Ethical Decision Making and Moral Judgments

An Overview of chapter 3

Aklilu Basha
CHLSJC Section 4
ID: UGR/8877/17
 Moral and Civic Education

Chapter 3

Ethical Decision Making and Moral

Judgments
Introduction:

Chapter 3 examines ethical decision-making and moral judgments. Making ethical decisions and taking
ethical actions can be challenging, especially when facing conflicting values or beliefs. Moral philosophy
helps individuals evaluate the adequacy of reasons given for their actions, critically analyze personal
values and understand ethical dilemmas that arise in life. Ethical decision-making requires moving
beyond personal intuitions about right and wrong and engaging in critical reasoning to support moral
arguments with valid reasons.

The chapter outline various approaches to ethical decision-making, each based on different principles.
The fairness and justice approach emphasizes treating equals equally and unequal unequally, based on
the teachings of Aristotle. The common good approach, also rooted in Greek philosophy, prioritizes
actions that contribute to the well-being of the community and respect the vulnerable. The rights
approach, based on the ideas of Immanuel Kant, focuses on protecting individual rights, particularly the
right to be treated as a free and equal rational person. These approaches provide frameworks for
analyzing moral issues and making decisions that are rational and respectful of the interests of all
involved.

Chapter 3 also explores the question of why individuals should be moral, examining arguments from
enlightened self-interest, tradition and law, and common human needs. The chapter emphasizes that
ethical behavior is essential for a peaceful, happy, and meaningful life. By understanding ethical
principles and engaging in critical reasoning, individuals can make sound moral judgments and
contribute to a just and equitable society.

How Can We Make Ethical Decisions and Actions?

Making ethical decisions and taking ethical actions can be challenging. Ethical decision-making requires
individuals to analyze and critically evaluate the values they hold and the claims they make about their
obligations to one another. This process involves weighing ethical values and evaluating different ethical
arguments. Ethical values can be difficult to fully understand. For example, it's easier to explain the
practical value of energy than it is to explain the ethical value of courage.

Ethical problems can also be difficult to define, and it's not always possible to come to a definitive
solution. Ethics is not about taking the moral high ground and telling others what to do, but instead is
about providing tools to help think through difficult problems. Good ethical thinking requires looking for
the distinctions in questions and concerns to acknowledge the diversity and complexity of the roles,
situations, and circumstances involved. However, all parties involved in an ethically challenging situation
have an obligation to resolve the problems in a sincere, reasonable, and collaborative manner. This

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means parties must be willing to adjust their position in light of reflection, discussion, and changing
circumstances.

One of the key tasks of ethical reasoning is to analyze and critically consider the values individuals hold
and the claims they make about their perceived obligations to each other. When applied to end-of-life
care, key values that arise include: sanctity of life, quality of life, and autonomy. Another key task of
ethics is to evaluate the adequacy of reasons people give for their actions. For example, ethical
reasoning might consider whether the arguments a health professional offers in support of resuscitating
a terminally ill patient who is incompetent or a parent’s reasons for refusing medical treatment for a
severely disabled newborn are based on sound evidence and logical argument.

Ethics aims to offer tools for thinking about difficult problems. To guide reflection on difficult questions,
philosophers, religious teachers, and other thinkers have shaped various approaches to ethical decision-
making. These approaches include: fairness and justice, the common good, utilitarianism, rights, and
virtues. To ensure decisions are made with rationality and respect, considering these five questions
when trying to resolve a moral issue is advised:

 What benefits and what harms will each course of action produce, and which alternative will
lead to the best overall consequences?

 What moral rights do the affected parties have, and which course of action best respects those
rights?

 Which course of action treats everyone the same, except where there is a morally justifiable
reason not to, and does not show favoritism or discrimination?

 Which course of action advances the common good?

 Which course of action develops moral virtues?

Ethical Principles and Values of Moral Judgments

Moral judgments are how individuals decide what is right and wrong in human interactions. These
judgments are evaluative, meaning they assess the goodness or badness of actions according to
established norms or standards. They apply only to human actions, specifically voluntary ones where
individuals have a choice. Moral judgments don't apply to situations where individuals lack control or act
involuntarily. Ethical theories provide the framework for making these moral judgments. However,
applying those theoretical principles to real-life situations requires careful consideration and sensitivity
to the specific context.

Moral intuitions and Critical Reasoning

The study of ethics involves reasoning about our feelings. In other words, it involves making sense of
and rationalizing our intuitions about what is ‘right’ or ‘good’. Almost all people, to a greater or lesser
extent, are capable of experiencing feelings of empathy towards others. Empathy therefore gives us
what Traer (2013) refers to as our moral sentiments; and ethical reasoning about these sentiments gives
us our moral principles. The integration of these moral sentiments and principles, Traer (2013) argues, is
our conscience. Our moral conscience, then, is based on emotions, but should also be supported by
reason. Philosophical ethics, however, asks us to take a step back from these influences and instead to
reflect critically on our sentiments and attitudes.

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Rationalization
Rationalization, in the context of ethical decision-making, occurs when individuals offer reasons for their
actions that seem justifiable but are actually masking their true motives, which might be less ethical or
even unconscious. Rationalization is a common pitfall in ethical reasoning, and we should emphasize the
importance of carefully scrutinizing the justifications we provide for our actions. This critical self-
reflection helps to ensure that we are acting for the right reasons and not simply trying to make
ourselves look good.

Here are key points about rationalization:

 Concealing True Motives ● Superficial Plausibility ● Potential for Self-Deception

Let see a helpful example to illustrate rationalization. Consider a situation where a landowner wants to
build a plastic recycling plant. If the landowner claims that their sole motivation is to create jobs when
their primary goal is actually to generate profit, they are engaging in rationalization. However, if the
landowner acknowledges both profit and job creation as motives, they are being more transparent and
honest about their reasons.

Developing critical reasoning skills is essential for uncovering rationalizations, both in our own thinking
and in the arguments of others. Here's how critical reasoning helps to counter rationalization:

 Examining Evidence ● Checking for Consistency

 Uncovering Underlying Motives

By applying these critical reasoning strategies, we can work towards making more ethical decisions
that are grounded in sound reasoning and genuine concern for the well-being of others.

Types of Reasoning
 Reasoning by analogy explains one thing by comparing it to something else that is similar,
although also different. In a good analogy, the similarity outweighs the dissimilarity and is
clarifying. For instance, animals are like and unlike humans, as humans are also animals. Is the
similarity sufficiently strong to support the argument that we should ascribe rights to nonhuman
animals as we do to humans?’
 Deductive reasoning applies a principle to a situation. For instance, if every person has human
rights, and you are a person, then you have human rights like every person.’
 Inductive reasoning involves providing evidence to support a hypothesis. The greater the
evidence for a hypothesis, the more we may rely on it. The fact that there is mounting evidence
that the burning of fossil fuels is having a detrimental effect on global climate, for example, is
used to substantiate the argument that we have a moral duty to reduce carbon emissions.

Ethics and Religious Faith

Rather than relying on rational arguments, some people view actions as being right or wrong in terms of
whether they are commanded by a god. Some moral philosophers do not view arguments based on
religious faith as being rationally defensible. They believe that we can determine through rational
reflection what is right and wrong. However, faith-based arguments are relevant to moral philosophy for
several reasons. For a start, people do not always agree on what is right or wrong. It is not therefore
clear that we can determine what is right and wrong simply through rational reflection. Whether or not

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one personally chooses to accept faith-based arguments as valid within ethical discussions is a decision
that requires careful consideration.

Testing moral arguments

Testing moral arguments requires critical reasoning to assess their validity. This process involves
questioning the type of reasoning employed, the principles or evidence provided, and whether the
argument is rational or simply a rationalization. It is essential to ask if the conclusion logically follows
from the premises and if the motives behind the argument are genuine. Developing this skill enhances
the ability to address ethical dilemmas in personal and professional settings.

Three Main Criteria for Testing Moral Arguments

 Factual Accuracy ● Consistency ● Good Will

Thinking Ethically: A framework for Moral Decision Making

Ethical decision-making relies on structured frameworks to evaluate situations and decide on the best
course of action. Here are approaches to ethical thinking that provide guidance for analyzing moral
dilemmas:

1. Fairness and Justice Approach

This approach emphasizes treating everyone equally and fairly. It advocates for impartiality,
meaning decisions should not favor or discriminate against anyone unfairly. Fairness ensures
that all individuals receive what they deserve based on merit or need, which helps build trust
and mutual respect in society.

2. The Common Good Approach

This method prioritizes what is best for the community as a whole rather than focusing on
individual benefits. It considers shared goals, such as public safety, healthcare, or education,
which promote overall well-being. Ethical decisions based on the common good aim to balance
personal interests with collective needs, fostering a harmonious and supportive society.

3. The Rights Approach

The rights approach focuses on protecting individuals' fundamental rights, such as freedom,
privacy, and equality. It stresses that ethical actions must respect these rights, ensuring people
are treated with dignity and autonomy. Decisions made under this approach seek to avoid
infringing on others' freedoms while pursuing fairness and justice.

3.4 To Whom or What Does Morality Apply?

Morality applies to individuals, communities, and even the natural world. Understanding this scope
helps clarify ethical responsibilities in various contexts:

1. Religious Morality
For many, morality is shaped by religious beliefs and traditions. These provide guidelines on how
to live ethically, often emphasizing compassion, honesty, and respect for others. Religious
morality can serve as a foundation for personal and social values, offering clarity in ethical
decision-making.

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2. Morality and Nature

This perspective extends morality to the environment, highlighting the ethical duty to protect
natural resources and promote sustainability. It reflects the belief that humans have a
responsibility to act as stewards of the planet, ensuring its health for future generations.

3. Individual Morality
Personal morality focuses on the choices and actions of individuals. It emphasizes living with
integrity, being honest, and upholding values that contribute to one's character. This aspect of
morality is guided by one's conscience and personal reflection.

4. Social Morality
Social morality concerns the ethical principles that govern interactions within a community. It
stresses mutual respect, cooperation, and the importance of contributing positively to society.
Social morality ensures harmony and collective progress by encouraging individuals to act
responsibly towards others.

Who is Morally/Ethically Responsible?

Morality pertains to human beings and only to human beings; all else is speculation. If one wants to
attribute morality to supernatural beings, one has to do so solely on faith. If one wants to hold animals
or plants morally responsible for destructive acts against each other or against humans, then one has to
ignore most of the evidence that science has given us concerning the instinctual behavior of such beings
and the evidence of our own everyday observations.

Moral Judgments

Moral judgments are decisions about whether an action is right or wrong. These judgments are
based on ethical principles, the context of the situation, means of the action, and the intentions
behind the action. A fair moral judgment considers the impact on everyone involved and aims
to uphold values like fairness, honesty, and justice.

What Makes an Action Moral?

An action is considered moral when it aligns with ethical principles and promotes the well-being of
others. This includes actions driven by good intentions, respect for others' rights, and a focus on
fairness. Morality also considers the consequences of actions, ensuring they do not harm others
unnecessarily.

What Makes an Action Moral?

An action is considered moral when it aligns with ethical principles and promotes the well-being of
others. This includes actions driven by good intentions, respect for others' rights, and a focus on
fairness. Morality also considers the consequences of actions, ensuring they do not harm others
unnecessarily.

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Why Should Human Beings Be Moral?

1. Enlightened Self-Interest
Being moral benefits individuals in the long run. Acting ethically builds trust, fosters healthy
relationships, and creates harmony in society. For example, being honest and fair often leads to
mutual respect and cooperation.
2. Tradition and Law
Morality is deeply connected to traditions and laws that have been developed over time to
maintain order and promote the common good. Following these established rules helps ensure
stability and justice in society.
3. Common Human Needs
Morality addresses universal needs like safety, trust, and fairness. These needs are essential for
peaceful coexistence and collective progress. Acting morally ensures these shared goals are met,
benefiting both individuals and communities.

Brief recap of the chapter

 Making Ethical Decisions

Ethical decisions require using principles like fairness, respect for rights, and promoting
the common good to determine the best course of action. Critical thinking and
reasoning are vital in evaluating moral dilemmas.
 Frameworks for Moral Decision-Making
o Fairness and Justice Approach: Treat everyone equally and avoid discrimination.
o The Common Good Approach: Focus on actions that benefit society as a whole.
o The Rights Approach: Protect and respect individuals' fundamental rights, such as
freedom and dignity.

 Moral Responsibility
o Moral Judgments: Decisions about whether an action is right or wrong are based on
context, principles, and consequences.
o What Makes an Action Moral? An action is moral if it has good intentions, respects
others, and avoids unnecessary harm.

 Why Should We Be Moral?

o Self-Interest: Acting morally helps build trust and cooperation, which benefits
individuals in the long term.
o Tradition and Law: Morality is tied to societal rules and traditions that promote stability
and fairness.
o Human Needs: Morality addresses universal needs like safety, fairness, and harmony in
society.

 Importance of Testing Moral Arguments

Evaluating moral arguments requires:
o Ensuring the facts are correct.
o Checking consistency with ethical principles.
o Confirming the argument reflects genuine goodwill.

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