International Journal of Geoheritage and Parks 12 (2024) 196–208

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International Journal of Geoheritage and Parks

journal homepage: http://www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/
international-journal-of-geoheritage-and-parks/

Research Paper

The geodiversity site of Sentono Gentong in Pacitan, Indonesia:

Geological characteristics and quantitative assessment
Hanang Samodra a,⁎, Sam Permanadewi a, Ronaldo Irzon b, Bambang Yunianto a, Chusni Ansori a,
Gusti Muhammad Lucki Junursyah b, Emma Yan Patriani b, Sigit Maryanto b
a
Research Centre for Geological Resources, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Samaun Samadikun Science & Technology Centre, Basics Tower 2, Jalan
Sangkuriang, Bandung 40135, Indonesia
b
Center fo Geological Survey, Geological Agency, Jalan Diponegoro No. 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper aims to identify the geological properties of Sentono Gentong and provide a quan-
Received 24 June 2023 titative assessment of its geodiversity site in Pacitan Regency, Indonesia.This area is an integral
Received in revised form 26 January 2024 part of the vast Gunung Sewu UNESCO Global Geopark. Rock samples and site conditions are
Accepted 27 February 2024
compiled on field study. The study area consists mainly of Neogene limestone and older igne-
ous rock. Microscopic analysis has revealed that the limestone is composed of bioclastic
Available online 28 February 2024
wackestone, boundstone, and fossiliferous wackestone. The igneous rock in the area is a
grey-black hornblende andesite. Bangunsari fault, which cuts through the study area, disturbs
Keywords:
the coastal terraces to its south. The results of the quantitative assessment show that the site's
geodiversity site
potential educational use, potential touristic use, and degradation risk scores are 92.5, 80, and
geodiversity elements
potential educational use 56.25, respectively. The assessment scores describe the site as having potential for education
potential touristic use and tourism uses, with a medium risk of degradation. Quite prominent cultural elements,
degradation risk which form the local community's identity, are included as a complement to the identification
quantitative assessment of the site. In order to preserve and maintain the sustainability of this potential geodiversity
geopark site, a high commitment related to geoconservation is required.
© 2024 Beijing Normal University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi
Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction

The Late Paleogene to Neogene age of the Southern Mountains, which is directly adjacent to the Indian Ocean, is the main geo-
logical framework of the study area and its surroundings. The area was mentioned by van Gorsel (2020) to be the remnants of an
eroded Oligocene-Early Miocene Old Andesite volcanic arc. The existence of Late Oligocene or Early Miocene volcanic rocks in
Southern Java was also reported by Baumann, De Genevraye, and Samuel (1973), Bolliger and De Ruiter (1975), and
Mulhadiyono (1973). The remnants of these volcanic rocks are often found in late Early Miocene or Middle Miocene sedimentary
rocks and limestones. The resulting volcanic rocks most likely form in a marine environment, and are associated with marine sed-
imentary rocks (Bronto, Pambudi, Hartono, & Purwanto, 2002). Bronto (2003) and Bronto, Mulyaningsih, Hartono, and Astuti
(2009) have mentioned the remnants of this old volcanic arc, which are composed of andesite and dacite and are believed to
have originated from several eruption centers. This Late Oligocene-Early Miocene magmatic arc was more or less located in the

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Samodra).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgeop.2024.02.004
2577-4441/© 2024 Beijing Normal University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC
BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
H. Samodra, S. Permanadewi, R. Irzon et al. International Journal of Geoheritage and Parks 12 (2024) 196–208

area that is currently on the south coast (Hamilton, 1979). The Old Andesite volcanic system became inactive at the beginning of
the Miocene.
The next event is a major volcanic eruption that has produced acidic and quartz-rich volcanic rocks (Smyth, Hall, Hamilton, &
Kinny, 2003). The older rock units in the area are mostly covered by extensive exposed limestones, which are primarily of Middle
Miocene age.
This paper quantitatively assesses the geological aspects of the Sentono Gentong area and reveals its potential as a geodiversity
site. Located in Pacitan Regency (Fig. 1), the study area occupies the easternmost part of the vast Gunung Sewu UNESCO Global
Geopark area which was designated in 2015 (Sutrisno, Iriyanti, & Ratnasari, 2020). Many of the 13 geological heritage sites, out of
a total of 33 sites, are located in the Pacitan Regency (Samodra & Permanadewi, 2014). Although the study was only conducted in
one place, the results of the identification of the Sentono Gentong area as a geodiversity site will complement and enrich the
existing geological heritage sites in the Pacitan Regency. The Gunung Sewu UNESCO Global Geopark also requires the potential
Sentono Gentong status as a geodiversity site for its sustainable development.

Fig. 1. The study area is included in the Pacitan Regency, Java, Indonesia.
Source: Google Earth, Image©2023, Maxar Technologies.

The extensive Neogene limestone outcrops along the south coast form a karst topography characterized by thousands of con-
ical or hemispherical limestone hills. The dissolution process in the limestone layer under the ground forms various types and
sizes of caves before finally being exposed to the surface. Lithostratigraphically, these limestones are called the Oyo and Wonosari
formations (Van Bemmelen, 1949), which are vertically interfingering. If the Oyo Formation is a tuffaceous clastic carbonate, then
the Wonosari Formation is more developed into a reef facies. The limestone unit is underlain by Oligo-Miocene rocks which con-
sist of volcanic, volcaniclastic, and intrusive rocks in places.
Regionally, the Oyo Formation is composed of andesitic tuff, tuffaceous marl, tuffaceous sandstone, sandy marl, calcareous
sandstone, calcareous siltstone, tuffaceous limestone, and conglomeratic limestone (Aliyan, Agusta, & Bahri, 2023; Azahar, 2019;
Samodra, Gafoer, & Tjokrosapoetro, 1992; Surono Toha, Sudarno, & Wiryosujono, 1992; Van Bemmelen, 1949). Van Bemmelen
(1949) mentioned that the Oyo tuff originated from the renewal stage of volcanism in the Solo Zone. He gave an example of
the formation of hornblende-andesitic Banjak Beds in Kendeng Zone which originated from Mt. Banjak. Meanwhile, Surono
(2009) mentioned that the Oyo Formation formed in the post-volcanism period or carbonate period.
In the mid-Miocene, the existing fore-arc basin was filled by volcaniclastic sediments sourced from the volcanic arc to the
north and platform carbonates. Volcaniclastic materials such as ash falls or pyroclastic flows that entered the basin periodically
influenced the development of shallow marine carbonates (Lokier, 2000).

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Lithologically, the Sentono Gentong area and its surroundings are dominated by limestone, both the clastic and non-clastic
types. These Neogene limestones unconformably overlie andesite of Oligo-Miocene basement rocks in the Southern Mountains
of East Java. A N-S normal fault cuts the rock units. One of the rare examples of stratigraphic contact between limestone and ig-
neous rocks is exposed in the Sentono Gentong area, Pacitan (Fig. 2). Therefore, this geodiversity needs to be explored further,
especially for its sustainable utilization.

Fig. 2. Simplified geological map of the Sentono Gentong and its surroundings.
Source of original map: Samodra et al. (1992).

Geodiversity encompasses a variety of the Earth's materials, forms, and processes that constitute and shape the Earth (Gray,
2018). Minerals, rocks, fossils, soils, and landforms are the key points of geodiversity in establishing priorities for its management
(Badang, Ali, Komoo, & Leman, 2017; Brilha, 2016; Elkaichi, Errami, & Patel, 2021). Using scientific knowledge, the geoscientific
community should identify the importance of any geodiversity site based on the most objective criteria.
This geodiversity research aims to introduce and promote the area as a new geodiversity site in the Pacitan area. The rarity of
contact between Oligo-Miocene rocks and Neogene limestone units, the presence of fault escarpment that has beautiful pano-
ramas, and active uplift phenomena that produce coastal terraces, are the reasons for conducting research in the Sentono Gentong
area. Geodiversity elements in Sentono Gentong may not be scientifically specific, but they will still be considered in the context
of the geological framework of the wider region.
This geodiversity site is indicated to be an important resource for education, tourism, and the cultural identity of the local com-
munity. Therefore, this site can be developed, utilized, and promoted as a place for learning basic geological knowledge and geo-
tourism in a sustainable manner in the study area, including in the Gunung Sewu UNESCO Global Geopark area.

2. Material and methods

2.1. Study area

Sentono Gentong area and its surroundings reveal andesite intrusives and limestones of different ages. Stratigraphically, andes-
ite which represents Oligo-Miocene rocks is unconformably overlain by Neogene carbonate units (Samodra et al., 1992). A thick
sequence of massive fossiliferous limestones characterizes the Wonosari Formation (Fig. 3a,b), while the Oyo Formation (Fig. 3c)
is represented by tuffaceous clastic limestones.

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Fig. 3. a. Wonosari limestone where the surface is dissolved. b. Highly fractured Oyo limestone. c. Outcrop of conglomeratic limestone of Wonosari Formation.
d. Intensively jointed fresh hornblende andesite.

Almost the entire limestone surface has been dissolved by rainwater, forming holes of various sizes. Several small holes merge
to form a larger one. The initial karstification experienced by limestones produces a minor morphology known as Karren. Dissolv-
ing along cracks or fractures form elongated channels 5–10 cm wide. Far to the west, in the same Neogen limestones unit, further
karstification creates caves as a significant endokarst phenomenon.
This karstified limestone is unconformably underlaid by andesite igneous rocks (Fig. 4d). Sartono (1964) interpreted this in-
trusive as Oligocene in age. Samodra et al. (1992) mentioned that massive andesites, locally spheroidal-weathered, are igneous
rocks formed during the post-magmatism stage. Subduction during the Late Paleogene created a volcanic arc that produced vol-
canic breccias, lavas, pyroclastics, and acidic to intermediate intrusive rocks. Regionally, volcanic activity in the Southern Moun-
tains of Java, which took place during the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene, produced rocks of medium to acidic composition or
andesite to rhyolite (Smyth, Hall, & Nichols, 2008). In old literature, this volcanic rock is referred to as the Old Andesite Formation
(Van Bemmelen, 1949), and this term is still widely used by geologists (i.e., Hamilton, 1979; Hartono & Sudradjat, 2017; Irzon,
2017, 2018).
The steep wall that runs through Sentono Gentong is Bangunsari's normal fault escarpment. This geological structure causes
limestones and the underlying andesites to be fractured quite intensively. Pacitan plain, located east of the fault, occupies a
block of hanging wall. The sliding phenomenon in one part of the escarpment resulted in colluvium deposits of Quaternary age
(Sartono, 1964). Rock samples from limestones and andesites were collected for paleontological and petrographic analysis. Lime-
stone samples were taken from the upper part and lower part of the thick sequence near the contact with andesites.

2.2. Methods

The research used a methodology that included several stages (Fig. 4). Primary geological data collection in the form of obser-
vation, measurement, recording, collection of rock samples, and documentation was carried out directly in the field. Some rock
samples were prepared for petrological/petrographic and paleontological analysis in the laboratory. Collection of non-geological
data such as culture and tourism was also carried out directly in the field, and enriched through information downloaded from
online sites. The collected data were further disaggregated based on geodiversity elements such as lithology, stratigraphy, geolog-
ical structure, and landscape, including non-geological information. A quantitative assessment method developed by Brilha (2016)
was applied to the completed data to determine the opportunities for its use for education and tourism, including a degradation
risk assessment. The results of the assessment, represented in the form of numbers, will then predict whether or not a site has the
potential to become a geodiversity site that is utilized for education and tourism purposes.
The quantitative assessment methods consist of assessments of potential for educational use (PEU), potential for tourism use
(PTU), and risk of degradation (DR). This method has been used in assessing geodiversity\\including geosite\\worldwide
(i.e., Brilha, 2016; Najwer, Jankowski, Niesterowicz, & Zwoliński, 2022; Somma, 2022).
In terms of culture developed in the local community, Sentono Gentong contributes to the tangible and intangible cultural his-
tories of the Pacitan area. In the context of geodiversity sites and geopark, the cultural aspect is one of the important elements
that make up a diversity of the Earth's heritage related to the identity of local communities (Brilha, 2016).
Field research was conducted at only one geodiversity site\\the Sentono Gentong area and its surroundings\\to identify and
characterize this new site. From a geological aspect, the educational value of the site was evaluated qualitatively based on the
criteria of didactic potential and geological diversity. Didactic potential relates to the capacity of geological features to be easily
understood by students of different educational levels. Geological diversity is the number of different types of geodiversity ele-
ments present in the same location. For potential tourism value related to geology, the qualitative evaluation uses the criteria
of scenery and interpretative potential. Scenery is the visual beauty of a geological event, such as a landscape or outcrop. The

Fig. 4. Flow chart of the methodology used.

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interpretative potential is related to the capacity of geological features that can be easily understood by common people (Brilha,
2016).
Meanwhile, the numerical evaluation of degradation risk was complementary to the assessment of site values that were later
used to develop action plans. Geology-related degradation risk assessments included evaluating the fragility and vulnerability of
geological elements to potential loss, both through natural processes and anthropogenic actions. These assessments also consid-
ered the proximity of areas or activities that could potentially cause degradation. Brilha (2016) classified degradation risk into
low, moderate, and high levels.
To characterize the site, quantitative assessments of PEU, PTU, and DR were applied (Brilha, 2016). PEU was based on 12
criteria (vulnerability, accessibility, use limitations, safety, logistics, density of population, association with other values, scenery,
uniqueness, observation conditions, didactic potential, and geological diversity). PTU involved 13 criteria (vulnerability, accessibil-
ity, use limitations, safety, logistics, density of population, association with other values, scenery, uniqueness, observation condi-
tions, interpretative potential, economic level, and proximity of recreational areas). Finally, a quantitative assessment of DR was
carried out using 5 criteria (deterioration of geological elements, proximity to areas/activities with the potential to cause degra-
dation, legal protection, accessibility, and population density). Each criterion had its own indicators, parameters, and weights
(in percent). The final value of each PEU, PTU, and DR was the weighted sum of predetermined criteria. This method has been
implemented by many authors (i.e., Albani, Mansur, Carvalho, & Santos, 2020; Ansori, Setiawan, Warmada, & Yogaswara, 2022;
Djafar, Suharyogi, & Wibowo, 2021; Jalil & Setiawan, 2020; Jaya, Sumantri, Bachri, & Maulana, 2022; Mehdioui et al., 2020;
Muslim et al., 2022).
Concerning the geopark context, the cultural aspect is one of the important elements that make up the diversity of the Earth's
heritage. Therefore, local culture was added to enrich the information on geodiversity sites in this study.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Microscopic analysis

After being petrographically analyzed, the limestone sample (HS-01) collected from Sentono Gentong escarpment was
wackestone type. Poorly sorted and opened fabric characterized this bioclastic fine-grained carbonate, where grains (fossils,
intraclasts, oolites, pellets) were embedded in a mud matrix. Microspars of carbonate mud and fine-grained anhedral calcite filled
the rock pores and cavities of former fossils (Fig. 5a).
Benthic and planktonic foraminiferas such as Heterostegina sp., Cycloclypeus sp., Orbulina sp., and small benthic fossils having 2
chamber sequences preserved in the limestone sample. Macrofossils of the mollusk Turitella sp. also occurred. The foraminiferas
assemblage represented an age no older than the Middle Miocene when fossil diversity was low. This lithology exposed as the
upper part of a thick sequence of the Wonosari Formation which was deposited in a lagoon or back reef areas.
Traveling southwards will encounter conglomeratic limestone outcrop. Subrounded-rounded limestone fragments with a size
of 10–20 cm, which have been interpreted as reef debris deposits, were set up in the sequence of rocks. This lower part of the
Wonosari limestones is exposed not far from the strongly jointed andesites. The thin section of limestone component (HS-02)
demonstrated characteristics of boundstones or bindstones as shown by coral overgrowths. Mosaic to drusy mosaic anhedral cal-
cite crystals, which have a size of up to 0.5 mm, filled rock pores. Secondary carbonate muds replaced some corals (micritisation).
Very fine pores were formed by the inter-crystal spaces where distributed sporadically (Fig. 5b). The absence of other coral fossils
made it difficult to determine its age. The reef-associated limestones were thought to have been deposited at the edge of a shelf,
or F5 zone according to Wilson's (1975) classification, where organic build-up occurred and then experienced destruction. The
growing reef on soft and slippery carbonate mud substratum caused the collapse of the reef mass piles. This process then gener-
ated the fragmented limestones.
In the south and east of the study area, a sequence of more than 20 m thick of well-bedded limestone at a lower stratigraphic
position was clearly exposed. Tuffaceous limestone layers found in a small quarry were intensively jointed. In thin sections, the
sample (HS-03) was observed as fossiliferous wackestone or floatstone with coarse fragmental bioclastic texture and very poor
porosity. The grains were partially replaced by fine calcite crystals or microspars (Fig. 5c). Tuff materials, such as glass, were al-
tered into clay minerals. No volcanic component was observed in this thin section.

Fig. 5. Microphotographs of wackestone of HS-01 (a), boundstone/blindstone of HS-02 (b), wackestone/floatstone of HS-03 (c), hornblende andesites of HS-04 (d).
Note: Plag = plagioclase, Hb = hornblende, Mag = magnetite, Kf = K feldspar.

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Locally, dense and highly jointed grey-black hornblende andesite was exposed. The outcrops continued to the western edge of
Pacitan Bay. The thin section of HS-04 characterized a hypocrystalline and porphyritic texture. About 2 mm subhedral-shaped
phenocrysts consisted of plagioclase, K-feldspar, hornblende, and magnetite embedded in a groundmass of microcrystalline
glass and feldspar. The absence of flow structures as illustrated by the lack of lineation of minerals in a certain direction, indicated
this rock is an intrusion body (Fig. 5d).
Fossils of sample number HS-03 were preserved quite well, with moderate diversity. The observed foraminiferas included
Flosculinella sp., Operculina sp., Amphistegina sp., Quinqueloculina sp., Globigerionoides sp., and small benthic foraminiferas such
as uniserial and biserial. The presence of Flosculinella sp. indicated the late Early Miocene to Middle Miocene or Te5-Tf age.
This lithology that represented the Oyo Formation was interpreted to have formed on the reef flank. Some fossils found in Neo-
gene carbonate rocks are shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6. Microphotos of various fossils found in limestones collected from the Sentono Gentong area.

3.2. Geological structure and active tectonics

Sentono Gentong area occupied the top of a steep cliff of normal fault escarpment (Fig. 7a). The 35.5 km long Bangunsari fault
that cut through the study area had a relatively N-S direction. The hanging wall of the eastern block was relatively moved down
against the western foot wall. The highest peak of the escarpment in the north rose 393 m a.s.l. and decreased to 119 m a.s.l. to-
wards the south. At the bottom of the escarpment around Bangunsari Village, unlithified colluvium deposits of limestones were

Fig. 7. a. Steep escarpment of Bangunsari fault as seen from Telengria Beach. b. Distribution of direction of Bangunsari fault escarpment, where north-south and
northwest-southeast lineaments dominate the system.

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found in several places. By this time, colluvium piles were covered by dense vegetation. Previously, this loose limestone fragment
deposit was excavated for construction materials.
Lineaments of the escarpment that were identified as faults, demonstrated the dominance of N-S and NW-SE directions
(Fig. 7b). Regionally\\in the western part of Southern Mountains of East Java\\NW-SE and N-S faults were formed at the end
of Neogene. Compression from the south created by the subduction of the Indian Ocean-Australian plate beneath Eurasia pro-
duced a pair of NE-SW and NW-SE faults. While the N-S normal faults were a manifestation of tensional stress, and the E-W
ones occured during the last tectonic phase. The continuous subduction caused the reactivation of several old fracture systems
(Samodra, 2007).
Neogene limestones of the Oyo and Wonosari formations exposed in the study area formed karst topography. Karstification
occurred after the depositional basin was uplifted from the sea floor at the beginning of the Quaternary. In the southernmost
part of the study area, this dissolution-origin landscape was modified by coastal terrace topography.
The active uplifting process produced coastal terraces along the south coast of the Gunung Sewu area in general. Far to the
west of Pacitan, river terraces developed along the dry valley of Giritontro-Sadeng (Samodra, 2007; Urushibara-Yoshino &
Yoshino, 1997). The coastal terraces in south Sentono Gentong were disturbed by the Bangunsari fault. But the pair of them
could still be observed on the eastern edge of Pacitan Bay (Tjia & Samodra, 2011). In this location, the morphology of limestone
terraces consisting of 5 series, from older to younger, was well exposed (Fig. 8).

3.3. Quantitative assessments of PEU, PTU, and DR

Criteria, indicators, parameters, and weights proposed by Brilha (2016) were applied in this paper to explore the final value of
qualitative assessments of PEU, PTU, and DR in the Sentono Gentong area. The indicators for each criterion described actual con-
ditions in the field.

3.3.1. Potential educational use

Criteria and indicators for PEU assessment are described as follows.
Vulnerability: The possibility that geological elements such as limestones and andesites, faults, and karstic landscapes would be
damaged due to local community activities was very small. Local people made limited use of the abundant limestone as material
for building fences or house foundations. They also cultivated their crops among the limestone boulders or narrow plains covered
by thin terra-rosa, without having to clear farmland by destroying limestone outcrops.
Accessibility: The site, located about 500 m from asphalted road traversed by large vehicles such as buses, made it easier to
reach. Easy accessibility and a short distance from the main road would tend to increase the value of education.
Use limitation: Regarding usage restrictions, this geodiversity site was free for students and tourists to carry out their activities.
Utilization outside of its function as a place of study and tourism, such as stone quarrying, was not permitted.
Safety: Because it was located at the top of the fault escarpment, an iron fence was made as a barrier for visitors' safety. The
fence was installed on the edge of a steep slope that was 40–50 m from the bottom of the cliff. Steps were built from paving
blocks to make it easy to pass along a path that cut the undulating contours. For communication, this site was within range of
a cell phone. Pacitan City, which had emergency service facilities in the event of an accident, was less than 5 km away.
Logistics: The smooth running of logistics on-site was supported by many hotels, homestays, and restaurants. Facilities that
could accommodate up to 50 visitors were scattered in the Pacitan City and its surroundings, which were less than 15 km
from the site location.

Fig. 8. Sketch of five series of coastal terraces on the eastern edge of Pacitan Bay which develops on Neogene limestones (Tjia & Samodra, 2011).

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Density of population: Pacitan City and other sub-district cities in the vicinity had a significant population. The population den-
sity was around 650 people/km2.
Association with other values: The area around the geodiversity site, especially in the southeastern part, contained pine and
mangrove forests. Punung which was known as the “prehistoric capital” was rich with places of past culture or archaeological
sites. The areas that had ecological and cultural values were about 5 km from the site. In Sentono Gentong itself, there was a sa-
cred place related to history in the past.
Scenery: The beautiful scenery of the geodiversity site towards the landscape of Pacitan Bay and the surrounding area could
foster students' interest in coming to Sentono Gentong. Even though it was only a local tourist destination, this situation would
provide its own added value from an educational aspect.
Uniqueness: Sentono Gentong had unique features that were rarely found elsewhere in Indonesia. This uniqueness was cre-
ated by the close relationship between geological heritages and other heritages such as biological diversity and cultural diversity
(tangible, intangible). This uniqueness blended harmoniously with its high aesthetic value.
Observation conditions: The various geological elements that made up the geodiversity of the site were found to be in good
condition. Rocks and micro-macro fossils contained therein, geological structure in normal fault, and dissolution-origin limestone
landscapes were exposed in fresh and good condition.
Didactic potential: The high educational value of the site, which was built up by a diversity of different geological features, was
the preferred place for students of all levels of education to recognize and understand them. This situation fulfilled the didactic
potential that supported educational aspects in the Gunung Sewu UNESCO Global Geopark area.
Geological diversity: As often mentioned, the Sentono Gentong site comprised more than 3 elements. These elements were
rocks, fossils, geological structures, and landscapes.
The site had a high potential for educational activity on its PEU (92.5), as shown in Table 1.

3.3.2. Potential touristic use

The first ten criteria and indicators of PTU are the same as PEU. The left three criteria and indicators are described below.
Interpretative potential: In terms of interpretive potential, visitors and local people must have some Earth science background.
This knowledge would help them understand the various geological elements of the Sentono Gentong site. Interpretation panels
that would be installed evoked a deeper curiosity about the Earth's history through geology. Basic geological knowledge compiled
in simple language would be appreciated by visitors. The local community, through a tourism awareness group organization in
Dadapan Village, was given intensive training on the principle of geological diversity in the context of sustainable tourism.
Later, they would act as tour guides.
Economic level: In terms of economic level, per capita income in Pacitan Regency was lower than the national average. This
indicator gave a criterion value of a low economic level.
Proximity of recreational areas: Sentono Gentong site was less than 5 km from the mainstay of recreation or a tourist attrac-
tion in Pacitan Regency, namely Teleng Ria Beach. The sloping white sand beach in Pacitan Bay continued to undergo renovations
to improve and increase its attractiveness.
The final result of the PTU assessment yielded a score of 80, meaning that Sentono Gentong had a high potential to be utilized
as a tourist object and attraction (Table 2).

3.3.3. Degradation risk

The site management plan must be based on a quantitative assessment of DR. Criteria and indicators for DR assessment are
described as follows.

Table 1
Potential utilization of Sentono Gentong geodiversity site for potential educational use (PEU).

Potential educational use (PEU)

Criteria/Indicators Parameters Weight Result of assessment

(1) Vulnerability 4 points 10 10

(2) Accessibility 3 points 10 7.5
(3) Use limitation 4 points 5 5
(4) Safety 4 points 10 10
(5) Logistics 4 points 5 5
(6) Density of population 3 points 5 3.75
(7) Association with other values 4 points 5 5
(8) Scenery 2 points 5 2.5
(9) Uniqueness 3 points 5 3.75
(10) Observation conditions 4 points 10 10
(11) Didactic potential 4 points 20 20
(12) Geological diversity 4 points 10 10
Total score 100 92.5

Note: Criteria/Indicators, parameters, and weight\

\including their respective numbers—are according to Brilha (2016).

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Table 2
Potential utilization of Sentono Gentong geodiversity site for tourists (PTU).

Potential touristic use (PTU)

Criteria/Indicators Parameters Weight Result of assessment

(1) Vulnerability 4 points 10 10

(2) Accessibility 3 points 10 7.5
(3) Use limitation 4 points 5 5
(4) Safety 4 points 10 10
(5) Logistics 4 points 5 5
(6) Density of population 3 points 5 3.75
(7) Association with other values 4 points 5 5
(8) Scenery 2 points 15 7.5
(9) Uniqueness 3 points 10 7.5
(10) Observation conditions 4 points 5 5
(11) Interpretative potential 3 points 10 7.5
(12) Economic level 1 point 5 1.25
(13) The proximity of recreational areas 4 points 5 5
Total score 100 80

Note: Criteria/Indicators, parameters, and weight\

\including their respective numbers—are according to Brilha (2016).

Deterioration of geological elements: Numerical assessment of indicators regarding the possibility of damage to secondary
geological elements at Sentono Gentong and the surrounding area contributed to about half of the weight of a given criterion. Sec-
ondary geological elements included groundwater and soil (terra-rossa) resulting from limestones' physical and chemical
weathering. Covering part of the ground surface with waterproof materials for the construction of tourism facilities and infrastruc-
tures would disrupt the natural infiltration of rainwater. The terra-rossa layer, which was not more than 2 m thick, had the
potential to be carried away by run-off if there was no forest vegetation to hold it. Reforestation was one of the solutions.
Proximity to areas/activities with the potential to cause degradation: Digging of limestone for building foundation purposes
took place in several places around Sentono Gentong. The potential degradation activity occurred within a distance of less than
500 m from the site. Rock digging or quarrying activities were duly stopped as part of the site management plan.
Legal protection: As part of the Gunung Sewu karst system, Sentono Gentong and its surroundings were karstic landscape
areas. The aspect of protection and preservation was attached to the status and function of space, which was determined by
the Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources in 2011. Despite the site being located in an area with legal protection, the lack
of technical guidelines from the local government meant that control access and regulation enforcement to protect the resources
were non-existent.
Accessibility: In terms of accessibility criteria, the Sentono Gentong site was located less than 500 m from the asphalted pro-
vincial road connecting Yogyakarta and Wonogiri with Pacitan from the west. Village road connected the main road to the site
location.
Density of population: Residents in the sub-district towns around the site had a density of around 650 people/km2.
The weight value sum of DR was 56.25 (Table 3). The risk of degradation that threatened the sustainability of the Sentono
Gentong geodiversity site was mostly influenced by activities carried out by humans. The possibility of damage to secondary geo-
logical elements such as reduced surface water infiltration due to the construction of parking facilities, needed to be a concern in
future site management plans. Limestone quarrying activities around the site also needed to be prohibited.

3.4. Tourist attraction

Sitting at an altitude of approximately 216 m a.s.l., Sentono Gentong boasted an aesthetic value characterized by a beautiful
panoramic combination of highlands, a plain occupied by Pacitan City, and the beautiful coast of Pacitan Bay. This tourist attrac-
tion was open for 24 h and throughout the year. Starting in 2018, the development of this area as a tourist attraction was initiated

Table 3
Degradation risk (DR) of Sentono Gentong geodiversity site.

Degradation risk (DR)

Criteria/Indicators Parameters Weight Result of Assessment

(1) Deterioration of geological elements 2 points 35 17.5

(2) Proximity to areas/activities with the potential to cause degradation 2 points 20 10
(3) Legal protection 2 points 20 10
(4) Accessibility 3 points 15 11.25
(5) Density of population 3 points 10 7.5
Total score 100 56.25

Note: Criteria/Indicators, parameters, and weight\

\including their respective numbers—are according to Brilha (2016).

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H. Samodra, S. Permanadewi, R. Irzon et al. International Journal of Geoheritage and Parks 12 (2024) 196–208

Fig. 9. Various supporting facilities at the Sentono Gentong tourist attraction (a, b, c) and the panoramic beauty that can be enjoyed from Sentono Gentong at the
height of Bangunsari fault escarpment (d, e).

by the local community in collaboration with the local government (Fig. 9a-c). The beautiful scenic spot (Fig. 9d, e) was equipped
with adequate tourist facilities such as parking areas for small vehicles, places to eat, toilets, and places of worship (mushola). Vis-
itors could find a renovated sacred place that used to be a place of meditation.
Based on entrance ticket data, the number of tourists in 2022 was 42,303 people, out of a total of 1,565,922 domestic tourists
and 204 foreign visitors who visited Pacitan. The entrance ticket price of IDR 10,000, which included parking fees, was highly af-
fordable for tourists. The site manager offered complimentary pick-up service for tourists from the main road, where the large
buses parked. Specially modified mini buses were provided for this purpose.

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However, the promotion of Sentono Gentong as a relatively new tourist attraction was still on a local scale. Quantitative eval-
uation would justify the sustainable use of Sentono Gentong. Projected education and tourism aspects would form the basis for
better site management in the future. The assessment results would also foster a higher sense of self-confidence, as a reasonable
effort by the local community to develop tourism in their own area.
In the future, the economic value of Sentong Gentong tourism, which was managed based on community-based tourism,
needed to be increased. For this reason, the local community must improve their abilities and skills in accordance with their re-
sponsibilities which would become increasingly bigger.

3.5. Education aspect

More than 849 schools of various levels (kindergarten, primary school, junior high school, senior high school, vocational high
school, university) and status (public, private) were scattered in the Pacitan Regency area. These schools were under the Ministry
of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology, and excluded those under the Ministry of Religious Affairs (BPS Kabupaten
Pacitan, 2023). In addition, there were 890 Early Childhood Education (ECE), with approximately 7,083 students and 540 teachers.
Kindergartens were part of ECE. A total of 54 schools (approximately 6.3%) were located in the vicinity of the Sentono Gentong
geodiversity site, in the Pringkuku sub-district.
With a significant number of students (73,413) and teachers (938) in the area, organizing out-of-school teaching programs on
geological science and the Earth’s resources could instill a sense of confidence, pride, and a commitment to preserving and
protecting these valuable resources.
Learning materials on Earth Science could be promoted through interpretation panels installed at the Sentono Gentong site,
including leaflets, pocketbooks, maps, websites, etc. The depth of the science material would require to be adjusted to each school
level. Educational promotion and socialization materials would need to use a common language that would be easily understood
by the public.
Education initiatives were designed for school students, local communities residing near Sentono Gentong, and visitors to the
site. Raising awareness among the community about the potential sites in their area would cultivate a sense of love and concern
for the surrounding biotic and abiotic environment. This awareness would form the basis and motivation for efforts to preserve
and protect natural resources.

3.6. Cultural aspect

The people of Pacitan Regency and its surroundings had traditionally believed that Sheikh Subakir was the first scholar to
spread Islam in Java. He was sent by Sultan Muhammad I of Kasultanan Turki Utsmaniyah (the Ottoman Turkish Sultanate). As
told in Babad Tanah Jawi, previous scholars failed to spread Islam in Java because they were hindered by evil spirits who were
waiting for the “Land of Java.” Sheikh Subakir planted “earth nails” or “tumbal” on the hillside in Sentono Gentong to make the
Pacitan area habitable for humans.
Taking notes from several kinds of literature, Ningrum (2019) mentioned that Sentono Gentong was originally a shrine and a
place to meditate. Local people and cultural experts in Pacitan Regency believed the area had sacred value (Sartono et al., 2005),
and could be regarded as one of the Islamic historical sites in Java. Cultural aspects that prioritized historical stories and
local wisdom for generations (Andriani, 2019) had been identified as providing added value to the Sentono Gentong geodiversity
site.

4. Conclusions

The lithology of the Sentono Gentong area is comprised of igneous rock and limestone. Based on the microscopic study, the
limestones comprise bioclastic wackestone, boundstones, and fossiliferous wackestone; the igneous rock is grey-black hornblende
andesite. Bangunsari fault, which cuts through the study area disturbs the coastal terrace appearance. As a geodiversity site in the
Pacitan area, the Sentono Gentong has potential for education and tourism purposes with PEU and PTU scores of 92.5 and 80, re-
spectively, and a degradation risk (DR) score of 56.25. Based on Brilha's classification, the new site with a final value of 228.75 is
categorized as having a medium degradation risk falling between 201 and 300. This site's cultural aspects contribute to its value
for both tourists and the development of the local community. This assessment is generally useful for the sustainable development
of the Gunung Sewu UNESCO Global Geopark.
While negative impacts may not be evident currently, it is crucial to anticipate and address potential issues that may arise in
the future due to the utilization of the Sentono Gentong geodiversity site for tourism, education, and cultural purposes. Since the
development of this site was initiated by local community groups, it is necessary to build a synergized partnership between them
and the local government. A mutually agreed-upon management plan must be formulated, particularly focusing on aspects such
as the training and certification of geotourism guides, assistance from local geological agencies to provide Earth education to the
general public, and endeavors to preserve and promote local cultural values rooted in their indigenous wisdom.' This partnership-
based management plan is one of the objectives of the geopark.
Increasing the promotion of geodiversity sites as new green tourism destinations, introducing local geological resources and
local community culture to the public is a sustainability perspective associated with the Sentono Gentong area. The local govern-
ment also needs to emphasize and socialize the importance of geoconservation.

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Financial disclosure

None was reported.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Hanang Samodra: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Visu-
alization, Writing – original draft. Sam Permanadewi: Project administration, Resources, Validation, Writing – review & editing.
Ronaldo Irzon: Data curation, Formal analysis, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. Bambang Yunianto: Investigation, Soft-
ware, Validation. Chusni Ansori: Formal analysis, Methodology, Supervision. Gusti Muhammad Lucki Junursyah: Formal analysis,
Methodology, Validation. Emma Yan Patriani: Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology. Sigit Maryanto: Data curation,
Methodology, Validation.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare no conflict of interests.

Acknowledgements

The authors extend their appreciation and gratitude to Dr. Eng. Iwan Setiawan, S.T, M.T, the Head of Geological Resources
Research Center at the National Research and Innovation Agency, as well as Dr. Muhammad Ma'ruf Mukti, Dr. A. Ratdomopurbo,
Dr. Asep Kurnia Permana, Aries Kusworo S.T, M.T, and Arief Prabowo, S.T from the Geological Survey Center, for their invaluable
assistance and cooperation. Additionally, the authors would also like to express their sincere thanks to the Regent of Pacitan, the
Regional Secretary of Pacitan Regency, and the Head of Tourism, Culture, Youth and Sports Office in Pacitan Regency, for their
generous support and facilitation.

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