Unit 5

Solar Photovoltaic
Technologies
Amorphous
Amorphous silicon (a-Si) has been used as a photovoltaic solar cell material for devices
which require very little power, such as pocket calculators, because their lower performance
compared to conventional crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells is more than offset by their
simplified and lower cost of deposition onto a substrate. The first solar-powered
calculators were already available in the late 1970s, such as the Royal Solar 1, Sharp EL-
8026, and Teal Photon.
Used as semiconductor material for a-Si solar cells, or thin-film silicon solar cells, it is
deposited in thin films onto a variety of flexible substrates, such as glass, metal and plastic.
Amorphous silicon cells generally feature low efficiency, but are one of the most
environmentally friendly photovoltaic technologies, since they do not use any toxic heavy
metals such as cadmium or lead.
Amorphous silicon (a-Si) is the non-crystalline form of silicon used for solar cells and thin-
film transistors in LCDs.

Monocrystalline
A monocrystalline solar panel is a solar panel comprising monocrystalline solar cells.
These cells are made from a cylindrical silicon ingot grown from a single crystal of silicon of
high purity in the same way as a semiconductor. The cylindrical ingot is sliced into wafers
forming cells.
To maximize the utility of the cells, the circular wafers are wire cut to an octagonal shaped
wafer. These cells have a unique look because of the octagonal shape. These cells also have a
uniform colour.
When sunlight falls on the monocrystalline solar panel the cells absorb the energy and
through a complicated process create an electric field. This electric field comprises voltage
and current and generates power which is governed by the equation P (power) = V (voltage) x
I (current). This power can be used directly to power devices that run on direct current (DC).
This power can also be converted to alternating current (AC) using an inverter.
Monocrystalline solar cells are among the three types of materials that exhibit photovoltaic
properties. The other two are polycrystalline solar cells and amorphous or thin film solar
panels. Monocrystalline solar panels have features considered better than the other two types
of panels. They are as follows:

 These cells in the panel have a pyramid pattern which offers a larger surface area to
collect more energy from the sun’s rays.
 The top surface is diffused with phosphorous which helps to create an orientation that
is electrically negative as compared to the bottom which has a positive electrical
orientation, which in turn helps to create the electric field.
  To reduce reflection and thereby increase absorption, the cells are coated with silicon
nitride.
 The produced electricity is collected through metal conductors printed onto the cells.
 Because of the above features, the main advantage of monocrystalline solar cells is
the higher efficiency of conversion of solar energy into electric energy than its two
other counterparts.
 These panels have longevity up to 30 years.
 These panels exhibit greater heat resistance.
Polycrystalline
PolyCrystalline or MultiCrystalline solar panels are solar panels that consist of several
crystals of silicon in a single PV cell. Several fragments of silicon are melted together to form
the wafers of polycrystalline solar panels. In the case of polycrystalline solar panels, the vat
of molten silicon used to produce the cells is allowed to cool on the panel itself. These solar
panels have a surface that looks like a mosaic. These solar panels have a surface that looks
like a mosaic. These solar panels are square in shape and they have a shining blue hue as they
are made up of several crystals of silicon. As there are multiple silicon crystals in each cell,
so polycrystalline solar panels allow little movement of electrons inside the cells. These solar
panels absorb energy from the sun and convert it into electricity.
These solar panels are made of multiple photovoltaic cells. Each cell contains silicon crystals
which makes it function as a semiconductor device. When the photons from the sunlight fall
on the PN junction (junction between N-type and P-type materials), it imparts energy to the
electrons so that they can flow as electric current. Here, P-type materials are deficient of
electrons while N-type materials have an abundance of electrons. Two electrodes are
connected with the PV cells. The electrode that is on the top surface contains small wires
while the electrode on the bottom is a foil-like conductor.
V-I characteristics of a PV cell
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves show the current and voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of
a particular photovoltaic ( PV ) cell, module or array giving a detailed description of its solar
energy conversion ability and efficiency. Knowing the electrical I-V characteristics (more
importantly Pmax) of a solar cell, or panel is critical in determining the device’s output
performance and solar efficiency.
Solar Cell I-V Characteristics Curves are basically a graphical representation of the operation
of a solar cell or module summarising the relationship between the current and voltage at the
existing conditions of irradiance and temperature. I-V curves provide the information
required to configure a solar system so that it can operate as close to its optimal peak power
point (MPP) as possible.

The above graph shows the current-voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a typical silicon PV cell
operating under normal conditions. The power delivered by a solar cell is the product of
current and voltage ( I x V ). If the multiplication is done, point for point, for all voltages
from short-circuit to open-circuit conditions, the power curve above is obtained for a given
radiation level.
With the solar cell open-circuited, that is not connected to any load, the current will be at its
minimum (zero) and the voltage across the cell is at its maximum, known as the solar
cells open circuit voltage, or Voc. At the other extreme, when the solar cell is short
circuited, that is the positive and negative leads connected together, the voltage across the cell
is at its minimum (zero) but the current flowing out of the cell reaches its maximum, known
as the solar cells short circuit current, or Isc.
Photovoltaic panels can be wired or connected together in either series or parallel
combinations, or both to increase the voltage or current capacity of the solar array. If the
array panels are connected together in a series combination, then the voltage increases and if
connected together in parallel then the current increases. The electrical power in Watts,
generated by these different photovoltaic combinations will still be the product of the voltage
times the current, (P = V x I). However, the solar panels are connected together, the upper
right-hand corner will always be the maximum power point (MPP) of the array.
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves are graphs of output voltage versus current for
different levels of insolation and temperature and can tell you a lot about a PV cell or panel’s
ability to convert sunlight into electricity. The most important values for calculating a
particular panels power rating are the voltage and current at maximum power.
Some solar panels are rated at slightly higher or lower voltages than others of the same
wattage value, and this affects the amount of current available and therefore the panels MPP.
Other parameters also important are the open circuit voltage and short circuit current ratings
from a safety point of view, especially the voltage rating. An array of six panels in series,
while having a nominal 72-volt (6 x 12) rating, could potentially produce an open-circuit
voltage of over 120 volts DC, which is more than enough to be dangerous.
PV module, cell, array

Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel circuits to produce
higher voltages, currents and power levels.

Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an environmentally protective

laminate, and are the fundamental building blocks of PV systems. Photovoltaic panels include
one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit.

A photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV

modules and panels.
The performance of PV modules and arrays are generally rated according to their maximum
DC power output (watts) under Standard Test Conditions (STC). Standard Test Conditions
are defined by a module (cell) operating temperature of 25o C (77o F), and incident solar
irradiance level of 1000 W/m2 and under Air Mass 1.5 spectral distribution. Since these
conditions are not always typical of how PV modules and arrays operate in the field, actual
performance is usually 85 to 90 percent of the STC rating.

Today’s photovoltaic modules are extremely safe and reliable products, with minimal failure
rates and projected service lifetimes of 20 to 30 years. Most major manufacturers offer
warranties of 20 or more years for maintaining a high percentage of initial rated power
output. When selecting PV modules, look for the product listing (UL), qualification testing
and warranty information in the module manufacturer’s specifications.

Power Electronic Converters for Solar Systems

One of the most important parts in PV system architecture is the power converters. The
reason is that they play an important role in transforming the different types of electricity, to
make the electricity convenient to the end users. Since the solar cell produces a DC type of
electricity, there’s room for various types of power converters. Here, some of the most
commonly used power converter types are briefly describe according to their topology,
function, efficiency, and the major global manufacturers.

1. Power optimizer: Commonly known as a DC-DC power optimizer in solar PV

markets, a power optimizer is a module-level power converter. It takes DC input from
the solar module and gives either higher or lower DC output voltage. Such a converter
is equipped with an MPPT technology to optimize the power conversion from the
solar panel to the DC load or a battery or central inverter. It is also considered one of
the most efficient power converters, delivering up to 99.5% efficiency. However, it
needs DC cabling from the array.
2. Module inverter/micro-inverter: This is also a module-level power converter. It takes
DC input from the solar module and converts it into AC electricity, which is then
ready to be connected to the load or single-phase main grid or to a central inverter. It
is also equipped with MPPT technology to detect the maximum power point of each
module. Even though it doesn’t requires any DC cabling, it is more expensive than the
power optimizer due to its advanced design. The efficiency of such a power converter
is about 96%.
3. String inverter: As an extension of a module-level power converter is the string
inverter, which is suitable for a string or parallel strings of modules connected in
series. Such a power converter is used for small PV systems up to 10 kW in capacity
and are usually connected to the main grid. The output of such a power converter is 3
phase lines which are ready to be connected to a low voltage main grid. Even though
it is incorporated with MPPT technology, due to the connection of a large PV array, it
has a global maximum power point (MPP) which then degrades the efficiency of the
PV system. In order to improve the efficiency, it would be wise to use a module
inverter first and then the string inverter. However such configurations are more
expensive. Apparently, one of the cons in such power converters is that the PV system
is highly affected by shadowing on PV modules, thereby pulling down the system
efficiency as low as possible. Meanwhile, many researchers are investigating a new
MPPT algorithm to get the most efficient global MPP to overcome the shadowing
affect.
 4. Central inverter: In large PV power plants (10 kW and higher), central inverters are
used instead of string inverters. However, the central inverters’ functionality remains
the same (i.e, to produce a 3-phase high voltage output for grid integration), which is
why this power converter is considered essential for connecting with the main grid. In
many large PV power plants, central inverters are inevitable. But there are many
losses within the PV system due to their large and complex configuration.

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) algorithms

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is an algorithm implemented in photovoltaic (PV)

inverters to continuously adjust the impedance seen by the solar array to keep the PV system
operating at, or close to, the peak power point of the PV panel under varying conditions, like
changing solar irradiance, temperature, and load.

Engineers developing solar inverters implement MPPT algorithms to maximize the power
generated by PV systems. The algorithms control the voltage to ensure that the system
operates at “maximum power point” (or peak voltage) on the power voltage curve, as shown
below.

MPPT algorithms are typically used in the controller designs for PV systems. The algorithms
account for factors such as variable irradiance (sunlight) and temperature to ensure that the
PV system generates maximum power at all times.

The three most common MPPT algorithms are:

1. Perturbation and observation (P&O): This algorithm perturbs the

operating voltage to ensure maximum power. While there are several
advanced and more optimized variants of this algorithm, a basic P&O
MPPT algorithm is shown below.
 2. Incremental conductance: This algorithm, shown below, compares the
incremental conductance to the instantaneous conductance in a PV
system. Depending on the result, it increases or decreases the voltage
until the maximum power point (MPP) is reached. Unlike with the P&O
algorithm, the voltage remains constant once MPP is reached.

3. Fractional open-circuit voltage: This algorithm is based on the

principle that the maximum power point voltage is always a constant
fraction of the open circuit voltage. The open circuit voltage of the cells
in the photovoltaic array is measured and used as in input to the
controller.

Converter Control

DC-DC Boost Converter

DC-DC boost converter circuit consists of power switch (M), diode (D), inductor (L),
capacitor (C), switching controller and load (R). This topology can be used for interface
connection between low PV array voltage to a high battery bank input voltage or any DC
load. The DC-DC boost converter will boost up or step up the output voltage to be greater
than input voltage. Controller will control the switch for turnon and turn-off to boost the input
voltage to the needed value of output voltage. When the switch is turn-on, the diode will be in
reversed bias and electrical energy will be stored in the inductor. Thus, the capacitor will
supply current to the load. When the switch is turn-off, the stored electrical energy in the
inductor will be transferred to the capacitor and load. The DC-DC boost converters have two
type of operation which is continuous-conduction mode (CCM) and discontinuous-
conduction mode (DCM). When the DC-DC boost converter operates in CCM, the inductor
current will be greater than zero at all time whereas during DCM, the inductor current will
drop to zero after each switching cycle. Current research trends for DC-DC boost converter
with PV based power quality management are reported for harmonic elimination, power
factor correction, zero voltage regulation and load balancing.

DC-DC Buck Converter

Similar to DC-DC boost converter, basic circuit topology of DC-DC buck converter also
consists of power switch (M), diode (D), inductor (L), capacitor (C), switching controller and
load as depicted. DC-DC buck converter operates as a step-down system that will step down
the high input voltage to the low output voltage which the magnitude of output voltage is
always lower than the input voltage. The objective of this circuit is to produce a purely DC
output by adding the LC low pass filter to the basic circuit of this converter. This DC-DC
buck converter can be connected to low voltage DC load or battery bank from a high PV
array voltage. DC-DC buck converters are commonly used in very high range step down
converters and low power range regulators because of its simple topology with low control
difficulty, less number of components and no isolation. Most of the DC-DC buck converters
are used in battery charging by modulating the high input voltage through PWM to generate
the low output voltage required by the batteries as well as MPP tracking in order to maximize
the output power obtained from the PV arrays. Several solar PV applications with DC-DC
buck converter are standalone solar PV pumping system for water supply in rural areas, solar
battery charger, MPPT tracking for grid-connected [36] and off-grid PV system.

DC-DC Buck-Boost Converter

The circuit topology for DC-DC buck-boost converter is very much similar to DC-DC boost
converter except for the placement of switching element before the inductor (L). The DC-DC
buck-boost converter or namely as step-up/down and bidirectional converter can generate
either lower or higher output voltage from its input voltage by in order to connect with
suitable PV array voltage, DC load or battery input voltage. DC-DC buck-boost converter is a
cascaded connection of two basic converters which are DC-DC buck and boost converters.
The output of this converter can be controlled by changing its duty cycle, D. If the duty cycle
is lower than 50%, the converter will be operated in buck mode and the output voltage will be
less than the input voltage. When the duty cycle is higher than 50%, the converter will be
functioned in boost mode and the output voltage will be greater than input voltage. The
design parameters that should be considered in designing this converter are the operating
frequency of the inductor, the maximum current and voltage that the inductor can withstand
as well as the gate driver circuit to generate the PWM switching signals for triggering the
power switch.