Controls and Automation

1. Methods of sensing pressure, temperature, movement, light level etc.

2. Temperature measurement sensors, thermocouples, semiconductor thermistors
3. LDR, photocells for sensing light levels as in oil water emulsion
4. Capacitive sensors for sensing level of dielectric fluid and movement.
5. Calibration of sensors. Hot bath for calibration of temperature sensors.
6. Resistance arm for sensing movement and for fluid level control and indication.
7. Indicating instruments.
8. Feedback mechanism for closed loop for governing parameters.
9. Generator automation.
10. Boiler automation.
11. Refrigeration automation
12. Solenoids, their principle of working and their applications in pneumatic and fluid
controllers.
13. Wheatstone bridge for imbalance detection.
14. Pneumatic controllers.
15. Load cells.
16. Climate control in ships accomodation,.

Data logging principles and systems.

1. Monitoring temp, pressure, level, velocity and logging (recording) these.
2. Converting the above parameters to digital form for recording by computer systems.
3. RPM converting into recordable form tachogenerator.
4. Simple servo mechanisms.
5. Cargo tank control valves.

Calibration :

CALIBRATING an instrument is when its reading is compared with some standard or known
value.
The process of calibration may be achieved by the use of primary or secondary standard. It is
usual for the primary standard to be used to calibrate a secondary or working standard. The
working standard is then used for instrument calibration. The accuracy of the instrument can thus
be traced to the primary standard.

The measuring system :

The measuring system comparises of

  transducer to convert the parameter to be measured
 a conditioner to shift the level generated by the transducer (generally an
amplifier with a filter
 An indicating device e.g meter or gauges.

Accuracy, error and the precision of measurement : No measuring system is perfect and so an
error will often be inherent in the measured value.

Precision is generally used to denote how close to the actual value is the measured or indicated
value.

The control loop:

Measurement, in most applications, is part of a control system. The measuring system,

comparising of the above, will be formed into a loop by the addition of a control element. An
engineer may, by his actions in operating valves etc., act as the control element. This is
manual control.
When the same is achieved without human intervention (within the control rules), automatic
control is the result.
When control is remote, the controlled appliance or a system is physically located away from
the proximity of the controller.

Control system response :

No controlled system will exactly follow a changing inputs. The dynamic behaviour of the
controlled system will be governed largely by the capacity of the control system and by the
system resistance.
For e.g : when attempting to regulate the temperature of a large volume of liquid using an
underated means of heating this volume, the control performance would involve large
fluctuations in controlled temperature.

Pressure Measurement : The measurement of pressure is always relative to some particular

datum.
 Absolute pressure is a total measurement using zero pressure as datum.
 Gauge pressure is a measurement above the atmospheric pressure which is used as the
datum.
 Differential pressure is the difference in pressure existing between two points.

Means of measuring pressure:

Manometers : Manometers balance the pressure to be measured against a column of liquid.
The height of the column of liquid is then a measure of the applied pressure
The simplest form is one containing a U-tube one end of which is connected to the system
pressure and the other end is open to atmosphere.
 Bourdon-tube : The most commonly used gauge pressure measuring insrument and it utilizes
the elastic deflection of a metal tube. The applied pressure creates a force which elastically
deflects the metal tube until an equilibrium contdition exists between them. The displacement
of the tube is then converted into a reading on a scale. An elliptical section tube is formed into
a C-shape and sealed at one end. The sealed end, which is free to move, has a linkage
arrangement which will move a pointer over a scale. The applied pressure cts within the tube,
entering through the open end which is fixed in place. The pressure acting within the tube
causes its distortion which drives a directly calibrated pointer through a suitable linkage. The
needle moving linkage is adjustable to enable calibration adjustment to be made as required.
(Fig: 3.3 Marine Control Practice : D.A Taylor) page 36

Diaphragms and bellow gauges : These use aneroid type of metallic laminar corrugated sheet
to indicate a differential pressure.

Fire and Explosive gas detectors :

The early detection of smoke, excessive heat, flames or an explosive atmosphere can
enable rapid action to alleviate the situation.

Fire and flame detectors must be reliable and sensitive. These are generally installed in
locations which need protection against fire as in accomodation spaces, machinery spaces and
cargo holds. They must be periodically tested and not be switched off except during
maintenance.

The smoke detector makes use of two ionizatation chambers, one closed and one open to the
atmosphere. Fine particles or aerosole given off by fire alter the resistance in the open
chamber triggering off an alarm.

An explosive gas detector samples the gas by pumping it into a chamber where the sensor electrodes
are present. This is often done by an intrinsically safe reciprocating small volume pump that admits
the gas into the sensor chamber.

Flames, as opposed to smoke, are often the main result of gas and liquid fires and flame detectors are
used to protect against such hazards. Flames give off ultraviolet and infra-red radiation and detectors
are available to respond to either.

Oxygen Analyser:
The measurement of oxygen content of an atmosphere is important for personnel, particularly prior
entry into enclosed spaces.
When utilizing flue gases for interting, the oxygen content in the flue gas may require to be measured
to check its suitability.
An electrochemical type of analyser is shown in( fig 3.27 page 70 Marine control practice D.A
Taylor.)The oxygen sensor is an yttria stabilized zirconia disc with platinum electrodes attached to the
opposite faces of the disc. A heater is used to maintain the sensor at a fixed temp of 8000C. Air is
supplied to the inner or ref face of disc and the flue gas to be measured is in contact with the outer
face which is a function of temp and the ratio of oxygen partial pressure on each side. With all
parameters except exhaust gas oxygen pressure being held constant, the output voltage is a measure of
oxygen content in the exhaust gas. The output voltage increases logarithmically with increasing
oxygen concentration, thus providing high sensitivity at low concentration values.

CARBON DI-OXIDE ANALYSER:

The measurement of carbon dioxide in a flue gas sample can be used as an indication of good
combustion in a boiler furnace. Various techniques can be employed in this measurement.

The thermal conductivity of CO2 is significantly different from all other gases (except steam) which
may be present in flue gas sample. CO2 has a thermal conductivity of 1 when related to CO of 4 , O2
of 2, Nitrogen 4 and water (steam)1.

CALIBRATION OF INSTRUMENTS :

The need for testing and calibration must be met on board. Portable test instruments ensure correct
operation of electronic, pneumatic, mechanical and hydraulic instrumentation and control equipment.

A pneumatic instrument calibration and test set enables pressure gauges, differential pressure
transmitters, computing relays, process controllers and control valve actuators to be calibrated to an
accuracy of +/- 0.25%. The unit comprises two dual-scale 125mm gauges, one calibrated 0 –
30kg/cm2 and 0-10,000 mm w.g. Two regulated outputs of 0-2kg2 and one of 0-1000 w.g are
provided. This enables the simulation of a signal to a transmitter and monitoring of its output. The
only external supply required is a 2.1kg/cm2 air supply.

A temperature calibration bath can be used to test various primary temperature sensing elements. The
heated liquid may be oil or water and an electric heating element is used. Accurate temperature
control to within plus or minus 0.010C is possible in the range ambient to 2600C.

Interface detector: Oil/water interface detectors are a particular type of level sensor required in oil
tanker slop tanks. The Marpol 73 and Tanker Safety and Pollution Prevention 1978 conferences
require that all tankers of 150 gross tons and above are fitted with slop tanks. Oil/water interface
detectors are required in these slop tanks in order to avoid overloading the oil-in-water monitor which
measures the oil content of discharged slop tank water. The sensor uses two piezo-electric crystals,
one as transmitter and one as receiver, housed in stainless steel enclosure. An electric output from the
control unit is converted at the transmitter crystal to an ultrasonic beam. When the gap between
transmitter and receiver is filled with a single liquid, the beam will reach the receiver crystal. When
an interface is present between the crystals, most of the beam is reflected and refracted. The control
unit will monitor
the signals received and when an interface is detected, will arrange for the oil to be discharged to an
oily bilge tank.
(fig 3.15 page 50 on Marine Control Practice : D.A Taylor)

Flow Rate Measurement : Most flow rate measuring devices insert a restriction in the pipeline and
obtain measurement of differential pressure or orifice area.

Differential pressure meters:

The flow rate in a pipeline has been shown to be related to the pressure difference across a restriction
placed in the pipe. When the fluid is forced through a restriction, i.e a reduced area, the pressure
slightly upstream is greater than the pressure just after the restriction. Tappings are taken from the
pipe at suitable points and the differential pressure can be measured with a suitable device.

Speed : Most speed measurement with regard to rotating machinery is angular velocity, which is
usually expressed in revolutions per minute. Tachometers provide a direct reading of angular velocity
and are usually mechanical or electrical in operation.

Signal Transmitting Devices:

Synchros : These devices are a.c position indicating motors, consisting essentially of two basic
components, a stator and rotor, whether transmitter or receiver. Fig. 72 page 60 Notes on
instrumentation and control G.J. Roy shows a simple layout. The laminated stators are wound with
three windings, connected in star, 1200 apart. H-shaped laminated iron core rotors are wound with a
single winding connected to slip rings, with both rotors connected to the same supply. When the rotor
positions coincide, then the e.m.f’s in the corresponding coils of the transmitter and receiver are
equal, and there is no current flow through the stator windings. When the transmitter rotor is turned,
the emfs induced in the two stators will alter, and a current flow in these takes place. The interaction
of magnetic fields produces a torque in the receiver rotor tending to bring this into alignment with that
of the transmitter.