CHAPTER FIVE

DATA COLLECTION

While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the researcher should keep in
mind two types of data
i. Primary data
ii. Secondary data
Primary data: - are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original
in character.
Secondary data: - are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already
been passed through the statistical process.

COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA

There are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive researches.
Important ones are:
(i) Observation method
(ii) Interview method
(iii) Questionnaires method
(iv) Schedules method

Observation Method
The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to behavioural
sciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific
observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher,
when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to
checks and controls on validity and reliability. Under the observation method, the information is
sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the respondent.

Advantage observation method

 Subjective bias is eliminated
 The information relates to what is currently happening;
 Less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents
 Suitable in studies which deal with subjects who are not capable of giving verbal reports

Disadvantages of observation method

 It is an expensive method
 Information provided is very limited
 Unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task

Observation can structured or unstructured.

Structured observation:- is a type of observation which is characterised by a careful definition of the
units to be observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardised conditions of
observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation. Structured observation is considered
appropriate in descriptive studies.
Unstructured observation:- is a type of observation to take place without these characteristics to be
thought of in advance. It is an exploratory study the observational procedure is most likely to be relatively
unstructured.

Observation can also be participant, non-participant and disguised observation.

Participant observation :- is a type of observation which takes place if the observer observes by making
himself, more or less, a member of the group he is observing so that he can experience what the members
of the group experience.
Non-participant observation:- happens when the observer observes as a detached emissary without any
attempt on his part to experience through participation what others feel.
Disguised observation:- when the observer is observing in such a manner that his presence may be
unknown to the people he is observing.
Another category of types of observation: controlled and uncontrolled observation.
Uncontrolled observation:- Is a type of observation which takes place in the natural setting
Controlled observation:- when observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans,
involving experimental procedure.

Interview Method
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of
oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if possible, through
telephone interviews.

(a) Personal interviews: Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer asking
questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons.

This sort of interview may be

Direct personal investigation: - the interviewer has to collect the information personally from the
sources concerned. He has to be on the spot and has to meet people from whom data have to be collected.
Indirect oral investigation: - is used in certain cases it may not be possible or worthwhile to contact
directly the persons concerned or on account of the extensive scope of enquiry, the direct personal
investigation technique may not be used.

There are two types personal interview

Structured interview:- is a type of interview which involves the use of a set of predetermined questions
and of highly standardised techniques of recording. Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview
follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking questions in a form and order prescribed.

Unstructured interview:- Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions

and standardised techniques of recording information. It is characterised by a flexibility of approach to
questioning. In a non-structured interview, the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in
case of need, supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain questions if the situation so
requires. This type of interview is much more difficult and time-consuming than that of the structured
interviews. It also demand deep knowledge and greater skill on the part of the interviewer. Unstructured
interview happens to be the central technique of collecting information in case of exploratory or
formulative research studies.

Merits of personal interview

(i) More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents; the interview
method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population.
(iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is always
there, especially in case of unstructured interviews.
(iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various questions.
(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method. (vi) Samples can be controlled
more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the missing returns; non-response generally remains very
low.
(vii) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions. This is not possible in
mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group discussions may also be held.
(viii) The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most spontaneous
reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used.
(ix) The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of the person
interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.
(x) The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s personal characteristics
and environment which is often of great value in interpreting results.

Demerits of personal interview

(i) It is a very expensive method
(ii) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent
(iii) Certain types of respondents may not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent the
data may prove inadequate.
(iv) This method is relatively more-time-consuming,
(v) The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes even to the
extent that he may give imaginary information just to make the interview interesting.
(vi) Training and supervising the field-staff is more complex with formidable problems.
(vii) Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.
(viii) Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that would facilitate free and frank
responses.

Pre-requisites and basic tenets of interviewing

For successful implementation of the interview method

 Interviewers should be carefully selected, trained and briefed.
 Interviewers should be honest, sincere, hardworking, impartial and
 Interviewers possess the technical competence and necessary practical experience
 Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that interviewers are neither cheating, nor
deviating
  The interviewers approach must be friendly, courteous, conversational and unbiased.
 The interviewer should not show surprise or disapproval of a respondent’s answer

(b) Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on
telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys,
particularly in developed regions.

Merits of telephone interview

1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is relatively low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method; the non-response is generally
very low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
8. At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one reason or the
other.
9. No field staff is required.
10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.

Demerits of telephone interview

1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview period is not likely to exceed five
minutes in most cases.
2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.
3. Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost considerations.
4. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are required to various questions.
5. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
6. Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to handle.

COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH QUESTIONNAIRES

This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being adopted by
private individuals, research workers, private and public organisations and even by governments. In this
method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a request to answer the
questions and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed
in a definite order on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected
to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire itself. Before using this method, it is always advisable to conduct ‘pilot study’ (Pilot
Survey) for testing the questionnaires. Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heart of a survey
operation.

Merits of the questionnaire method

1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
5 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and reliable.

Demerits of the questionnaire method

1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires
2. It can be used only when respondents are
educated and cooperating
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

Main aspects of a questionnaire

The main aspects of a questionnaire are the general form, question sequence and question formulation and
wording. Researcher should note the following with regard to these three main aspects of a questionnaire:

1. General form: A questionnaire can either be structured or unstructured questionnaire.

Structured questionnaires:- are those questionnaires in which there are definite, concrete and pre-
determined questions. The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the same order
to all respondents. The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of the type ‘yes’ or ‘no’) or open
(i.e., inviting free response) but should be stated in advance and not constructed during questioning.

Non-structured questionnaire:- the interviewer is provided with a general guide on the type of
information to be obtained, but the exact question formulation is largely his own responsibility and the
replies are to be taken down in the respondent’s own words to the extent possible.

2. Question sequence: to ensure the quality to the replies received, a researcher should pay attention to
the question-sequence in preparing the questionnaire. The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-
moving, meaning thereby that the relation of one question to another should be readily apparent to the
respondent, with questions that are easiest to answer being put in the beginning.

The following type of questions should generally be avoided as opening questions in a questionnaire:
a. Questions that put too great a strain on the memory or intellect of the respondent;
b. Questions of a personal character;
c. Questions related to personal wealth, etc.

3. Question formulation and wording: With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, the researcher should
note that each question must be very clear for any sort of misunderstanding can do irreparable harm to a
survey. In general, all questions should meet the following standards—(a) should be easily understood;
(b) should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought at a time; (c) should be concrete and should
conform as much as possible to the respondent’s way of thinking

COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH SCHEDULES

This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire, with little
difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being filled in
by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose. These enumerators along with
schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions from the proforma in the order the questions are
listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the proforma. In certain situations,
schedules may be handed over to respondents and enumerators may help them in recording their answers
to various questions in the said schedules.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUESTIONNAIRES AND SCHEDULES

Both questionnaire and schedule are popularly used methods of collecting data in research surveys.
There is much resemblance in the nature of these two methods and this fact has made many people
to remark that from a practical point of view, the two methods can be taken to be the same. But from
the technical point of view there is difference between the two. The important points of difference
are as under:
1. It is generally filled out by the research worker or the enumerator, who can interpret questions when
necessary.
2. To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical since we have to spend money
only in preparing the questionnaire and in mailing the same to respondents.
3. Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire as many people do not respond and many return
the questionnaire without answering all questions. Bias due to non-response often remains indeterminate.
4. In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case of schedule the identity of
respondent is known.
5. The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow since many respondents do not return the
questionnaire in time despite several reminders, but in case of schedules the information is collected well
in time as they are filled in by enumerators.
6. Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire method as questionnaires are sent
to respondents by post who also in turn return the same by post.
7. Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are literate and cooperative, but in case of
schedules the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to be illiterate.
8. Wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible under the questionnaire method, but in
respect of schedules there usually remains the difficulty in sending enumerators over a relatively wider
area.
9. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively more under the questionnaire
method, particularly when people are unable to understand questions properly. But in case of schedules,
the information collected is generally complete and accurate as enumerators can remove the difficulties, if
any, faced by respondents in correctly understanding the questions. As a result, the information collected
through schedules is relatively more accurate than that obtained through questionnaires.
10. The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality of the questionnaire itself, but in the
case of schedules much depends upon the honesty and competence of enumerators.
11. In order to attract the attention of respondents, the physical appearance of questionnaire must be quite
attractive, but this may not be so in case of schedules as they are to be filled in by enumerators and not by
respondents.
12. Along with schedules, observation method can also be used but such a thing is not possible while
collecting data through questionnaires.

COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already been
collected and analysed by someone else. Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished
data. Usually published data are available in: (a) various publications of the central, state are local
governments; (b) various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their
subsidiary organisations; (c) technical and trade journals; (d) books, magazines and newspapers; (e)
reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industry, banks, stock
exchanges, etc.; (f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields;
and (g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published information.

The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies
and autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and research workers, trade associations,
labour bureaus and other public/private individuals and organisations.

By way of caution, the researcher, before using secondary data, must see that they possess following
characteristics:
1. Reliability of data: The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data:
(a) Who collected the data? (b) What were the sources of data? (c) Were they collected by using proper
methods (d) At what time were they collected?(e) Was there any bias of the compiler?
(t) What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved ?
2. Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found suitable in
another enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they should not be used by the
researcher.
3. Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the purpose of the
present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the researcher. The data
will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider
than the area of the present enquiry.

SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE METHOD FOR DATA COLLECTION

A researcher must keep in view the following factors while choosing a method of data collection
1. Nature, scope and object of enquiry: This constitutes the most important factor affecting then choice
of a particular method. The method selected should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to be
conducted by the researcher. This factor is also important in deciding whether the data already available
(secondary data) are to be used or the data not yet available (primary data) are to be collected.

2. Availability of funds: Availability of funds for the research project determines to a large extent the
method to be used for the collection of data. When funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited,
he will have to select a comparatively cheaper method which may not be as efficient and effective as
some other costly method. Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice and the researcher has to act
within this limitation.

3. Time factor: Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding a particular method of
data collection. Some methods take relatively more time, whereas with others the data can be collected in
a comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the researcher, thus, affects the selection of
the method by which the data are to be collected.
4. Precision required: Precision required is yet another important factor to be considered at the time of
selecting the method of collection of data. But one must always remember that each method of data
collection has its uses and none is superior in all situations. For instance, telephone interview method may
be considered appropriate (assuming telephone population) if funds are restricted, time is also restricted
and the data is to be collected in respect of few items with or without a certain degree of precision.