branched with polyps spaced out along the branches. The upright
stalks are free from polyps. Generally, colonies are more narrowly branched and less lobe-like than Efflatounaria. Polyps are only a little contractile. Zooxanthellate. Species are generally more brightly colored than Efflatounaria and have the same opalescence effect in blues and greens.

31

Page: 152-153

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Xeniidae Genus:

Anthelia
Sampling: Tentacles & pinnules, Anthocodiae, and Basal Membrane. Sclerites: Elongated flattened rods that can range from 0.03 mm up to 0.2 mm long.
Surface texture is comprised of crystalline structures in rows giving the sclerites a chevron or herring bone pattern. The sclerites are non-reflective with this type of surface so colonies appear various shades of brown.

Notes: Colonies form from a thin basal membrane attachment with upright polyps.
They usually contain a high concentration of symbiotic algae. Non-retractile. In life colonies are various shades of brown color.

32

Page: 150-151

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Xeniidae Genus:

Sansibia
Sampling: Basal Membrane Surface and Polyp. Sclerites: Spheroid-like platelets up to 0.02 mm in diameter. The fine textured surface
produces an opalescent effect in reflected light. Sclerites are small enough that when they are observed under microscopic magnification some will look like elongated rods. These are sclerites that are being viewed on their side only, not a different form.

Notes: Colonies are very similar in gross morphology to Anthelia species. However the
polyps are generally smaller and colonies are usually colored blue to green in Sansibia. They are zooxanthellate and the polyps can only retract a little.

33

Page: 148-149

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Xeniidae Genus:

Sympodium
Sampling: Basal Membrane Surface and Polyp. Sclerites: Sclerites are xeniid type oval platelets with a granular surface. Up to 0.03
mm in diameter. No apparent difference in sclerites sampled from different regions of the colony.

Notes: Polyps are retractile. The type specimen is from the Red Sea. Colonies are
often white to pinkish white in life.

34

Page: 66-67

Group: Stolonifera Family: Clavulariidae Genus:

Clavularia
Sampling: Calyx, Stolon, and Polyp Sclerites: Long spindles can be found in the calyx. The stolons contain large spindles
with warts and or spikes. Stolons may also include irregular, branched spindle like sclerites. The base of the polyp may contain narrow spindles forming a set of points or collaret. The polyp tentacles have smooth or warty rod sclerites. Small disc or flattened rod sclerites are located in the pinnules and distal end of the tentacles. Sclerites colorless but pinnule sclerites may be darker than others. Pinnule sclerites can be about 1/3 the size of sclerites found in the tentacles.

Notes: Monomorphic and zooxanthellate. Stolons or runners produce each polyp.

Polyps are retractile into calyces at the base of the polyp. Calyces often coated with detritus or debris. In some cases the stolons may develop in layers elevated up the calyx walls. This growth form appeared in the older literature as a separate genus, Hicksoni and may be the result of specimens that grow in soft, sand sediments.

35

Page: 72-73

Group: Stolonifera Family: Coelogorgiidae Genus:

Paratelesto
Sampling: Calyx, Branch Surface, Branch Interior, and Polyp. Sclerites: Polyp sclerites contain flat spindles in a collaret and points form with small
rods in the tentacles. Oval spindles are found in the calyces. Large warty oval spindles are contained in the branch surface layer. The branch interior is made up of concentric rings that are a mix of sclerites and coenenchyme. The layered within the rings are irregular branched sclerites and smaller versions of the surface sclerites. All of the sclerites are bright red.

Notes: Colonies are comprised of a primary axial polyp with branches containing
daughter polyps. Closer to the base near the basal attachment sclerites are fused together yet remain soft and breakable. They do not contain zooxanthellae. Epiphytic sponges may be present growing on the colony surface.

36

Page: 74-75

Group: Stolonifera Family: Coelogorgiidae Genus:

Coelogorgia
Sampling: Branches, Lower Stem, and Polyp. Sclerites: Tentacles contain small granular scale shaped sclerites less than 0.1 mm
long. Branches and stem contain large and small spindles with warty tubercles about 0.15 mm long on average. Smaller sclerites from the upper portion of the colony have tubercles aligned in girdles. Sclerites are clear.

Notes: Non-retractile polyps. One species recorded in the literature. Colonies are
monomorphic and zooxanthellate.

37

Page: 134-135

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Paralcyoniidae Genus:

Studeriotes
Sampling: Surface lobe, Surface base, Polyp. Sclerites: Surface lobe and surface base both contain large spiny spindles. Small
spiny spindles are present in the polyps. Sclerites are colorless.

Notes: Only the upper stalk and branches are visible underwater. The base is buried in
substrate. Grows in fine sediment. Azooxanthellate. Epiphytic algae are common on the exposed upper stalk.

38

Page: 132-133

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Nidaliidae Genus:

Nephthyigorgia
Sampling: Surface, Interior, and Polyp. Sclerites: Polyps have curved spindles with a fine wart coating. Surface and interior
sclerites are spindles with large, complex warts. Very well defined collaret and points. The term Crown of Points in old literature includes both collaret and points together

Notes: Recent DNA research suggests Nephthyigorgia may belong in its own family it
is very different than other Nidaliidae. Often found in sandy substrate. Outer epidermis is covered in large sclerites making them hard or tough with a rough surface. Colonies have hard outer calyces. Polyps will always be retracted when preserved. Colonies are usually red, can also be yellow or white.

39

Page: 130-131

Group: Alcyoniina Family: Nidaliidae Genus:

Chironephthya
Sampling: Sclerites: Dense clusters of spindles strengthen the branches. Sclerites are not
cemented. A split calyx appears Rabbit Ear-like and is a major distinguishing for this genus. The calyces are shelf-like extending from the branch to support the polyps.

Notes: The line between classical soft corals and gorgonians becomes less clear with
these and some other genera.

40

Page: 154-157

Group: Scleraxonia Family: Briareidae Genus:

Briareum
Sampling: Cortex, Medulla, and Calyces Sclerites: The sclerites are unique to this genus in both form and color. The cortex
(surface) can have white or magenta sclerites. Medulla (interior) contains magenta sclerites. Some of the sclerites in the medulla can fuse, forming small clumps. Cortex contains spindles coated with fine wart-like tubercles. No sclerites occur in the polyps.

Notes: Briareum is the first genus to

begin to show a distinct outer and inner layer furthering the transition from soft coral to gorgonian. Polyps are retractile. Boundary canals form between the cortex and medulla. Calyces can be absent, flat, short lumps, or even tall tubes. Sand will often settle in between tall calyces when Briareum grows in soft bottom sediments. Extra layering of the solenium can develop among the tall calyces where sedimentation occurs. In aquarium environments these layers will often disappear after being grown out for some time. Old literature Synonyms: Solenopodium. Clavularia hamara (Red Sea) = Pachyclavularia / Briarium Pachyclavularia = Briarium with tall calyces.

41

Page: 154-157

Group: Scleraxonia Family: Briareidae Genus:

Briareum

42

Page: 162-163

Group: Scleraxonia Family: Anthothelidae Genus:

Alertigorgia
Sampling: Medulla, Cortex, and Tentacle. If samples are taken from too low on a branch
then polyp sclerites can be absent. Try to take a sample from the distal end of a branch.

Sclerites: Small rods <0.5 mm in tentacles. Medulla

contains long, thin rods with knobby spaced warts. Cortex sclerites are larger with complex warty tubercles. Sclerites colorless.

Notes: This genus is still considered a soft coral though the

line between it and gorgonian becomes blurry or harder to define. Polyps are limited only to the cortex and do not penetrate the medulla. Polyps retractile into a slit-like opening. There is only one nominal species, A. orientalis many others remain un-described. This genus can incrust over the sponge Oceanapia sp. in Australia. Some species have flattened branches. In these very small polyps occur on the sharp edge of branches.

43

Page: 158-159

Group: Scleraxonia Family: Anthothelidae Genus:

Iciligorgia
Sampling: Medulla, Cortex, Tentacle, and Polyp. Sclerites: Medulla contains very narrow, long warty rods. Shorter barrel shaped sclerites in
the cortex with fine and coarse tubercles. Polyps contain thin curved rods and poorly formed clubs in the tentacles.

Notes: Very similar to Alertigorgia with same type of structure. Azooxanthellate. Species
grow in deep, dirty water. Polyps occur on one side only. A groove forms on branches with the backside of the branches remaining smooth. Branch tips can be swollen with an indentation on top. Colonies grow very large, up to 1 meter. In the literature on Pacific genera Semperina is a junior synonym for Iciligorgia.

44

Page: 160-161

Group: Scleraxonia Family: Anthothelidae Genus:

Solenocaulon
Sampling: Polyp, Medulla, Cortex, and Calyx. Sclerites: Collaret and points present. Sclerites colorless. Tentacles contain dragon wing
shaped scales. Spindle shaped sclerites in the cortex. Thorny elongated rods are common in the medulla.

Notes: Tubular colony with a rigid stalk. Hollow tubes are lined with medulla. The hollow
tubes can sometimes contain commensal shrimp. Colonies are often observed growing in muddy sediments. A holdfast-like extension can grow into the mud for support. Polyps are restricted to the cortex and usually only grow on one side. An open channel is common on branches or hollow tubes. Colonies can be red, white or yellow in color.

45

Page: 166-167

Group: Scleraxonia Family: Subergorgiidae (Next step toward gorgonians. Gorgonin, a protein material is mixed
with sclerites in the medulla.)

Genus:

Subergorgia
Sampling: Polyp, Cortex, and Medulla. Sclerites: Warty spindles and spindles with evenly spaced tubercles up to 0.1 mm long are
found in cortex. Medulla contains a mix of rods and fused rods with gorgonin.

Notes: Colonies have a dichotomous branching growth form. Azooxanthellate. Polyps occur
on three sides of the branches. One side is free of polyps and contains a longitudinal groove. The groove is more pronounced in preserved colonies and difficult to observe in living specimens do to some tissue inflation.

46

Page: 168-169

Group: Scleraxonia Family: Subergorgiidae Genus:

Annella
Sampling: Cortex, Medulla, and Polyp. Sclerites: Medulla contains fussed rods; individually they are over 0.2 mm in length. Cortex
has warty spindles and double-head spindles with a dark surface. They are less than 0.1 mm long. Flattened spindles in the polyp form the collaret and points.

Notes: Colonies monomorphic and azooxanthellate. Previously defined in the literature as

Pseudogorgia. There are two nominal species, A. reticulate and A. mollis. The first has a mesh growth form of fine branches. The polyps retract forming tiny bumps on the surface. The other, A. mollis has larger, geometric openings between branches in its growth form. When the polyps retract they are nearly flush with the branch. There may also be intermediate species but none have been described so far.

47

Page: 172-173

Group: Scleraxonia Family: Melithaeidae (Axis are segmented. Nodes are present and comprised of sclerites
embedded in gorgonin. Axis covered with coenenchyme that houses contracted polyps. Internodes (axial lengths) are dense with only sclerites, no gorgonin. Genera are azooxanthellate. Polyp and tentacle sclerites are virtually the same in all genera. Main differences in this family are the sclerite forms in the coenenchyme and cortex.)

Genus:

Melithaea
Sampling: Internode, Node, Cortex, and Polyp. Sclerites: Capstans and clubs are found in the cortex. Sometimes there are double disc
shaped ones known as birotulates. Polyps have pointed spindles. Most sclerites are around 0.1 mm long and can be colored.

Notes: Oldest genus in the family. There are very few nominal species. Fan shaped growth
form. Brightly colored colonies that form branches from nodes that can sometimes be quite large.

48

Page: 174-175

Group: Scleraxonia Family: Melithaeidae Genus:

Mopsella
Sampling: Polyp and Cortex Sclerites: Generally up to 0.2 mm long. Polyps contain warty spindles that are often bent.
Most notable feature of this genus is the leaf-topped clubs and leafy spheroids. Sclerites can be variable in detail and size.

Notes: Sea fan growth form. Colonies are commonly red or orange and azooxanthellate.

49

Page: 177

Group: Scleraxonia Family: Melithaeidae Genus:

Clathraria
Sampling: Surface, Polyp, Node, and Internode. Sclerites: Can be colored. Either capstans or leaf-topped clubs can be present in the
surface. Bent spindles with a rough surface are in the polyps. There are flattened rods in the nodes and internodes. Nodes contain wider ones.

Notes: Only a few species known. Internodes are colored. Nodes are large and usually a
different color. Identified from other genera in the family by the surface sclerites.

50

Page: 178-179

Group: Scleraxonia Family: Melithaeidae Genus:

Acabaria
Sampling: Polyp and Cortex Sclerites: Calyces present and can be large. Most of the polyp sclerites are curved spindles
with pointed warts. Cortex sclerites are spindles that have pointed tubercles with mostly flattened tips. Both sclerites can be up to 0.2 mm long.

Notes: There are two growth forms, planar and bushy. Colonies can be a variety of colors including white. Azooxanthellate.

51

Page: 180-181

Group: Scleraxonia Family: Parisididae Genus:

Parisis
Sampling: Surface tissue. Sclerites: Large surface sclerites, up to 0.3 mm long with dense small tubercles. Sclerites
colorless.

Notes: Nodes are small and often the same size as internodes. Branches develop from
internodes in this family. Usually found in deep water below diving depths. No calyces, only small bumps on the nodes formed by retracted polyps. Colonies often accompanied by epiphytic sponges.

52

Page: 182-183

Group: Holaxonia Family: Keroeididae Genus:

Keroeides
Sampling: Polyp, Axis, and Surface Sclerites: Sclerites aligned adjacent to each other in the axis, a unique feature of this
genus. Polyp contains warty spindles and branched rods in the tentacles. The axis is made up smooth slightly bent rods. Surface sclerites can be irregular plates and flattened spindles, some up to over 1 mm long.

Notes: Uncommon. Calyces are present. This family bridges the gap between hollow axis
and gorgonin axis octocorals. Colonies can be colored or white, azooxanthellate.

53

Page: 184-185

Group: Holaxonia Family: Acanthogorgiidae (From this point forward there is no cortex or medulla and no
more axial sclerites.)

Genus:

Acanthogorgia
Sampling: Surface, Polyp, and Tentacles. Sclerites: No calyces. The polyps are covered in point tipped spindles with pointed cone
tubercles on their base. Flat, boom-a-rang shaped sclerites are located in the tentacles. The surface contains capstans and spindles coated with the same pointed cone tubercles up to 0.3 mm long.

Notes: The axis is pure gorgonin giving it a black

color. Coenenchyme coating the surface is less than 0.1 mm thick, which makes the axis visible through the outer tissue. The anthostele virtually disappears due to the thin tissue. Species are deep water and azooxanthellate. Colonies are brightly colored.

54

Page: 186-187

Group: Holaxonia Family: Acanthogorgiidae Genus:

Anthogorgia
Sampling: Polyp and Surface. Sclerites: No calyces. Surface contains mostly warty spindles, up to 0.4 mm long. Some
spindles are present, about 0.1 mm long. Small rods can be found in the tentacles. The polyp tips have a point arrangement of sclerites. Sclerites colorless.

Notes: Rare, usually found in deeper water. Colonies are colored; one species (Hong Kong)
has a blue base, branches, and polyps. It is the only solid blue soft coral known. Coenenchyme is too thin for the polyps to retract into it. Colonies grow in a planar form.

55

Page: 188-189

Group: Holaxonia Family: Acanthogorgiidae Genus:

Muricella
Sampling: Polyp with Surface, and Surface. Sclerites: Surface contains large spindles and capstans. There are many large warty
spindles in the Polyp and Surface that can be up to 0.5 mm long.

Notes: Main distinction is that there are no calyces in this genus. Almost 90% of the species
attributed to this genus do not belong there. A major revision is need.

56

Page: 190-191

Group: Holaxonia Family: Plexauridae (Members have a very large central core with a cross-chamber axis.
Gorgonin appears brown with locules filled with calcium carbonate.)

Genus:

Euplexaura
Sampling: Polyp and Surface. Sclerites: Colorless sclerites. Surface contains plump spheroids or oval spindles over 0.2
mm long. Spindles of varied sizes occur in the polyp head.

Notes: Candelabra shaped colonies with a wide

range of colors including white. Azooxanthellate. Most species lack a calyx. The white core is visible to the unaided eye in the center of broken branches.

57

Page: 192-193

Group: Holaxonia Family: Plexauridae Genus:

Bebryce
Sampling: Polyp and Surface. Sclerites: Colorless. There is a distinct collaret and points armament at the base of polyps.
Sclerites in the surface are cup shaped with a warty base. Club-like sclerites are also present.

Notes: Many cup shaped sclerites need to be rolled around on the slide to see them on their
sides. Usually they land on the slide standing up making them look different and unable to see the bottoms. Epiphytic sponges are common on colonies.

58

Page: 194-195

Group: Holaxonia Family: Plexauridae Genus:

Echinomuricea
Sampling: Calyx, Calyx and Surface, and Polyp. Sclerites: Red colored sclerites, sometimes colorless. Thorn-scale
sclerites are the main feature, 0.2 to 0.4 mm long. Found on the Calyx and Surface. Distal end has a pointed thorn. The base is wide and warty to anchor into the tissue. Use a dissecting microscope to observe the calyx with thorny points sticking out of the top.

Notes: Colonies are usually red with a few long branches. Calyces have polyps buried
inside. Echinomuricea differs from Bebryce, which has no calyces.

59

Page: 198-199

Group: Holaxonia Family: Plexauridae Genus:

Paracis
Sampling: Polyp, Calyx, Surface, and Subsurface. Sample calyx and coenenchyme
separately.

Sclerites: Tentacle sclerites are colorless others can be red. Surface is covered in plates
and flattened spindles. Poorly developed horn-scales are found in the calyces. Dragon wing sclerites are located at the base of the tentacles. There is a well-developed collaret and points.

Notes: Uncommon, growing in deeper water. Azooxanthellate. Colonies are often brightly colored. They have a fine network of secondary branches.

60

Page: 200-201

Group: Holaxonia Family: Plexauridae Genus:

Villogorgia
Sampling: Polyp, Surface, and Calyx. Sclerites: Large sclerites over 0.2 mm long. Sclerites can be red, yellow, or colorless. A
large collaret and points is present around polyps. Curved anchors on the thorn star sclerites attach to the calyces to wrap around the polyps. They are very three-dimensional under the microscope.

Notes: Previously referred to in the old literature as Acamptogorgia and Periceles. Colonies
always have a fine, mesh branching structure.

61

Page: 202-205

Group: Holaxonia Family: Plexauridae Genus:

Echinogorgia
Sampling: Polyp, Surface, and Calyx. Sometimes it is difficult to sample coenenchyme
because polyps and calyces are close together. Try dissolving the sample piece in a diluted bleach or Clorox and pick out sclerites under a stereomicroscope.

Sclerites: Can be red, yellow, or colorless. Variations in thorn-scales found in the calyx are
based on three prongs and warty anchor or base. Capstans are found in the axial sheath around the axis. Polyp sclerites are the same as found in other Plexauridae.

Notes: Colonies are anastamose, forming a lattice effect with one branch out and attaching
to another; a net-like growth form. Species are common throughout the Indo-Pacific.

62

Page: 208-209

Group: Holaxonia Family: Plexauridae Genus:

Paraplexaura
Sampling: Surface, Calyx, Subsurface, and Polyp. Sclerites: Surface sclerites are very large and diverse in shape. Subsurface contains
spindles and a few capstans. Calyces are small and contain few thorn-scales. Sclerites are red, yellow, or colorless. Polyp sclerites have a smooth surface.

Notes: Colonies are monomorphic and completely retractile. There are large, smooth
branches in many species. Azooxanthellate.

63

Page: 206-207

Group: Holaxonia Family: Plexauridae Genus:

Menella
Sampling: Polyp, Calyx and Surface, Surface, and Subsurface. Sclerites: Foliate leaf-like structure on the top and root points at the bottom of surface
sclerites. They are found on both the calyx and surface. Sclerites can be red or colorless. Colonies have low calyces. Small spindles, branched, or capstans are present in the subsurface.

Notes: Branches are long, thin, and colored. Colonies are

azooxanthellate and monomorphic.

64

Page: 210-213

Group: Holaxonia Family: Plexauridae Genus:

Astrogorgia
Sampling: Surface, Calyx, Subsurface, and Polyp. Sclerites: Calyx made by spindles. Both the collaret and points range from a few up to
many sclerites. Sclerites are colored red, orange, yellow, or clear. Calyces can be large on the flat branches. Species are often confused with Anthogorgia but there are no horn or leaf like scales in Astrogorgia.

Notes: Pacific gorgonians (both genera and species) are very different from those found in
the Atlantic, Caribbean, or the West Coast of Africa. However, some families are the same. The old name for this species, Acanthomuricea is invalid. It was described based on only longer sclerites, nothing else. Anthoplexaura is also invalid. It was based on one sample that was later found to have a parasitic population of hydroids growing in it, which were not siphonozooids. In the literature most species of Astrogorgia are mistaken as Muricella because of calyces / no calyces detail.

65

Page: 214-215

Group: Holaxonia Family: Gorgoniidae (Small core. Tiny locules filled with calcium carbonate. Most of the axis
is gorgonin. Sclerites are usually small, less than 0.3 mm long. No calyces present. Genera may have coenenchyme mounds with the same sclerites as in the coenenchyme. There are no unique sclerites in the mounds.

Genus:

Rumphella
Sampling: Surface and Subsurface. Sclerites: Surface coenenchyme has clubs ornamented with girdles and warts. Capstans
are found in the subsurface. Sclerites are around 0.1 mm long.

Notes: Monomorphic zooxanthellate colonies which are grey to brown in life. Very common
from Africa to the Philippines and can be found in surge zones. Holdfasts are made up of solid calcium carbonate. Branches are long and thick. There are two nominal species.

66

Page: 216-217

Group: Holaxonia Family: Gorgoniidae Genus:

Hicksonella
Sampling: Polyp, Surface, and Subsurface. Sclerites: Surface and subsurface sclerites are the same as Rumphella. But this genus has
long, cylindrical sclerites up to 0.4 mm long with areas of small warts. After suspecting Hicksonella sample a larger area of the specimen to locate the long cylinders. They occur randomly throughout the colony and can be few and far spaced.

Notes: Branches are short and sometimes there can be webbing between branches. Polyp
mounds on branches give it a rough feel when handled.

67

Page: 218-219

Group: Holaxonia Family: Gorgoniidae Genus:

Pinnigorgia
Sampling: Polyps and Surface. Sclerites: Polyps contain simple, flattened spindles up to 0.1 mm long. Surface sclerites are
irregularly shaped with large tubercles. They are up to 0.3 mm long. Colorless.

Notes: Both the branch shape and sclerites differ from Hicksonella. Colonies have a
branched, pinnate structure. Epiphytic barnacles are common and often overgrown by coenenchyme.

68

Page: 220-221

Group: Holaxonia Family: Gorgoniidae Genus:

Pseudopterogorgia
Sampling: Surface and Polyp Sclerites: Often a mix of clear, red, and orange colors. Some sclerites have a curved
scaphoid shape with warts on one side (similar to those in the Caribbean species Gorgonian ventalina). Small, flattened rods are present in the polyps.

Notes: There are species present in the Caribbean. Pinnate colored colonies with a smooth
surface and simple, wide branches. This genus is not present in Indonesia.

69

Page: New Genus

Group: Holaxonia Family: Gorgoniidae Genus:

Leptogorgia
Sampling: Surface. Sclerites: Colored sclerites. Spindles to scaphoid-like sclerites with uniform rows of girdled
tubercles. Up to 0.1 mm long. Sclerites are similar to Pseudopterogorgia.

Notes: This is a new genus revised from a West African specimen, Lophogorgia in the old
literature. Colonies are laterally branched (fan shaped). The branches are not as uniform pinnate as those of Pseudopterogorgia.

70

Page: 222-223

Group: Holaxonia Family: Gorgoniidae Genus:

Guaiagorgia
Sampling: Polyp and Surface. Sclerites: Colorless sclerites. Narrow or barrel shaped spindles in the surface. Polyp
contains slender rods.

Notes: Colonies are blue in life from the presence of the chemical pigment Guanine, which
also can occur in terrestrial trees. They can occasionally be Red. Branches show large polyp mounds when polyps are retracted. Preserved specimens are a cream white color.

71

Page: 224-225

Group: Calcaxonia Family: Ellisellidae (No sclerites in the axis, only gorgonin. Solid central core. Shell shaped
strands of Calcium carbonate in the concentric layers of gorgonin (pg.13 #M). Two main sclerite forms are double head capstan like and a club shaped sclerite with a pineapple-like club head.

Genus:

Ellisella
Sampling: Surface. Sclerites: Colored sclerites at the surface, often orange. Spindle shaped with double heads.
Surface of heads covered in large warts. The central axis is white due to calcium carbonate and is visible in broken branches.

Notes: Only difference right now between Ellisella and Viminella is the shape of branches.
Genetic work is needed to better define this genus. Colonies occur in shallow and deep water and have a cosmopolitan distribution. Colonies are brightly colored. Polyps are evenly spaced and in rows on small branches.

72

Page: 230-231

Group: Calcaxonia Family: Ellisellidae Genus:

Junceella
Sampling: Surface and Subsurface. Sclerites: Pineapple topped clubs are located in the surface tissue. Capstans can be found
in the subsurface layer. Sclerites are usually about 0.08 mm long. They can be pigmented or colorless.

Notes: Colonies form long branches. Often reproduces asexually covering large patches of
substrate. This process occurs by dissolution of the coenenchyme 10 cm below the branch tip. The branch tip then falls off and forms a new colony. Colonies are colored. Polyps are layered along the branches pressed up against it.

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Page: 236-237

Group: Calcaxonia Family: Ellisellidae Genus:

Verrucella
Sampling: Surface. Sclerites: Sclerites range from strongly double headed too more elongate. Some are dumbbell shaped with a warty coating on both heads. Others are spindle like with a wart like surface. Up to 0.1 mm long. Double headed forms are not as prominent as in Ellisella. Notes: Colonies are anastamose, net shaped and very sea fan like. When polyps retract
they form mounds on the branches.

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Page: 242-243

Group: Calcaxonia Family: Ifalukellidae (Named after Ifaluk Atoll. Only one nominal species of genus Ifalukella.
Genera and species have a very hard, calcareous holdfast.)

Genus:

Plumigorgia
Sampling: Surface. Sclerites: Star shaped sclerites are present in the thick growth forms. Thin growth form has
biscuit shaped flat platelets similar to xeniid sclerites. Clear to opaque.

Notes: Two growth forms, one has thin tissue coating the axis, the other has thick tissue. The axis is highly calcified giving the axis a golden color.

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Page: 246-247

Group: Calcaxonia Family: Chrysogorgiidae Genus:

Stephanogorgia
Sampling: Polyp and Tentacles. Sclerites: Flat scales are numerous in the polyp. They are almost 0.1 mm long. Small
narrow rods in the tentacles are slightly warty. Sclerites are colorless.

Notes: Colonies have a zigzag branching pattern. Branches are very fine and almost
hydroid like. Coenenchyme is very thin. The main axis of the branches has a metallic gold color that is visible in life.

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Page: 248-249

Group: Calcaxonia Family: Isididae Genus:

Isis
Sampling: Surface, Subsurface Sclerites: Small surface clubs about 0.07 mm long. Subsurface capstans are larger, over 0.1 mm long on average. Sclerites are always colorless. Notes: Smooth branches with dense, retractile polyps. Colonies are Monomorphic.

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Atlantic Octocorals
Group: Holaxonia Family: Gorgoniidae Genus:

Gorgonia
Sampling: Polyp, Surface and Branch. Not all regions need to be sampled separately. One
small section of a branch usually reveals all the sclerite forms.

Sclerites: Spindles with concentric rows of tubercles. Scaphoid sclerites have larger warts
on the concave side. Polyps contain rods with a few irregular warts. Rods are clear, scaphoids and spindles can be clear or lavender to maroon in color.

Notes: Colonies are zooxanthellate. Branches grow into one another forming a lattice like
growth form known as anastamosis. There are two common Caribbean species, G. ventalina and G. flabellum.

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Group: Holaxonia Family: Gorgoniidae Genus:

Pterogorgia
Sampling: Surface and Subsurface. Sclerites: Calyces rarely present. No polyp sclerites. Surface contains spindles with warty
tubercles. Flattened rods are also present in the surface. Subsurface sclerites are colored scaphoids and spindles. They have a gentle curve with multiple rows of tubercles.

Notes: Colonies have distinct, flat-sided branches with polyp bearing margins. Polyps
emerge from narrow channels or grooves. Zooxanthellate. Bushy and somewhat planar growth forms. There are 2 common Caribbean species that differ mainly in growth form.

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Group: Holaxonia Family: Gorgoniidae Genus:

Pseudopterogorgia
Sampling: Surface and Subsurface. Sclerites: In most species calyces are absent. Colorless scaphoids occur in the surface.
Scaphoids have a smooth convex side with 2 rows of evenly spaced tubercles on the concave side. Subsurface spindles have pointed tips, are colored, and have slightly warty tubercles. Flattened rods may be present in the subsurface near retracted polyps.

Notes: Soft, plume like colonies with pinnate secondary branches often evenly space.
Zooxanthellate. Polyps line the secondary branches in evenly spaced rows.

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Group: Holaxonia Family: Plexauridae Genus:

Eunicea
Sampling: Polyp, Surface, and Subsurface. Sclerites: Calyces range in size. They can be cylindrical or shelf-like. Polyps often
supported by a chevron shaped arrangement of sclerites. Polyps contain small-flattened rods up to 0.07 mm long. Surface sclerites are mostly tuberculate, spiny, or foliate clubs and torches. Foliate spheroids are also present in the surface. Large, warty colored spindles are common in the subsurface.

Notes: Many species have a candelabrum-shaped growth form. Zooxanthellae.

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Group: Holaxonia Family: Plexauridae Genus:

Plexaura
Sampling: Polyp, Surface and Subsurface. Sclerites: Flattened rods in the polyp form a crown. Foliate, warty, and thorny clubs
dominate the surface layer. Subsurface sclerites are warty spindles and also sometimes short capstans or spheroids. Sclerites close to the axis can be colored.

Notes: Branch pores are very short, forming a tiny lip around the retracted polyps. Colonies
grow in a planar form with dichotomous branches. Polyps can be lighter in color than the coenenchyme coating the branches. Zooxanthellate. Plexaura homomalla has been examined for its potential biomedical benefits.

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Group: Holaxonia Family: Plexauridae Genus:

Plexaurella
Sampling: Polyp, Surface and Subsurface. Sclerites are often highly dense and may need
additional dilution with de-ionized water on the slide to separate them.

Sclerites: Sclerites colorless. Polyps have very few sclerites that are flattened rods with
knobby ends. Thorny, cross-like or butterfly shaped sclerites in the surface. Subsurface contains a mix of spindles, irregular spindles, and or crosses.

Notes: Bushy colonies with dichotomous branches. Oval, slit-like pours of coenenchyme
form around retracted polyps. Colonies are zooxanthellate.

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Group: Holaxonia Family: Plexauridae Genus:

Pseudoplexaura
Sampling: Surface and Subsurface. Sclerites: Some sclerites are colored. Most species lack polyp sclerites. Surface has wart
clubs and or leafy clubs with a mix of spindles. A range of multi-radiated capstans, sharp pointed spindles, and branch spindles are found in the subsurface.

Notes: Polyps retractile. Colonies form large, rod-shaped upright branches and can be
dichotomous. Branches are smooth with no calyces and soft to the touch. Sometimes small polyp ridges are present from partially retracted polyps. Zooxanthellate.

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Group: Holaxonia Family: Plexauridae Genus:

Muricea
Sampling: Calyx, Secondary Branch and Primary Branch. Sclerites: Sclerites can be a mix of clear and colored. Calyx sclerites are predominately
spindles. Some have many strong slanting spines. Others have a terminal flattened point that may or may not be branched and up to 0.8 mm long. Secondary branches contain narrow spiny spindles and branched spindles up to 0.4 mm long. Primary branch sclerites are larger warty spindles some with slanting spines. There are also smaller stellate capstans in primary branches.

Notes: Very prominent, shelf-like calyces giving this genus a rough outer feel when handled.
Primary and secondary branches often growing planar with stout branches. Zooxanthellate.

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Group: Scleraxonia Family: Anthothelidae Genus:

Diodogorgia
Sampling: Surface Polyp Pont, Central Core, and Surface. Sclerites: Areas of polyp retraction in the surface tissue are coated with radiate sclerites.
These often have four to six points. Surface sclerites are rods or spindles with widely space tubercles. Branched rods with tubercles are found in the central core.

Notes: Azooxanthellate with white polyps. There is one species, D. nodulifera with two color
morphs. Colonies are either orange to yellow with red calyces or red with red calyces. Calyces are low with a bump shape and smooth merging into the surrounding coenenchyme.

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Appendix A
Record keeping is an important part of the taxonomic process. The following is an example of a generic recording form used during the examination of a soft coral specimen. The blank version of this form may be photocopied to use as needed. Alternatively it can be used as a template, modified to fit the needs of your specific institution.

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OCTOCORAL EXAMINATION REPORT

DATE: FAMILY: COLLECTOR: CATALOG: GENUS: DATE COLLECTED: SPECIMEN NUMBER: SPECIES: NUMBER OF SAMPLES:

Colony shape: Polyp detail: Color:

Colony Size: Monomorphic Location of origin: Dimorphic

Sclerite Notes:

Sclerite Sampling: (

Additional Notes:

Samples on hand: Photographs:

Slide mounts: Material on loan:

88

References and Suggested Reading

Bayer, F.M. 1961. The shallow water Octocorallia of the West Indian region. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, The Netherlands. 373 pp. Bayer, F.M., Grasshoff, M. and Verseveldt, J. (eds.). 1983. Illustrated trilingual glossary of morphological terms applied to Octocorallia. E.J. Brill and W. Blackhuys, Leiden, The Netherlands. Benayahu, Y. 1993. Alcyonacea from Sodwana Bay, South Africa. Investigative Reports of the Oceanographic Research Institute. 67: 1-16 Fabricius, K. and Alderslade, P. 2001. Soft Corals and Sea Fans. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Queensland, Australia. Fossa, S.A. and Nilsen, A.J. 1998. The Modern Coral Reef Aquarium, volume 2. Birgit Schmettkamp Verlag, Bornheim, Germany. 479 pp. Humann, P. 1993. Reef Coral Identification, Florida Caribbean Bahamas. New World Publications, Jacksonville, Florida, USA. 239 pp. Ofwegen, L.P. van. 2005. A new genus of nephtheid soft corals (Octocorallia: Alcyonacea: Nephtheidae) from the Indo-Pacific. Zoologische Mededelingen 79 (4): 1236. Sprung, J. and Delbeek, J.C. 1997. The Reef Aquarium, volume 2. Ricordea Publishing, Coconut Grove, Florida, USA. 546 pp. Verseveldt, J. 1980. A revision of the genus Sinularia May (Octocorallia, Alcyonacea). Zoologische Verhandelingen 179: 3-128. Verseveldt, J. 1982. A revision of the genus Sarcophyton Lesson (Octocorallia, Alcyonacea). Zoologische Verhandelingen 192: 3-91. Verseveldt, J. 1983. A revision of the genus Lobophytum Von Marenzeller (Octocorallia, Alcyonacea). Zoologische Verhandelingen 200: 3-103.

89

Notes

90

Notes

91