CH:12 ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact each other and with the physical
environment.

ECOSYSTEM – STRUCTURE & FUNCTION

Types of ecosystems

• Terrestrial ecosystem: Forest, grassland, desert etc.

• Aquatic ecosystem: Pond, lake, wetland, river & estuary.
• Man-made ecosystem: Crop fields and aquarium.

- Entire biosphere is regarded as global ecosystem.

- In an ecosystem, biotic and abiotic components interact and function as a unit.
- Vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels is called stratification. E.g. in a
forest, trees occupy top strata (layer), shrubs the second and herbs & grasses the bottom layers.

Pond (Aquatic ecosystem)

A pond is a shallow, simple, self-sustainable water body that exhibits all basic components of an ecosystem.

• Abiotic components: Water and soil deposit.

• Climatic conditions: Solar input, cycle of temperature, day-length etc.
• Autotrophic components: Phytoplankton, some algae and the floating, submerged and marginal
plants.
• Consumers (heterotrophs): Zooplankton, free swimming and bottom dwelling forms.
• Decomposers: Fungi, bacteria and flagellates.

Pond performs all the functions of an ecosystem. E.g.

• Autotrophs convert inorganic into organic material using solar radiant energy.
• Heterotrophs consume the autotrophs.
• Decomposition and mineralization of the dead matter to release them back for reuse by the
autotrophs.
4 basic components of functioning of an ecosystem:

1. Productivity
2. Decomposition
3. Energy flow
4. Nutrient cycling

1. PRODUCTIVITY

Solar energy is the basic requirement for an ecosystem to function and sustain.

Amount of biomass (organic matter) produced per unit area over a time period by plants during
photosynthesis is called primary production. It is expressed in weight (g–2) or energy (kcal m–2).

The rate of biomass production is called productivity.

It is expressed in g–2 yr–1 or (kcal m–2) yr–1.
It is divided into gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP).

• Gross primary productivity (GPP): It is the rate of production of organic matter during
photosynthesis. A considerable amount of GPP is used by plants in respiration.
• Net primary productivity (NPP): It is the available biomass for the consumption to heterotrophs
(herbivores & decomposers). i.e., NPP is the Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R).
•
NPP = GPP – R

Secondary productivity: It is the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.

Primary productivity varies in different ecosystems because it depends on

• The plant species inhabiting an area.
• Environmental factors.
• Availability of nutrients.
• Photosynthetic capacity of plants.
Annual net primary productivity of whole biosphere is about 170 billion tons (dry weight) of organic matter.
Of this, despite occupying about 70 % of the surface, the productivity of the oceans is only 55 billion tons.

2. DECOMPOSITION

-It is the breakdown of complex organic matter by decomposers into inorganic substances like CO2, water
and nutrients.
-It is largely an oxygen-requiring process.
-Raw material for decomposition is called Detritus. E.g. dead plant remains (leaves, bark, flowers etc.),
dead remains of animals, fecal matter etc.

Steps of decomposition

• Fragmentation: It is the breakdown of detritus into smaller particles by detritivores (e.g.

earthworm).
• Leaching: Water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into soil horizon and precipitate as unavailable
salts.
• Catabolism: Degradation of detritus into simpler inorganic substances by bacterial and fungal
enzymes.
The above three processes occur simultaneously.
• Humification: Accumulation of humus (dark amorphous substance) in soil. Humus is resistant to
microbial action and so decomposes very slowly. Being colloidal, it serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
• Mineralization: It is the release of inorganic nutrients due to the degradation of humus by some
microbes.
•
Factors influencing decomposition

1. Chemical composition of detritus:

• Decomposition is slow in detritus rich in lignin & chitin.
• It is quicker in detritus rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances like sugars.
•
2. Climatic factors (temperature & soil moisture):
 • Warm and moist environment favour decomposition.
• Low temperature & anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition resulting in buildup of organic materials.

3. ENERGY FLOW

• Sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems (except deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem).
• Of the incident solar radiation, less than 50% is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).
• Plants and photosynthetic bacteria (autotrophs), fix solar radiant energy to make food.
• Plants capture only 2-10% of the PAR. This energy sustains the entire living world.
• Ecosystems obey 2nd Law of thermodynamics. They need a constant supply of energy to synthesize
the molecules. It helps to counteract the entropy.

Producers (Autotrophs):

- These are organisms that synthesize food.

- In a terrestrial ecosystem, major producers are herbaceous and woody plants. Primary producers in
an aquatic ecosystem are phytoplankton, algae and higher plants.
- The energy trapped by the producer is passed on to a consumer or the organism dies.

Consumers (heterotrophs):

These are animals that directly or indirectly depend on plants for food. They include:

• Primary consumers (herbivores): Feed on plants. E.g. insects, birds, mammals, molluscs, etc.
• Secondary consumers (primary carnivores): Feed on herbivores. E.g. frog, fox, man etc.
• Tertiary consumers (secondary carnivores): Feed on primary carnivores. E.g. tiger, lion etc.

The chain of feeding relationship between different organisms is called a food chain. It is 2 types:

• Grazing Food Chain (GFC): Here, primary consumer feeds on living plants (producer).
E.g.

• Detritus Food Chain (DFC): Here, primary consumer feeds on dead organic matter (detritus). Death
of organism is the beginning of the DFC.

- Detritus is made up of decomposers (saprotrophs)such as fungi & bacteria. They secrete digestive
enzymes that breakdown detritus into simple, inorganic materials, which are absorbed by them. Thus,
they get energy & nutrients.
- In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major conduit for energy flow.
- In a terrestrial ecosystem, a much amount of energy flows through the DFC than through the GFC.
- DFC may be connected with GFC at some levels. Some organisms of DFC are prey to the GFC
animals. Some animals (cockroaches, crows, human etc.) are omnivores. Such interconnections of
food chains are called food web.
A specific place of organisms in the food chain is known as their trophic level.

o The amount of energy decreases at successive trophic levels. When an organism dies it becomes
dead biomass (detritus). It is an energy source for decomposers.
o Organisms at each trophic level depend on those at the lower trophic level for their energy.
o The amount of living material in a trophic level at a given time is called standing crop. It is
measured as the biomass (mass of living organisms) or the number in a unit area.
o Biomass of a species is measured in terms of fresh or dry weight. Dry weight is more accurate
because it is the exact mass of body which remains constant.
o Number of trophic levels in GFC is restricted as it follows 10% law (only 10% of energy is
transferred to each trophic level from the lower trophic level).

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

The representation of a food chain in the form of a pyramid is called ecological pyramid.

The base of a pyramid represents producers (first trophic level). The apex represents tertiary or top-level
consumer.

Ecological pyramids are 3 types: Pyramid of number, Pyramid of biomass and Pyramid of energy.

a) Pyramid of number:

E.g. grassland ecosystem.

b) Pyramid of biomass:

It shows a sharp decrease in biomass at higher trophic levels.

c) Pyramid of energy:

Primary producers convert only 1% of the energy in the sunlight available to them into NPP.

Any calculations of energy content, biomass, or numbers has to include all organisms at that trophic level.

A trophic level represents a functional level, not a species as such. A species may occupy more than one
trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time. E.g. A sparrow is a primary consumer when it eats
seeds, fruits, peas. It is a secondary consumer when it eats insects & worms.

In most ecosystems, all the pyramids are upright, i.e., producers are higher in number, biomass and energy
than the herbivores, and herbivores are higher in number, biomass and energy than the carnivores.

But in some cases, inverted pyramids for number and biomass are present.

Inverted pyramid of number: E.g. Insects feeding on a tree.

Inverted pyramid of biomass: E.g.

• Small standing crop of phytoplankton supports large standing crop of zooplankton.

• Pyramid of biomass in sea is inverted because the biomass of fishes far exceeds that of
phytoplankton.
Pyramid of energy is always upright because some energy is always lost as heat at each trophic level. So,
energy at a lower trophic level is always more than at a higher level.

Limitations of ecological pyramids

• It does not consider the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.

• It assumes a simple food chain that never exists in nature. It does not accommodate a food web.

• Saprophytes are not included.