ADVANTAGES OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Advantages of FEA in Manufacturing

• Finite Element Analysis methods are essential for design consultants,
original mechanical equipment manufacturers, fluid machinery equipment
designers, research and development designers, civil engineers, and
satellite & missile development programs.

• FEA techniques are applied to solve a wide range of problems, but by far,
one of the most common applications are structural FEA that can predict
how a solid body would respond to electric, magnetic or mechanical
forces.

• The structural FEA often amounts to penning down the individual

"governing equations" that represent the material and its important
characteristics, and then solving those equations for their corresponding
physical components.
STEPS IN FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Finite element modelling is divided into three phases:
• Preprocessing

• Computation / Solve

• Post Processing
POST-PROCESSING IN FEA
Post-processing stage
• The results of the solution are given in the form of stress plots (e.g. maximum principal, minimum principal, maximum shear, von Mises),
deformed geometry (i.e. the distorted shape) and listings of nodal displacements (ux, uy, uz).

• Picture files can be created to obtain hard copies, or individual programs written to read the results file and carry out further data processing,
if required.
STEPS IN FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
The actual steps Involved in FEA to solve any structure is as follows,

• Step 1 – Discretization: The problem domain is discretized into a collection of simple shapes, or elements.
• Step 2 – Develop Element Equations: Developed using the physics of the problem, and typically Galerkin’s Method or variational principles.
• Step 3 – Assembly: The element equations for each element in the FEM mesh are assembled into a set of global equations that model the
properties of the entire system.
• Step 4 – Application of Boundary Conditions: Solution cannot be obtained unless boundary conditions are applied. They reflect the known
values for certain primary unknowns. Imposing the boundary conditions modifies the global equations.
• Step 5 – Solve for Primary Unknowns: The modified global equations are solved for the primary unknowns at the nodes.
• Step 6 – Calculate Derived Variables: Calculated using the nodal values of the primary variables.
PRE-PROCESSING IN FEA
Pre-processing stage
• The component under investigation is ‘discretised’ into an assembly of finite elements in the prerocessing stage, with particular reference to
the following six aspects.
1. Element boundaries should coincide with structural discontinuities.
2. Points of application of forces (and restraints) must coincide with suitable nodes, and any abrupt changes in distributed loading must occur
at element boundaries. (Pressures are applied to the centroids of element faces.)
3. Nodes should be at the points of interest for which output data are required, e.g. displacements, reaction forces, etc.
4. The selection of element order (e.g. linear, parabolic, cubic) defines the interpolation or shape function of displacements between nodal
points, i.e. the order of a polynomial in x, y and z directions, and hence the variation of stress/strain. Furthermore, the element type (e.g.
spring, rod, beam, triangular and quadrilateral planar or shell, tetrahedral or hexahedral (brick) element) needs to be chosen. Often, the
expected behaviour and physical shape of the component being analysed will guide the selection.
5. Boundary conditions (e.g. applied loads, fixed nodes and restraints) and material properties must be entered. Loads and restraints are often
the most difficult parameters to represent accurately, and have a significant influence on the predictions.
6. Extensive model checks for cohesiveness, clashes, ‘cracks’, aspect ratios of elements, etc., must be carried out.
SOLUTION IN FEA
Solution stage
• The fundamental unknowns to be solved are displacements u, v and, for fully three-dimensional analysis, w, for each node, with reference to
a global frame of reference. Other data such as stresses and restraint reaction forces are calculated from these solution displacements, via the
strains, at a later stage in the computation.
• Within each element, a set of virtual displacements is applied and expressed in terms of the unknown displacements of the nodes.
• An element stiffness matrix is formulated using a numerical integration technique on the basis that actual displacements occurring will be
those that minimise the strain energy.
• The individual element stiffness matrices are then combined to form a global stiffness matrix for the whole body from which a vast field of
linear algebraic equations relating nodal forces, element stiffness's and nodal displacements are formed. Boundary conditions are applied to
the relevant nodes and the displacements and are then solved using numerical techniques such as Gaussian elimination, Gauss–Seidel
iteration or Cholesky square root methods. For each node connecting two or more elements, compatibility of displacements and equilibrium
of forces are maintained at that node .The assembly of the global stiffness matrix and the solution of the displacement equations occupies
most of the processing time.
• Once a solution for the nodal displacements has been obtained (or in the case of iterative techniques, once satisfactory convergence is
achieved for them all) for each element, the stresses are computed based on the material data entered, the original element dimensions and
newly computed nodal displacements.
INTERPRETAITON OF RESULTS
CALCULATONS
• Each degree of freedom of a node in a finite element mesh constitutes an unknown.
• In structural analysis, nodal degrees of freedom represent displacement components, while in thermal analysis they represent temperatures.
• Nodal displacements and nodal temperatures are the primary unknowns for structural analysis and thermal analysis, respectively. Structural
analysis finds displacement, strains and stresses.
• If solid elements are used, then three displacement components (three translations) per node must be calculated. With shell and beam
elements, six displacements components (three translations and three rotations) must be calculated.
• Strains and stresses are calculated based on the nodal displacement results
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
How to interpret FEA results?
• Results of structural FEA are provided in the form of displacements and stresses. But how do we decide if a design “passes” or “fails”?
• we need to establish some criteria to interpret FEA results, which may include maximum acceptable displacements, maximum stress, or
lowest acceptable natural frequency.
• Whili displacement and frequency criteria are quite obvious and easy to establish, stress criteria are not. Let us assume that we need to
conduct a stress analysis in order to ensure that stresses are within an acceptable range.
• To judge stress results, we need to understand the mechanism of potential failure. If a part breaks, what stress measure best describes that
failure.
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
• Two commonly used failure criteria: Von Mises Stress failure Criterion and Maximum Normal stress Criteriaon are given.

1. Von Mises Stress failure criterion:

• Von Mises stress, also known as Huber stress, is a measure that accounts for all six stress components of a general 3-D state of stress
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
• Von Mises stress σvm, can be expressed either by six stress components as;

• Notice that von Mises stress is a non-negative, scalar stress measure. Von Mises stress is commonly used to present results because the
structural safety for many engineering materials showing elasto-plastic properties (for example, steel or aluminum alloy) can be evaluated
using von Mises stress. The maximum von Mises stress failure criterion is based on the von MisesHencky theory, also known as the scalar-
energy theory or the maximum distortion energy theory. The theory states that a ductile material starts to yield at a location when the von
Mises stress becomes equal to the stress limit. In most cases, the yield strength is used as the stress limit. According to the von Mises failure
criterion, the factor of safety (FOS) is expressed as:
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
2. Maximum Normal Stress failure criterion:
• By properly adjusting the angular orientation of the stress cube, shear stresses disappear and the state of stress is represented only by three
principal stresses: σ1, σ2, σ3.
• The Maximum Normal Stress Failure criterion is used for brittle materials. Brittle materials do not have a specific yield point. This criterion
assumes that the ultimate tensile strength of the material in tension and compression is the same. This assumption is not valid in all cases.
• For example, cracks considerably decrease the strength of material in tension while their effect is not significant in compression because the
cracks tend to close.
• This criterion predicts failure will occur when σ1 exceeds the stress limit, usually the ultimate tensile strength. According to the maximum
principle stress failure criterion, the factor of safety (FOS) is expresesd as:
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
Application of Finite Element Analysis
Common FEA Applications areas
• Mechanical

• Aerospace

• Civil

• Automotive Engineering

• Structural/Stress Analysis

• Acoustics

• Biomechanics
APPLICATION OF FEA
Applications of Finite Element Method

1. Mechanical engineering: In mechanical engineering, FEM applications include steady and transient thermal analysis in solids and
fluids, stress analysis in solids, automotive design and analysis and manufacturing process simulation.

2. Geotechnical engineering: FEM applications include stress analysis, slope stability analysis, soil structure interactions, seepage of
fluids in soils and rocks, analysis of dams, tunnels, bore holes, propagation of stress waves and dynamic soil structure interaction.

3. Aerospace engineering: FEM is used for several purposes such as structural analysis for natural frequencies, modes shapes,
response analysis and aerodynamics.

4. Nuclear engineering: FEM applications include steady and dynamic analysis of reactor containment structures, thermo-viscoelastic
analysis of reactor components, steady and transient temperature-distribution analysis of reactors and related structures.
APPLICATION OF FEA
5. Electrical and electronics engineering: FEM applications include electrical network analysis, electromagnetics, insulation
design analysis in high-voltage equipment's, dynamic analysis of motors and heat analysis in electrical and electronic equipment's.

6. Metallurgical, chemical engineering: In metallurgical engineering, FEM is used for the metallurgical process simulation,
moulding and casting. In chemical engineering, FEM can be used in the simulation of chemical processes, transport processes and chemical
reaction simulations.

7. Meteorology and bio-engineering: In the recent times, FEM is used in climate predictions, monsoon prediction and wind
predictions. FEM is also used in bio-engineering for the simulation of various human organs, blood circulation prediction and even total
synthesis of human body.
TYPES OF ANALYSIS
Types of Analysis:
• There are a number of analysis which FEA software can do for us. The main types of analysis that we use commonly in industry are given
below:

I. Linear Static Analysis

II. Non-Linear Static Analysis

III. Modal Analysis

IV. Dynamic analysis

V. Linear Buckling Analysis

VI. Thermal Analysis

VII. Fatigue Analysis, etc.,

TYPES OF ANALYSIS
1. Structural Analysis : Structural Analysis consists of linear and non-linear models. Linear models use simple parameters and assume
that the material is not plastically deformed. Non-linear models consist of stressing the material past its elastic capabilities. The stresses in the
material then vary with the amount of deformation.

2. Modal analysis : Modal analysis is the process of determining the inherent dynamic characteristics of a system in forms of natural
frequencies, damping factors and mode shapes, and using them to formulate a mathematical model for its dynamic behaviors. The
formulated mathematical model is referred to as the modal model of the system and the information for the characteristics are known as its
modal data.

3. Vibrational Analysis : It is used to test a material against random vibrations, shock, and impact. Each of these incidences may act
on the natural vibrational frequency of the material which, in turn, may cause resonance and subsequent failure Analysis of vibrations in
bridges
TYPES OF ANALYSIS
4. Buckling Analysis: Buckling Analysis is an FEA routine that can solve all the difficult buckling problems that cannot be
solved by hand calculations. Linear Buckling (LBA) is the most common Buckling Analysis. The nonlinear approach, on the other hand, offers
more robust solutions than Linear Buckling.

5. Fatigue Analysis : Fatigue analysis helps designers to predict the life of a material or structure by showing the effects of cyclic
loading on the specimen. Such analysis can show the areas where crack propagation is most likely to occur. Failure due to fatigue may also
show the damage tolerance of the material. Analysis of fatigue in frames of a locomotive

6. Heat Transfer Analysis : Heat transfer analysis models the conductivity or thermal fluid dynamics of the material or structure .
This may consist of a steady- state or transient transfer. Steady-state transfer refers to constant thermal properties in the material that yield
linear heat diffusion. Thermal Analysis of Shell & Tube Heat exchanger
FEA SOFTWARE USER INTERFACE – FEAST
FEAST (Finite Element Analysis of Structures)
FEAST (Finite Element Analysis of STructures) is the structural and heat transfer analysis software based on finite element method realized by
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre / Indian Space Research Organization. It is supported by state-of-the-art pre/post processor - PreWin. Sub-
structured and multi-threaded implementation of the solver ensures high performance by exploiting multi-core architecture of modern
computing platforms.

The software has Static, Free-vibration, Buckling, Transient, Frequency, Random response and Heat transfer capabilities. These capabilities are
supported by a rich element library comprising beam, shell, solid, axisymmetric, spring, rigid-links, gap etc. and can handle isotropic,
orthotropic, laminate composites and viscoelastic material models. The above features enable real-life applications of FEAST in structural
engineering, solid mechanics and heat transfer problems of Aerospace, Automobile, Civil, Mechanical and Marine engineering.

The cost of owning the software is competitive in comparison with similar non-indigenous software packages. The software can be deployed in
Linux and Windows operating systems with minimum hardware requirements.

It is available in three versions. The classification is based on number of finite element nodes viz; Academic (for students and educational
institutions), Premium (for small and medium scale industries) and Professional (for general large scale applications).
FEA SOFTWARE USER INTERFACE – FEAST
Analysis Capabilities:

The latest version of FEAST caters to linear and nonlinear analysis capabilities. This is packaged in modular form for academic and commercial
usage. It is capable of handling following analyses with metallic and composite material models.

Basic modules
• Linear static • Transient response • Thermo-elasticity
• Free-vibration • Random response • Contact analysis

• Visco-elasticity • Fluid-structure interaction • Frequency response

• Heat transfer • Buckling • Shock response / spectra

• Base excitation

The software can be customised for specific user requirements. Inertia relief method for static analysis of unconstrained structures and Zernike
Polynomial computation for assessing optical surface aberrations, are specific cases of customization.
Geometric Modelling and Meshing
• Introduction

• Geometry clean up

• Mid-surface

• Meshing

• Mesh Quality Check

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER GEOMETRY MODELLING
Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) is a vast subject that comprises of Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM).
CAD can be further sub divided into Finite Element Analysis, Computer Aided Drafting and Computer Geometric Modelling.

Geometric modelling is the mathematical representation of an object’s geometry using software.

A geometric model contains description of the modelled object’s shape. Since geometric shapes are described by surfaces, curves are used to
construct them. Computer geometric modelling uses curves to control the object’s surfaces as they are easy to manipulate.
The curves may be constructed using analytic functions, a set of points, or other curves and surfaces. There are number of software programs
that then allow the mathematical description of the object to be displayed as an image on the monitor.

A geometric model of an object can be created using these 3 steps:

• Create basic geometric object using the commands like points, line and circles in CAD software
• Use commands like achieve scaling, rotation, etc. to transform these geometric elements
• Integrate the various elements of the object to form the final geometric model
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER GEOMETRY MODELLING
In engineering, modelling refers to the way data are represented in the computer memory and the way in which it is visualized. The data is stored
in a suitable data structure that is easy to access for the visualization algorithm.

Geometric modelling is the process of capturing the properties of an object or a system using mathematical formulae. Computer geometric
modelling is the field that discusses the mathematical methods behind the modelling of realistic objects for computer graphics and computer
aided design. It uses computers to store the data and the geometric properties of a system / part.

During the process of geometric modeling the computer converts various commands given from within the CAD software into mathematical
models, stores them as files and finally displays them as an image. The geometric models created by the designer can open at any time for
reviewing, editing or analysis.
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER GEOMETRY MODELLING
CAD really came on its own with the introduction of 3D solid modelling technology, which boosted the usage of CAE technology in industry. The
development of 3D modelling schemes started with 3D wireframes. It was a major leap in computer geometric modeling as it allowed
designers to use a single object and view it from multiple angles. However, wire frames are susceptible to ambiguity because surface definition
is not part of a 3D wireframe model. To overcome this gap, computer geometric modelling with surface definitions was the next logical step
forward. With enhanced computer CPU power, the next enhancement in geometric modelling was solid modelling. Surface modelling organizes
and groups edges that define polygonal surfaces, making it easier for designers to visualize an object.

Solid Geometric Modelling

Solid modelling allows definition of an object’s nodes, edges and surfaces. It is therefore a complete and unambiguous mathematical
representation of a precisely enclosed and filled volume. Unlike the surface modelling method, solid modelers start with a solid or use topology
rules to guarantee that all surfaces are stitched together properly.
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER GEOMETRY MODELLING
There are two predominant methods for representing solid models – constructive solid geometry and boundary representation. Constructive
solid geometry combines basic solid objects (for example a rectangular prism, cylinder, cone, sphere, etc.). These shapes are simply added or
deleted in order to form the final solid shape. In boundary representation, objects are defined in terms of their spatial boundaries. It defines the
points, edges, surfaces of a volume, and / or issues commands that sweep or rotate a defined face into a third dimension to form a solid. The
object is then made up of the union of these surfaces that completely and precisely enclose a volume.

To summarize, these are the various types of computer geometric modeling techniques usually used:

• Wire frame models (describe an object using boundary lines)

• Surface models (describe an object using boundary surfaces)
• Solid models (describe an object as a solid)
GEOMETRY CLEAN UP
The typical CAE project starts with importing the CAD model or crating a CAD model, the usual CAD model that are imported are in the format
of STEP, UG, IGES, Solidworks, Solid Thinking etc.,

While importing the data it generally occurs with little error due to conversion of the CAD data from the original CAD package to the required
file format.

Some of the issues described below do exist because when designers create CAD geometry, their priorities are different from those of analysts t
analysts trying to use the data. the data. For a designer designer, a single smooth surface is typically split into smaller patches.

These Issues needs to be cleared before the FE model is created as to have a good elemental flow for a better desired result.
GEOMETRY CLEAN UP
Some resulting geometry issues:
• Surfaces are not stitched together (i.e. there is a gap between surfaces)
• Very small surfaces are squeezed between regular surfaces
• The junction between two surfaces contains gaps, overlaps or other misalignments
• There may exist Small pins holes
• Extra lines in the geometry may exists.
• Extra points may exist
• Splits in the curves may exist
• Free edges in between the plane and curved surfaces etc.
• Penetrating surfaces may exist, which may not be part of geometry.
GEOMETRY CLEAN UP
The issues that are seen, demands the correction in the geometry before it is carried forward to meshing, and the process is called Clean up

Below are the general strategy that can be followed to carryout the repair to the geometric model.

• Understand the size and scale of the model

• Set a cleanup tolerance based upon the previously determined global element size
• Find duplicate surfaces and delete them.
• Use equivalence to combine as many free edge pairs as possible.
• Use toggle to combine any remaining edges.
• Use filler surface to fill in any missing surfaces
GEOMETRY CLEAN UP
The perimeter of a surface is defined by edges. There are four types surface Edges
• Free edges Non-manifold edges
• Shared edges
• Suppressed edges
• Non-manifold edges
GEOMETRY CLEAN UP
A solid is a closed volume of surfaces that can
take any shape. Solids are three-dimensional
entities that can be used in automatic tetra and
solid meshing. Its color is determined by the
component group to which it belongs.

The surfaces defining a solid can belong to

multiple component group The display of a
solid and its bounding surfaces are controlled
only by the group to which the solid belongs.

Below image of solid model shows the

description of the three types of surfaces which
define the solid
MIDSURFACE
Midsurface modeling is a technique for creating a simplified shell representation of a solid model. Midsurface modeling can reduce the
computational expense of analyzing a complete solid model when a shell model with a defined thickness and fewer details is suitable for the
required analysis.

The midsurface modeling process relies on an accurate solid model as the starting point. Midsurface modeling is best suited to thin solids or
thin-walled solids where wall thickness is constant or where reasonable approximations of the wall thickness at each point can be made easily.
You can apply midsurface modeling to any solid cell within a model; you need not apply it to the entire model. If you apply midsurface modeling
to only a portion of a solid model, Abaqus/CAE automatically creates shell-to-solid coupling constraints to couple the motion of the midsurface
shell edges to that of the remaining solid model faces. Shell-to-solid coupling constraints will not be created if the angle between the shell
surface and the solid face deviates significantly from 90°.
Besides reduced expense, you might use a midsurface model in place of a solid model to better account for bending response in thin sections of
the model. Shell elements are designed to manage bending loads within the thickness of a single element, whereas a single solid element will
have little or no resistance to bending
MIDSURFACE
In Finite Element Analysis, structures can be represented with a variety of elements including 0D, 1D, 2D and 3D elements. Thin walled
structures are commonly represented with 2D or planar elements.

Different dimension elements can be used to represent the same geometry. An I-Beam (W Shape) can be idealized as 1D, 2D, or 3D elements.
MIDSURFACE
Planar elements, also called two-dimensional (2D) elements, are used to represent a structure whose thickness is small compared to its other
dimensions. Planar elements can model plates, which are flat, or shells, which have single curvature (e.g., cylinder) or double curvature (e.g.,
sphere). Planar elements can also be used to model sections that are uniform or non-uniform in thickness.

Below are various examples of thin structures and their respective midsurface representations.
MIDSURFACE

Geometry Midsurfae Mesh

MIDSURFACE
Geometry Midsurfa
e
Mesh
MIDSURFACE
INTRODUCTION TO MESHING
• The basic idea of FEA is to make calculations at only
limited (Finite) number of points and then interpolate the
results for the entire domain (surface or volume).

• Any continuous object has infinite degrees of freedom and

it’s just not possible to solve the problem in this format.

• Finite Element Method reduces the degrees of freedom

from infinite to finite with the help of discretization or
meshing (nodes and elements).

• One of the purposes of meshing is to actually make the

problem solvable using Finite Element
INTRODUCTION TO MESHING
• Types of Elements :
INTRODUCTION TO MESHING
• How To Decide The Element Type :

Element Type Selection

Geometry Size and Shape Type of Analysis Time Allotted for Project

A. Geometry Size And Shape

For an analysis, analysis, the software needs all three dimensions defined. It can not make calculations unless the geometry is defined
completely (by meshing using nodes and elements).
The geometry can be categorized as 1D, 2D, or 3D based on the dominant dimensions and then the type of element is selected
accordingly.
INTRODUCTION TO MESHING
• 1D Element :
– Used for geometries having one of the dimensions that is very large in comparison parison to the other two.

– The shape of the 1D element is a line. When the element is created by connecting two nodes, the software knows about only one out
of the 3 dimensions . The remaining two dimensions, dimensions, the area of the cross section, section, must be defined by the user as
additional input data and assigned to the respective elements.
– Practical example: Long shaft, rod, beam, column, column, spot welding, bolted joints, pin joints, joints, bearing modeling, modeling,
etc.
INTRODUCTION TO MESHING
• 2D Element:
– Used when two of the dimensions are the dimensions are very large in comparison to the third one.
– 2D meshing is carried out on a mid surface of the part. 2D elements are planar, just like paper. By creating 2D elements, the software
knows 2 out of the 3 required dimensions . The third dimension, dimension, thickness, thickness, has to provided by the user as an
additional.
– Mathematically, the element thickness specified by the user is assigned half on the element top and half on the bottom side. Hence, in
order to represent the geometry appropriately, it is necessary to extract the mid surface and then mesh on the mid surface.
INTRODUCTION TO MESHING
Practical example:
– All sheet metal parts, plastic components like instrument panels, panels, etc. In general, 2D general, 2D meshing is used for parts
having a width / thickness ratio > ratio > 20.

• Limitations Of Mid Surface And 2D Meshing

– 2D meshing would lead to a higher approximation if used for
• variable part thickness
• surfaces are not planner and planner and have different features on two sides
INTRODUCTION TO MESHING
• 3D Element :
– Used when all three dimensions are three dimensions are comparable
– Practical examples: Transmission casing, clutch housing, housing, engine block, connecting rod, crank shaft etc.
INTRODUCTION TO MESHING
B. Based On The Type Of Analysis :
• Structural and fatigue analysis - Quad, hex elements are preferred over trias, tetras and pentas.

• Crash and nonlinear analysis – Priority to mesh flow lines and brick elements over tetrahedron.

• Mold flow analysis – Triangular element are preferred over quadrilateral.

• Dynamic analysis – When the geometry is borderline between classification of 2D and 3D geometry, 2D shell elements are preferred over
3D. This is because shell elements being less stiffer captures the mode shapes accurately and with a fewer number of nodes and
elements.
INTRODUCTION TO MESHING
C. Time Allotted For Project :
• When time is not a constraint, constraint, the appropriate selection of elements, mesh flow lines, and a good mesh quality is
recommended . Sometimes due to a very tight deadline, deadline, the analyst is forced to submit the report quickly. For such situations :

– Automatic or batch or batch meshing tools could be used instead of time consuming but structured and good quality providing
methods.
– For 3D meshing tetras are preferred over hexas.
– If the assembly of several components is involved then only the critical parts are meshed appropriately. Other parts are either coarse
meshed or represented approximately by 1D beams, springs, springs, concentrated mass, etc.
INTRODUCTION TO MESHING
• Mesh Density And Solution Convergence :
– Identify the smallest details that tails that must be captured.
captured.
– Evaluate the level of design detail available
– Check for current standards and previous work that will be used
be used for comparison.
– Estimate the deformed shape and its requirements on your
model.
– Plan for a convergence iteration(s).
– Select a more detailed modeling approach when stress is
important. Consider a two-phase approach to stress solutions in
which you make a second model for detailed work to reduce the
scope and complexity of you solution.
– Identify known and predicted areas of concern.
– Select appropriate element type(s). Mix element types only with
caution.
– Consider timing in your approach.
INTRODUCTION TO MESHING
• Can We Solve The Same Problem Using 1D, 2D And 3D Elements ?
– The same geometry could be modelled using 1D, 2D, or 3D elements. What matters is the number of elements and nodes (DOF), the
accuracy the accuracy of the results, and the time consumed in the analysis.
– For example, consider a cantilever beam with beam with a dimension of 250 x 20 x 5 mm that is subjected to a 35 N force:
INTRODUCTION TO MESHING
Element Selection :
• Element selection is based on the type of problem you want to run, boundary conditions, geometry considerations, and results required.
Most problems can be solved many different ways and there is no “right” answer to the question of element selection, but making a good
choice can reduce effort, computer time, and errors in the results . Often the solver you choose to solve the problem will have limitations
for some element types and not for others restricting element selection .

• Masses (0D elements) :

– Masses are point load masses that are generally used to represent attached structures at their centroids. This is an extremely good
way to represent otherwise complex structures when the detailed is not required.
INTRODUCTION TO MESHING
• Beams (1D elements) :
– Beams are characterized by long and slender members, such as a space frame or a formula racing suspension . Bridge members are
also good examples of beams or spars. Some examples of 1D elements are listed below:
• Rods
• Spars
• Beams
• Welds
• Rigids
– Beams are very useful because of the flexibility modeling complex cross-sections sections without modeling the geometry, but the
burden of maintaining the detailed information is upon the user. In addition very accurate stress and deflection results are
achievable with beam elements, but the visualization of the results is sometimes difficult . Rods and Spars are essentially 2D beams
and are great for in plane problems. Welds and rigids are used for defining constraint equations between nodes. Generally this
results in an independent node and a dependent node(s) that form a set of equations that are placed in the stiffness matrix.
INTRODUCTION TO MESHING
• Plates (2D elements) :
– Plates are 2D elements that represent 3D space by assuming an infinite depth, fixed depth, or axisymmetric geometry. They have a
reduced stiffness matrix and therefore reduced solution time with no loss in accuracy if the assumptions for the element hold.

• Shells (2.5D elements) :

– Shells are essentially 2D elements that represent 3D space, thus the term 2.5D. Shells are excellent for thin 3D structures, such as
body panels, sheet metal, injection molded plastic or any part that can be described as having a thickness that is small relative to its
global dimensions . Deflections are given at the nodes, but stresses can be found at the upper and lower surfaces as well as at the
midplane. This gives the analyst the ability to extract membrane effects versus bending effects in the results .

• Solids (3D elements) :

– Solid elements are generally used for 3D structures not fitting into the shell description . Castings, forgings, blocky structures, and
volumes are all good examples of 3D solid element structure structures. Solid elements have the benefit of eliminating many
assumptions found in the other element types but are generally more difficult to model.
INTRODUCTION TO MESHING
Commonly used Elements types for meshing
 2D Element Meshing
INTRODUCTION TO MESHING
Example of Discretization:

1D Element Meshing

Geometry of Fuselage
FE
Representation

3D Element Meshing

Geometr FE
y Representation
MESH QUALITY CHECK
Why Element Quality Checks?

• The shape of Elements in FE Analysis will be distorted from their Ideal shapes when meshing the irregular or complex geometric shapes.
• Every element is designed to work properly within a certain range of shape distortion. Exactly how much distortion and what type of
distortion is allowed before an element degenerates depends on factors such as element type, numerical procedures used in the element
design, and so forth.
• The Ideal shape of [2D Elements] a triangular element is an equilateral triangle and a quadrilateral, it is a square.
• The Ideal shape of [3D Elements] a Tetrahedron element is a Regular or Isosceles Tetrahedron and a Hexahedron, it is a Cube etc.,.
• If the actual shape that the element assumes after mapping onto model geometry differs too much from the natural shape, the element
becomes degenerated and produces erroneous results.

"Result Quality α Element Quality"

MESH QUALITY CHECK
• The major types of degeneration are Aspect Ratio, Skewness, Jacobian
Ratio, Warping Factor, Maximum Corner Angle, Orthogonal Quality,
Parallel Deviation, Taper, Curvature distortion and mid-size node
position.

• Generally, large angles between edges (close to 180 degree) are more
degenerating than small angles (close to 0 degree).

• Each FE mesh should be run through an element quality check, and

degenerated elements should be eliminated.

• In order to get reasonably accurate results, it is always important to

generate a structured mesh with good quality parameters.

• If Elements are Degenerated they will become too stiff and

underestimate the deformations (Field Variables) and its derivatives like
strain & stress values become erroneous.
MESH QUALITY CHECK
• Degenerated Elements increase the inaccuracy of the finite element representation and have a detrimental effect on convergence of Finite
Element Solutions.

• Now a days most of the FE Simulation softwares are equipped with In-Built Quality Check Options and Quality Based Mesh Generation
Algorithms.

• Maintaining element quality is always a challenge for analyst during mesh convergence studies. Though element size is minimized it is of no
use if they are violating quality requirements.

• So, it is important to know how to calculate these parameters for different Element Shapes. All Element distortions are measured against
Ideal shapes.
MESH QUALITY CHECK
Aspect Ratio:
• The ratio between largest and smallest characteristic dimension of an element is known as the Aspect Ratio.
• An aspect ratio of 1 is ideal but cannot always be maintained. In general the aspect ratios are maintained in between 1 to 5 at critical areas in a
domain where derivatives of field variable are significant.
MESH QUALITY CHECK
Skewness Calculation:
• Skewness is the Angular Measure of Element quality with respect to the Angles of Ideal Element Types.
• It is one of the Primary Qualities Measures of FE Mesh. Skewness determines how close to ideal (i.e., equilateral or equiangular) a face or cell is.

Note: The acceptable Range of skewness is " 0 ̊ to 45 ̊ " beyond which results may to be close to the actual solution.
MESH QUALITY CHECK
Warping of an Element:
Ideally all the nodes of quadrilateral element should lie on the same plane but at curvatures and complicated geometry profiles it is not possible.
"Measure of out of planeness of a Quadrilateral is Warping Factor or Warping Angle".
Warping calculation for triangular elements is not applicable, since three points define a plane, this check only applies to quads.

Warping Angle:
It is defined as angle between normals of two (triangular) planes formed by splitting the quad element along diagonals.
Maximum Angle out of the two possibilities is reported as "Warp Angle".
In the case of solid elements, an element's face deviates from being planar. The quad is divided into two trias along its diagonal, and the angle
between the trias normals is measured.

Ideal Value = 0° ( Acceptable < 5° to 10°)

MESH QUALITY CHECK
• Assume a Quad element is formed with Nodes:1,2,3 &4
• Split the Quad using the two diagonals (1,3 & 2,4) into triangles as shown below.

• Plane-1 is formed from nodes: 1,2 &4 and Plane-2 is formed from nodes: 2,3 &4
• Calculate normal to Plane-1 & Plane-2 as “n1 & n2”. Find the Angle between n1 & n2 and mark it as Θ1.
• Similarly, for Plane-3 & Plane-4 find the angle between normal n3 & n4 and mark it as Θ2.
• Maximum of the two Angles Θ1 & Θ2 is Reported as "Warping Angle".
MESH QUALITY CHECK
Maximum Corner Angle
The logic of maximum corner angle for a mesh structure or mesh elements is very basic. It defines the biggest angle value inside the geometrical o
the element created.

Maximum corner angles for triangular mesh elements is as shown in figure.

As it can be seen that the prefect triangular meh structures can be achieved
with a maximum corner angle value of 60 degrees. When it approaches 180
degrees, mesh quality and calculations get worse.

Maximum corner angles for quadrilateral mesh elements is shown in figure.

The same logic is valid for quadrilateral mesh elements also. When the
maximum corner angle is 90 degrees, the best mesh performance can be
achieved.
MESH QUALITY CHECK
Jacobian Ratio
The jacobian ratio is about the element mid-side nodes of mesh structures
and calculated according to that parameter for different element types
like below.

The jacobian ratio for triangle elements,

If an element midside nodes are at the exact middle of an edge, the
Jacobian ratio for a triangle is 1. This is the best value for the Jacobian
ratio for triangles. As seen in figure, when the Jacobian ratio for triangles
increases, the midside nodes of edges are coming to the center.

The jacobian ratio for quadrilateral element types.

The same logic is valid for quadrilateral elements in meshing. The perfect
Jacobian ratio status is parallelepiped geometry as seen in figure.
Material Properties
It is important to choose the right material for any job that we pursue. Not choosing the right material can cause unintended consequences
like metal whiskers growing on metallic parts. These consequences can lead to bigger disasters. Hence, it is important to understand the
classification of materials. And understand their properties and applications.

Classification of engineering materials

We can classify all engineering materials into two broad categories of metals and non-metals the broad classification is as below
Material Properties
• Non-Ferrous • Thermoplastics
•Metals and Alloys • Copper • PVC
• Ferrous • Aluminum • Polythene
• Cast Iron • Brass • Acrylic
• Grey cast iron • Bronze • Resins
• White cast iron • Lead
• Alloy cast iron • Silver
• Malleable cast iron • Zinc
• Nodular cast iron • Tin etc.
• Steel •Non-metals
• Alloy steel • Leather
• Stainless steel • Rubber
• Mild Steel • Polymers
• Carbon Steels • Thermo-setting polymers
• Medium Carbon steel • Phenol form
• High carbon steel • Aldehyde (Bakelite)
• Wrought iron • Polyesters
• Epoxy resins
Material Properties
• Wood • Optical ceramics
• Softwoods • Conductive ceramics
• Hardwoods • Advanced Structural Ceramics
• Temperate hardwoods • Nuclear ceramics
• Tropical hardwoods • Bioceramics
• Ceramics • Wear-resistant ceramics
• Traditional ceramics • Automotive ceramics
• Refractories
• Abrasives • Composites
• Glass • Metal matrix composites
• Cement • Ceramic matrix composites
• Concrete • Polymer matrix composites
• Advanced Ceramics • Semiconductors
• Electroceramics • Intrinsic semiconductors
• Electronic Substrate package • Extrinsic semiconductors
ceramics
• Piezoelectric ceramics
• Magnetic ceramics
Material Properties
Let’s get some information on some of the materials listed above.

•Rubber is used in packaging material and as an electrical insulator.

•Ceramics are non-metallic solids made up of inorganic compounds like nitrides, oxides, and carbides. It possesses electrical, magnetic, chemical
and thermal properties. These materials are used in electronic controlled devices, computers, and aerospace field. Example: Glass and
Aluminum oxide and Silicon carbide.
•Organic polymers consist of carbon, in chemical combination with hydrogen, oxygen or other non-metallic substances. These are formed by a
polymerization reaction in which simple molecules are chemically combined into long-chain molecules. These are used in packing, insulating
materials, covers, etc. Example: Cotton, Nylon, Terylene, PVC, etc.
•Composites are the mixture of materials like metals and alloys and ceramics, metals and organic polymers, ceramics and organic polymers.
These are used in electrical devices and airplane parts. Example: Plywood, fiber, cement, and concrete.
•We use leather in bell drives and washers.
•Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity lies between that of conductor and insulator. These materials are generally hard and brittle.
They are the building blocks of modern digital electronics. We use them to make devices like diodes, logic gates, flip-flops and
latches, microprocessors, etc.
Material Properties
•Mild steel is plain carbon steel containing carbon percentage between 0.15%-0.3%. It is easily forgeable, malleable, and ductile. We can weld it
pretty easily too.
•When special properties are required, some of the alloying elements are added in carbon steel. These elements are nickel, chromium, vanadium,
etc. The steel obtained by adding alloy elements is known as alloy steel.
•Grey cast iron is an alloy of carbon and steel. Additionally, it also contains iron. Its composition is Carbon (2.5%-3.8%), Silicon (1.1%-2.8%),
Manganese (0.4%-1%) and Phosphorous (0.15%).
•Cast iron has a high resistance to wear. It has low ductility. And low impact strength when compared with steel. Its machinability is better than
steel. Grey cast iron is recognized by the presence of carbon in the form of graphite flakes.
•Copper has a high resistance to corrosion. Moreover, pure copper is one of the best conductors of electricity. Copper is reddish-brown in color.
•Aluminum is also another good conductor of electricity. It is highly malleable and ductile. It forms useful alloys with copper, zinc, and iron.
Aluminum has a very high resistance to corrosion compared to steel.
•Composites are a combination of two or more materials with compositional variables. They show properties different from their individual
constituents. The composite material is better than any of the individual components as regards to their strengths, heat resistance and stiffness.
•Wood consists of strong and flexible cellulose fibers. Plywood is the composite of thin sheets of wood. It hs grains of alternate sheets
perpendicular to each other and bonded together by a polymer in between them.
•RCC has steel rods embedded in the concrete mix which is a composite of cement, sand aggregate, and water.
Material Properties
Properties of engineering materials
The different material properties are:
1.Mechanical properties
2.Physical properties
3.Electrical properties
4.Chemical properties
5.Thermal properties
6.Magnetic properties
Material Properties
Mechanical properties
The mechanical properties of material define the behavior of materials under the action of external forces. These properties are:

• Strength: It is defined as the ability of materials to sustain load without distortion. The stronger the material, the greater the load it
can withstand.
• Stiffness: This is the ability of a material to resist deformation.
• Elasticity: It is the property of a material due to which deformation caused by applied load disappears completely on the removal of
the load. Alternatively, you can state is as follows. It is the property due to which material regains its shape and size after the removal
of an externally applied force.
• Plasticity: This is the ability of a material to undergo some degree of permanent deformation without rupture or failure. It is the
opposite of elasticity.
• Malleability: It is the property due to which it can be deformed into thin sheets. This can be done by rolling or hammering action
without fracture. Gold has the highest malleability. Copper, aluminum, silver, and nickel are some other metals that exhibit
malleability.
.
Material Properties
Ductility: It is the property due that shows the extent to which a material can be drawn into wires or elongated before a fracture takes place.
Toughness: It is the measure of the amount of energy a material can absorb before failure takes place. Ductile materials are tougher than
brittle materials.
Weldability: It is the property of the material which indicates the ease with which two similar or dissimilar metals join together. It is the
ability of a material to get welded.
Machinability: This is the measure of the ease with which a material can be machined or finished.
Fatigue: This is a form of failure that occurs in components subjected to dynamic and fluctuating loads.
Hardness: It is the property of a material due to which it offers resistance to penetration and scratching. Hard materials resist wear and
scratches. Diamond is the hardest material.
Brittleness: It is the property of materials due to which it breaks without too much permanent distortion. This property is the opposite of
ductility.
Creep: This is the slow plastic deformation of metal under constant loads. Usually at high temperatures. Metals generally show creep at high
temperatures whereas plastics, rubbers are temperature sensitive to the creep.
Resilience: This is the capacity of a material to absorb energy elastically. This property is important in the manufacturing of springs and shock
absorbers, etc
Material Properties
For any part or a component or an assembly it is very important to know what is the material it
is built with and material properties of that material plays a vital role. The material for any part,
component or assembly is chosen based on its application or usage in real life which depends
on the strength , stability, machinability, hardness, durability, cost, and availability.
The material property of any material is usually found from the stress strain graph and testing.
To analyse any part or a component it is very important to know the material property and
minimum of following properties should be known to analyse.
• E - Modulus of elasticity is slope of normal stress-strain curve in linear elastic domain.

• G - Modulus of rigidity is slope of shear stress-strain curve in linear elastic domain.

• 𝝂 - Poisson’s ratio is ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain.

The various strength parameters like tensile strength, compressive strength, yield strength, thermal
strength, fatigue strength etc., also obtained from the stress strain curve and testing which is
compared with the analysed strengths to validate the part/component/assembly.
Loads and Boundary condition
Understanding Loads
The term loads includes boundary conditions and externally or internally applied forcing functions, as illustrated in Figure. Examples of loads in
different disciplines are:
Structural: displacements, velocities, accelerations, forces, pressures, temperatures (for thermal strain), gravity
Thermal: temperatures, heat flow rates, convections, internal heat generation, infinite surface
Magnetic: magnetic potentials, magnetic flux, magnetic current segments, source current density, infinite surface
Electric: electric potentials (voltage), electric current, electric charges, charge densities, infinite surface
Acoustic: pressures, displacements
Diffusion: concentration, diffusion flow rate
Types of loads
• There are only 3 types of forces Fx, Fy, Fz and 3 types of moments Mx, My, Mz .

• All the loading conditions like concentrated load, distributed loads, pressure, traction, gravity, torsion are forms of Fx, Fy, Fz Mx, My, Mz

Based on direction of Force Based on region of Force Application

Types of Moments

Torque is moment acting along axis of shaft Mx

Torque causes shear stress while other two moments

produce normal stress

Types of Boundary conditions
• It is also known as support or constraint conditions.

• Simply supported – Restricts only translation motions

• Fixed – Restricts both translations and rotations

• Cantilever beam – One end is fixed and other end is free.

• Propped Cantilever – One end is fixed and other end is

simply-supported
Loads are divided into six categories:
DOF constraints, forces (concentrated loads), surface loads, body loads, inertia loads, and coupled-field loads
1. A DOF constraint fixes a degree of freedom (DOF) to a known value. Examples of constraints are specified displacements and symmetry
boundary conditions in a structural analysis, prescribed temperatures in a thermal analysis, and flux-parallel boundary conditions.

2. A force is a concentrated load applied at a node in the model. Examples are forces and moments in a structural analysis, heat flow rates in a
thermal analysis, and current segments in a magnetic field analysis.

3. A surface load is a distributed load applied over a surface. Examples are pressures in a structural analysis and convections and heat fluxes in
a thermal analysis.

4. A body load is a volumetric or field load. Examples are temperatures and fluences in a structural analysis, heat generation rates in a thermal
analysis, and current densities in a magnetic field analysis.

5. Inertia loads are those attributable to the inertia (mass matrix) of a body, such as gravitational acceleration, angular velocity, and angular
acceleration. You use them mainly in a structural analysis.

6. Coupled-field loads are simply a special case of one of the above loads, where results from one analysis are used as loads in another analysis.
For example, you can apply magnetic forces calculated in a magnetic field analysis as force loads in a structural analysis.
Loads and Boundary Condition
The loads and boundary condition is applied on the based on the type of analysis carried out. Some example ex application of loads and
boundary condition are shown below

Concentrated load (at a point or single node)

Applying forces to single nodes may cause irritating effects,

especially while looking at the stresses in this area. Typically
concentrated loads (i.e. forces on a single node) impose high
stress gradients. Even though the high stresses are correct (i.e.
force applied to an infinitesimal small area) one needs to ask
whether this kind of loading is reasonable at all? In other
words, which real-life loading scenario is represented in the
model?
Therefore, forces are commonly applied as distributed loads,
namely line loads, and surface loads which are “closer” to
reality
Loads and Boundary Condition
Force on line or edge
The force is equally applied to all (11) nodes at the model edge.

Traction (or “oblique” pressure)

Traction is a force acting on an area in any direction other than the
normal direction. A force acting normal to an area is known as pressure.
Loads and Boundary Condition
Distributed load (Force varying as equation)
Distributed loads (varying with respects to the coordinates of the nodes
or elements) can be applied by means of an equation.

Pressure and Vacuum

In the image above, a distributed load (pressure) is shown. The origin of
the plate is located at the highlighted node in the left upper corner.
Loads and Boundary Condition How to Apply Constraints
If a body is not restrained, an applied load will cause infinite displacements (i.e. the FEM program will report a rigid body motion and will abort the
run with an error message). Hence, regardless of loading conditions, the body must be restrained against two translations along x and y, and one
rotation about z. Thus the minimum number of constraints that has to be imposed in two dimensions is three.
In figure (a) above, the constraint at A fixes (pins) the body with respect to translational displacements, whereas the constrain at B, together with A,
provides rotational restraint. This body is free to distort in any manner without the supports imposing any deformation constraints.

Figure (b) is a simplification of figure (a). Here the line AB is parallel to the global y-axis. The x and y translations at point A, and the x translation at
point B are restrained, respectively. If the roller support at B is modified as in figure (c), a rotational motion about point A is possible (i.e. the rolling
direction
is normal to AB). This will result in a singular modified stiffness matrix (i.e. rigid body motion).

Supporting Two Dimensional Bodies

Loads and Boundary Condition
Supporting Three Dimensional Bodies
The figure above illustrates the extension of the freedom restraining concept to three
dimensions. The minimal number of freedoms that have to be constrained is now six and
many combinations are possible.

In the example above, all three degrees of freedom at point A have been fixed. This
prevents all rigid body translations, and leaves three rotations to be taken care of. The x
displacement component at point B is constrained to prevent rotation about z, and the z
component is fixed at point C to prevent rotation about y. The y component is constrained
at point D to prevent rotation about x.
Loads and Boundary Condition
Symmetry

Condition for using any type of symmetry

Symmetric conditions could be used only when both the following
conditions are fulfilled.
• Geometry is symmetric
• Boundary conditions (forces and constraints) are symmetric.

Advantages: Half, quarter or a portion of the model could be

used for analysis, resulting in fewer dofs and computational cost.
Loads and Boundary Condition
Which dof must be constrained at the symmetry level?

In the figure above, the dark vertically oriented plane represents the plane of symmetry.
The finite elements nodes are colored gray, whereas possible nodal rotations are shown by
means of blue, green and red arrows. Nodal rotations with respect to the green and red
axis/arrows would “move/ rotate” the node out of the plane of symmetry (just imagine the
arrows would be glued to the nodes). Hence these degree of freedoms (dof) must be
constrained. In contrast, nodal rotations with respect to the blue axis/arrow are not needed
to be constrained. As the nodes of solid elements do only allow translational
displacements, one just need to constrain any out of symmetry plane motions.
Loads and Boundary Condition

The figure above is considered the full model. The beam ends are constrained with respect to any translational displacements (dof 123). A
vertical load of 200 N is applied at its center.
If the symmetry plane is in the x-y plane then the translational displacements in its normal direction i.e. z-direction (dof 3) need to be
constrained. On the other hand, we don’t need to fix/delete rotations with respect to z-axis as solid elements do not allow nodal rotations.
Remember, the nodes at the symmetry plane are not allowed to move (or rotate) out of the plane of symmetry
Types of Analysis
Following are some of the analysis types that are carried out in order to solve the part/component / assembly to validate .
• Linear Static Analysis
• Non-Linear Static
• Dynamic analysis
• Linear Buckling Analysis
• Thermal Analysis
• Fatigue Analysis
Solving the Model
• After generating the geometry, creating the Finite element model, checking the quality of mesh, verifying and applying material, applying loads
and supports (BC), selecting the desired analysis type and inserting the desired output from the analysis, the model is ready to be solved.

– Selection of “Solve” in the Stress Wizard will solve the finite element model and produces the desired results in the form of deflections,
strains, stresses etc.,

Note:
Starting the solution will include automatically meshing the model if it has not been done so previously.
The solution may take a few minutes to a few hours, depending on how large the model is and the hardware used. A
progress bar will be shown to indicate roughly how long the solution will take. The solution can also be stopped via the
progress bar.
View and Interpretation of Result
• After the solution is complete, the user can View Results and interpret them as required
– The type of results is dependent on the analysis performed
– Contour, vector plots, and animations can be viewed
– The results can be taken as report files containing the data such as load and boundary conditions applied,
stresses, strains, deflections, forces, moments are obtained which can be used for further calculation to
verify and validate the part.
– If in case the part analysed is failing in any of the manner such as producing higher stresses, deflections,
forces etc., they are reanalyzed modifying the material details, cross sectional details, design changes to
includes the additional material etc.,
View and Interpretation of Result
Example of contour plots:
Thankyou..