UNIT I

INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICAL LAYER

Syllabus
ISO/OSI - TCP/IP Protocol suite, Data Communication-system components – Topology Transmission Impairment,
Transmission Media: Guided Media - Unguided Media - Wireless - Wired LANs: Ethernet - Token ring -
Connecting Devices – Switching techniques – Bandwidth Metrics.

Data Communication components

When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote. Between individuals, local
communication usually occurs face to face, while remote communication takes place over distance.
A data communications system has five components.

1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information include text,
numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, and so on.

3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, television, and so on.

4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to
receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio
waves

5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a person
speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

Data Representation:
Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.
Text:
In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or Is). Different sets of bit
patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called a code, and the process of representing
symbols is called coding. Today, the prevalent coding system is called Unicode, which uses 32 bits to represent a
symbol or character used in any language in the world. The American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII), developed some decades ago in the United States, now constitutes the first 127 characters in Unicode and is
also referred to as Basic Latin.
Numbers:
Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used to represent
numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical operations. Appendix B
discusses several different numbering systems.
1
Images:
Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of pixels
(picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends on the resolution. For example, an
image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels. In the second case, there is a better representation of the image
(better resolution), but more memory is needed to store the image. After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel is
assigned a bit pattern. The size and the value of the pattern depend on the image. For an image made of only blackand-
white dots (e.g., a chessboard), a I-bit pattern is enough to represent a pixel. If an image is not made of pure white and
pure black pixels, you can increase the size of the bit pattern to include gray scale. For example, to show four levels
of gray scale, you can use 2-bit patterns. A black pixel can be represented by 00, a dark gray pixel by 01, a light gray
pixel by 10, and a white pixel by 11. There are several methods to represent color images. One method is called RGB,
so called because each color is made of a combination of three primary colors: red, green, and blue. The intensity of
each color is measured, and a bit pattern is assigned to it. Another method is called YCM, in which a color is made of
a combination of three other primary colors: yellow, cyan, and magenta.
Audio:
Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature different from text,
numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a microphone to change voice or music to an
electric signal, we create a continuous signal. In Chapters 4 and 5, we learn how to change sound or music to a digital
or an analog signal.
Video:
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be produced as a continuous
entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the
idea of motion. Again, we can change video to a digital or an analog signal.

Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex

Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one
way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can
only receive (Figure a). Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of
simplex devices.
Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice
versa (Figure b). Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half
duplex systems.
Full-Duplex
In full-duplex, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (Figure c).
One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network.
When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and
listen at the same time. The full-duplex mode is used when communication in
2
both directions is required all the time.

Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
Point-to-Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between
two devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual
length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible
When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are
establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the
television's control system.
Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is one in which
more than two specific devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is
shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is spatially shared
connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

Physical Topology

The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. One or more devices connect
to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies
possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring

3
Mesh: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. The term dedicated
means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects. To find the number of physical links in a
fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we first consider that each node must be connected to every other node.
Node 1 must be connected to n - I nodes, node 2 must be connected to n – 1 nodes, and finally node n must be
connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n - 1) physical links. However, if each physical link allows communication in
both directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number of links by 2. In other words, we can say that in a mesh
topology, we need n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode links.

To accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have n – 1 input/output (VO) ports to be connected
to the other n - 1 stations.

Advantages:

1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus eliminating the
traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.

2. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire system. Third,
there is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels along a dedicated line, only the
intended recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to messages. Finally,
point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can be routed to avoid links
with suspected problems. This facility enables the network manager to discover the precise
4
 location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.

Disadvantages
1. Disadvantage of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling because every device must be connected to
every other device, installation and reconnection are difficult.

2. Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can
accommodate. Finally, the hardware required to connect each link

(I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively expensive.

For these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited fashion, for example, as a backbone connecting
the main computers of a hybrid network that can include several other topologies.

Star Topology:

In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, usually called
a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct
traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the
data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device .

A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to
connect it to any number of others. This factor also makes it easy to install and reconfigure. Far less cabling needs to
be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve only one connection: between that device and the hub.

5
Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain active. This
factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault isolation. As long as the hub is working, it can be used
to monitor link problems and bypass defective links.

One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub. If
the hub goes down, the whole system is dead. Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must
be linked to a central hub. For this reason, often more cabling is required in a star than in some other topologies
(such as ring or bus).

Bus Topology:

The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections. A bus topology, on the other hand, is
multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network

Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running
between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures
the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of
its energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For
this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those taps.

Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient
path, then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In this way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh
or star topologies. In a star, for example, four network devices in the same room require four lengths of cable
reaching all the way to the hub. In a bus, this redundancy is eliminated. Only the backbone cable stretches through
the entire facility. Each drop line has to reach only as far as the nearest point on the backbone.

6
Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed to be optimally efficient
at installation. It can therefore be difficult to add new devices. Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation
in quality. This degradation can be controlled by limiting the number and spacing of devices connected to a given
length of cable. Adding new devices may therefore require modification or replacement of the backbone.

In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between devices on the same side of the
problem. The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of origin, creating noise in both directions.

Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in the design of early local area networks.

Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology, but they are less popular.
Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices on either
side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its
destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for
another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along

A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors (either
physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections. The only constraints
are media and traffic considerations (maximum ring length and number of devices). In addition, fault isolation is
simplified. Generally in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times. If one device does not receive a signal within a
specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and its location.

However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a
disabled station) can disable the entire network. This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch
capable of closing off the break. Ring topology was prevalent when IBM introduced its local-area network Token
Ring. Today, the need for higher-speed LANs has made this topology less popular. Hybrid Topology A network
can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch connecting several stations in a
bus topology as shown in Figure

7
Types of Networks
What is a LAN (Local Area Network)?
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices which are connected in a limited
area such as school, laboratory, home, and office building. It is a widely useful network for sharing resources
like files, printers, games, and other application. The simplest type of LAN network is to connect computers and
a printer in someone’s home or office. In general, LAN will be used as one type of transmission medium. It is a
network which consists of less than 5000 interconnected devices across several buildings.

Characteristics of LAN
Here are the important characteristics of a LAN network:

• It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.

• LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
• There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and ethernet.

Advantages of LAN
Here are the pros/benefits of LAN:

• Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area networks. This
significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
• You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the licensed software for each
client in the network.
• Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.
• You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
• It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
• Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all the LAN users.

Disadvantages of LAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of LAN:

• LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial cost of installing Local
Area Networks is quite high.
• The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer good privacy.
• Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN admin is not able to secure
centralized data repository.
• Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues related to software
setup and hardware failures

What is WAN (Wide Area Network)?

8
WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important computer network that which is spread across a large
geographical area. WAN network system could be a connection of a LAN which connects with other LAN’s
using telephone lines and radio waves. It is mostly limited to an enterprise or an organization.

Characteristics of WAN
Below are the characteristics of WAN:

• The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can access to the latest files.
• Any organization can form its global integrated network using WAN.

Advantages of WAN
Here are the benefits/pros of WAN:

• WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business offices situated at longer
distances can easily communicate.
• Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming consoles, etc.
• WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client devices.

Disadvantages of WAN
Here are the drawbacks/cons of WAN network:

• The initial setup cost of investment is very high.

• It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and network administrators.
• There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of different technologies.
• It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired and wireless
technologies.
• Offers lower security compared to other types of network in computer.

What is MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)?

A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer network across an entire city, college
campus, or a small region. This type of network is large than a LAN, which is mostly limited to a single
building or site. Depending upon the type of configuration, this type of network allows you to cover an area
from several miles to tens of miles.

Characteristics of MAN
Here are important characteristics of the MAN network:

• It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range

• Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
• Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN
Here are the pros/benefits of MAN network:

9
 • It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
• It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to WANs.
• The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both directions concurrently.
• A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN
Here are drawbacks/cons of using the MAN network:

• You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
• In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers

What is PAN (Personal Area Network)?

PAN (Personal Area Network) is a computer network formed around a person. It generally consists of a
computer, mobile, or personal digital assistant. PAN can be used for establishing communication among these
personal devices for connecting to a digital network and the internet.
Characteristics of PAN
Below are the main characteristics of PAN:

• It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.

• Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding of a single user.
• PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
• It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
• Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.

Advantages of PAN
Here are the important pros/benefits of PAN network:

• PAN networks are relatively secure and safe

• It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
• Strictly restricted to a small area

Disadvantages of PAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of using PAN network:

• It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.
• Distance limits.

Transmission Impairment
Transmission impairment occurs when the received signal is different from the transmitted signal. As we know,
a signal can be transmitted as Analog signal or it can be transmitted as a digital signal.
In Analog signals due to transmission impairment the resulting received signal gets different amplitude or the
shape. In the case of digitally transmitted signals at the receiver side we get changes in bits (0's or 1's).
Causes
10
There are various causes of transmission impairments −
• Noise
• Distortion
• Attenuation

Noise
Noise is the major factor for the transmission distortion as any unwanted signal gets added to the transmitted
signal by which the resulting transmitted signal gets modified and at the receiver side it is difficult to remove the
unwanted noise signal. These noises are various kinds like shot noise, impulse noise, thermal noise etc.
Noise is diagrammatically represented as follows −

Distortion
This kind of distortion is mainly appearing in case of composite signals in which a composite signal has various
frequency components in it and each frequency component has some time constraint which makes a complete
signal.
But while transmitting this composite signal, if a certain delay happens between the frequencies components,
then there may be the chance that the frequency component will reach the receiver end with a different delay
constraint from its original which leads to the change in shape of the signal. The delay happens due to
environmental parameters or from the distance between transmitter and receiver etc.
Distortion is diagrammatically represented as follows −

Attenuation
Attenuation is generally decreased in signal strength, by which the received signal will be difficult to receive at
the receiver end. This attenuation happens due to the majority factor by environment as environment imposes a
lot of resistance and the signal strength decreases as it tries to overcome the resistance imposed.

11
OSI
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection
Created by International Standards Organization (ISO)
Was created as a framework and reference model to explain how different
networking technologies work together and interact
It is not a standard that networking protocols must follow
Each layer has specific functions it is responsible for
All layers work together in the correct order to move data around a network

Physical Layer
Deals with all aspects of physically moving data from one computer to the next
Converts data from the upper layers into 1s and 0s for transmission over media Defines how data is
encoded onto the media to transmit the data Defined on this layer: Cable standards, wireless standards, and
fiber optic
standards.
Copper wiring, fiber optic cable, radio frequencies, anything that can be used to
transmit data is defined on the Physical layer of the OSI Model
Device example: Hub Used to transmit data

Data Link Layer

12
 Is responsible for moving frames from node to node or computer to computer
Can move frames from one adjacent computer to another, cannot move frames
across routers
Encapsulation = frame
Requires MAC address or physical address
Protocols defined include Ethernet Protocol and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
Device example: Switch
Two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and the Media Access Control (MAC) o Logical Link Control
(LLC)
–Data Link layer addressing, flow control, address notification, error control
o Media Access Control (MAC)
–Determines which computer has access to the network media at any given
time
–Determines where one frame ends and the next one starts, called frame
synchronization

Network Layer
Responsible for moving packets (data) from one end of the network to the
other, called end-to-end communications
Requires logical addresses such as IP addresses
Device example: Router
–Routing is the ability of various network devices and their related software to
move data packets from source to destination

Transport Layer
Takes data from higher levels of OSI Model and breaks it into segments that can be sent to lower-level layers
for data transmission
Conversely, reassembles data segments into data that higher-level protocols and applications can use
Also puts segments in correct order (called sequencing ) so they can be reassembled in correct order at
destination
Concerned with the reliability of the transport of sent data
May use a connection-oriented protocol such as TCP to ensure destination received segments
May use a connectionless protocol such as UDP to send segments without assurance of delivery
Uses port addressing

Session Layer
Responsible for managing the dialog between networked devices
Establishes, manages, and terminates connections
Provides duplex, half-duplex, or simplex communications between devices
Provides procedures for establishing checkpoints, adjournment, termination,
and restart or recovery procedures

Presentation Layer
Concerned with how data is presented to the network
Handles three primary tasks: –Translation , –Compression , –Encryption

Application Layer
Contains all services or protocols needed by application software or operating system to communicate on the
network
Examples
o Firefox web browser uses HTTP (Hyper-Text Transport Protocol)
o–E-mail program may use POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) to read e-mails
13
and SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) to send e-mails

TCP/IP model
The OSI Model is a reference/logical model. It was designed to describe the functions of the communication
system by dividing the communication procedure into smaller and simpler components.
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and is based on
standard protocols. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a
concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model. The number
of layers is sometimes referred to as five or four.
What Does TCP/IP Do?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to another. The main condition
of this process is to make data reliable and accurate so that the receiver will receive the same information which
is sent by the sender. To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model
divides its data into packets and combines them at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of
the data while transferring from one end to another end.
What is the Difference between TCP and IP?
TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer Networks. The basic difference between TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol) is in the transmission of data. In simple words, IP finds the
destination of the mail and TCP has the work to send and receive the mail. UDP is another protocol, which
does not require IP to communicate with another computer. IP is required by only TCP. This is the basic
difference between TCP and IP.
How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?
Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP Model, the TCP/IP Model divides the
data into packets at the sender’s end and the same packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to form
the same data, and this thing happens to maintain the accuracy of the data. TCP/IP model divides the data into
a 4-layer procedure, where the data first go into this layer in one order and again in reverse order to get
organized in the same way at the receiver’s end.

Layers of TCP/IP Model

1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
3. Network/Internet Layer(IP)
4. Data Link Layer (MAC)
5. Physical Layer

The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:

14
1. Physical Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is responsible for generating the
data and requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network Access layer on the behalf of
the receiver.

2. Data Link Layer

The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by the data-link layer. Error prevention
and “framing” are also provided by the data-link layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet
IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.

3. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are responsible for the
logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
• IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source
host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2
versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is
growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when compared to the number of
users.
• ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP
datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
• ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a
host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous
ARP, and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of protocols that define
the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from one device to another across a
network. It does this by assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to identify the device and
determine the route that packets should take to reach it.

4. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit missing packets
to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end communication is referred to as such.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level
(UDP).
• TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were physically
connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character
transmission rather than separate packets. A starting point that establishes the connection, the
whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the connection make up this
transmission.
• UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport layer protocol.
Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that
transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes of
establishing and validating connections.
5. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end communication
and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of data. The three
main protocols present in this layer are:
• HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World Wide
Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-

15
 Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases
where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.
• SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet. The
reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up
a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
• NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our
computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions.
Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a
transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at 2:28
PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.

Wired LANs:

Ethernet
What Is Ethernet? A Look Into The Basics Of Network Communication
Ethernet is a form of communication technology responsible for establishing connections between multiple
network devices. It is preferred for establishing LAN-type channels and is also used for WAN network
channels. In this tutorial on ‘What Is Ethernet?’, you will understand all the parts that make

Ethernet is designed for the transmission of data over the channel using wired technology and is used for high-
speed data transmission. It is also responsible for applying some protocols for smooth and efficient data
transmission over the network.

Ethernet uses cables to transmit data in a network model, such as LAN and, in some cases, WAN. It is more
reliable and secure, providing better network connectivity.

Why Use Ethernet?

Ethernet technology is used for establishing connections and is preferred for network channels. It is used in
industry networks, college campuses, and medical institutions because it provides services to the data being
transmitted.

• Ethernet provides high-speed data transmission in the network.

• It establishes a secure connection for transferring data in the network.

• Ethernet is reliable, as the possibility of outside interference is very low as cable data is difficult to
hack into.
16
Types of Ethernet

Depending on the network requirements, the type of ethernet networks applied in the communication also
varies. The different types of ethernet connections are mentioned below:

• Fast Ethernet: This Ethernet type is used for transferring data around the network at a speed of 100
Mbps through twisted-pair cables or optical cables. This type of data transmitted can be done
without applying protocols.

• Gigabit Ethernet: This type of Ethernet also uses optical and twisted pair cables for data
transmission at 1000 Mbps. This is also one of the most preferred Ethernet networks.

• Switched Ethernet: This Ethernet type installs network devices such as switches or hubs to improve
the network transmission. The transmission range for this type ranges from 1000Mbps to 10Gbps.

Why Use Ethernet?

Ethernet technology is used for establishing connections and is preferred for network channels. It is used in
industry networks, college campuses, and medical institutions because it provides services to the data being
transmitted.

• Ethernet provides high-speed data transmission in the network.

• It establishes a secure connection for transferring data in the network.

• Ethernet is reliable, as the possibility of outside interference is very low as cable data is difficult to
hack into.

Types of Ethernet

Depending on the network requirements, the type of ethernet networks applied in the communication also
varies. The different types of ethernet connections are mentioned below:

• Fast Ethernet: This Ethernet type is used for transferring data around the network at a speed of 100
Mbps through twisted-pair cables or optical cables. This type of data transmitted can be done
without applying protocols.

• Gigabit Ethernet: This type of Ethernet also uses optical and twisted pair cables for data
transmission at 1000 Mbps. This is also one of the most preferred Ethernet networks.

• Switched Ethernet: This Ethernet type installs network devices such as switches or hubs to improve
the network transmission. The transmission range for this type ranges from

Working of Ethernet Network

The Ethernet network is designed to work in the 1st layer (physical layer) and 2nd layer (Data Link Layer) of
the OSI model.
17
Ethernet divides the transmission of data into two parts: packets and frames.

• Packet–Refers to a unit of data in the network.

• Frame–Refers to the collection of data packets being transmitted.

The data to be transmitted is converted into data packets in the network and then transferred to the channel. At a
point, multiple data packets are collected to form a data frame, which is then transmitted further in the network
channel.

During data transmission, Ethernet applies various services over the data being transmitted, such as security
checks, traffic control services & other protocols.

Electrical Signification for Ethernet

There are various electrical significations for Ethernet, which are as follows:
Signaling
Baseband system uses Manchester digital encoding while the broadband system uses differential PSK.
Data Rate
The Ethernet LANs supports a data rate between 1 Mbps to 100 Mbps. Baseband defines 1, 10, and 100 Mbps
data rates, while broadband defines a data rate of 10 Mbps.
Frame Format

IEEE 802.3 specifies only one type of frame format that includes seven fields. These fields are as follows−
• Preamble − It contains seven bytes (56 bits) and is used for synchronization.
• Start frame delimiter (SFD) − It is a one-byte field and is used to signal the frame's
beginning.
• Destination Address and Source Address fields are six bytes' fields containing sender and
receiver address as declared by the Network Interface Card.
• The next field length/type is a two-byte field and indicates the number of PDU bits and its
type. It provides a base for other protocols.
• The PDU or 802.2 frames contain the entire 802.2 frames as a modular removable unit. It can
start from the 46th byte and can continue up to the 1500th byte. It is generated by the LLC
sublayer depending on the size and type of the PDU, and then it is linked to an 802.3 frame.
• The last field is CRC, which contains error detection information

18
Token Ring
A token ring is a data link for a local area network (LAN) in which all devices are connected in a ring
or star topology and pass one or more tokens from host to host. A token is a frame of data transmitted between
network points. Only a host that holds a token can send data, and tokens are released when receipt of the data is
confirmed. IBM developed token ring technology in the 1980s as an alternative to Ethernet.

What is a token ring network?

Also known as IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) 802.5, a token ring network connects all
devices, including computers, in a circular or closed-loop manner. In this scenario, the word token describes a
segment of data sent through the network.

Token ring networks prevent data packets from colliding on a network segment because only a token holder can
send data, and the number of tokens available is also controlled. When a device on the network successfully
decodes that token, it receives the encoded data.

Token ring history

Attached Resource Computer Network, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) and the token bus used the
token ring. But the most broadly deployed token ring protocols were those of IBM, released in the mid-1980s,
and the standardized version of it known as IEEE 802.5, which appeared in the late 1980s.

The use of token rings and 802.5 started declining in the 1990s. Today, they are considered inactive and
obsolete. Enterprise organizations gradually phased out the token ring and adopted Ethernet technology, which
dominates LAN designs today. The IEEE 802.5 working group is now listed as disbanded.

Token rings were popular because they worked well with large amounts of traffic, but they were not well suited
to large networks, particularly if those networks were spread widely or had physically remote nodes. To
overcome some of these limitations, multistation access units (MSAUs), which are like hubs on Ethernet, were
added. MSAUs are centralized wiring hubs and are also known as concentrators.

Token Ring

Token ring (IEEE 802.5) is a communication protocol in a local area network (LAN) where all stations are
connected in a ring topology and pass one or more tokens for channel acquisition. A token is a special frame of
3 bytes that circulates along the ring of stations. A station can send data frames only if it holds a token. The
tokens are released on successful receipt of the data frame.
Token Passing Mechanism in Token Ring
If a station has a frame to transmit when it receives a token, it sends the frame and then passes the token to the
next station; otherwise it simply passes the token to the next station. Passing the token means receiving the token
from the preceding station and transmitting to the successor station. The data flow is unidirectional in the direction
of the token passing. In order that tokens are not circulated infinitely, they are removed from the network once
their purpose is completed. This is shown in the following diagram −

Connecting Devices

Network Devices: Network devices, also known as networking hardware, are physical devices that allow
hardware on a computer network to communicate and interact with one another. For example Repeater, Hub,
Bridge, Switch, Routers, Gateway, Brouter, and NIC, etc.

19
1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same
network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the length to which the signal can be
transmitted over the same network. An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they not only
amplify the signal but also regenerate it. When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and
regenerate it at its star topology connectors connecting following the original strength. It is a 2 -port device.

2. Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different
branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter
data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts
connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for data
packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.

Types of Hub

• Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean, boost, and relay
the signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring center. These
are used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
• Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from the
active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them and
can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.
• Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes remote management capabilities.
They also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator to
monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.

3. Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of
filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and destination. It is also used for interconnecting
two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port
device.
Types of Bridges
• Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of
the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network,
reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e.
bridge forwarding and bridge learning.
• Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by the source station
and the frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover the frame by sending a
special frame called the discovery frame, which spreads through the entire network using all
possible paths to the destination.

4. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency(a large
number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can
perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets
that have errors and forward good packets selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the switch
divides the collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the same.

Types of Switch
1. Unmanaged switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play design and do not offer
advanced configuration options. They are suitable for small networks or for use as an expansion
to a larger network.
2. Managed switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options such as VLANs, QoS,
and link aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more complex networks and allow for
centralized management.
3. Smart switches: These switches have features similar to managed switches but are typically
easier to set up and manage. They are suitable for small- to medium-sized networks.
4. Layer 2 switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model and are
responsible for forwarding data between devices on the same network segment.
5. Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI model and can route
data between different network segments. They are more advanced than Layer 2 switches and
are often used in larger, more complex networks.
6. PoE switches: These switches have Power over Ethernet capabilities, which allows them to
supply power to network devices over the same cable that carries data.

20
 7. Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit Ethernet speeds, which are faster than
traditional Ethernet speeds.
8. Rack-mounted switches: These switches are designed to be mounted in a server rack and are
suitable for use in data centers or other large networks.
9. Desktop switches: These switches are designed for use on a desktop or in a small office
environment and are typically smaller in size than rack-mounted switches.
10. Modular switches: These switches have modular design, which allows for easy expansion or
customization. They are suitable for large networks and data centers.

5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. The router
is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a dynamically
updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets. The router divides the
broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks that may work upon
different networking models. They work as messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret it, and
transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer.
Gateways are generally more complex than switches or routers. A gateway is also called a protocol converter.

7. Brouter – It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of both bridge and
router. It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer. Working as a router, it is capable of routing
packets across networks and working as the bridge, it is capable of filtering local area network traffic.

8. NIC – NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the computer to the
network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a unique id that is written on the chip, and
it has a connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts as an interface between the computer and the
router or modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device which means that it works on both the physical and data link
layers of the network model.

Transmission Media

Classification Of Transmission Media:

• Guided Transmission Media

21
 • UnGuided Transmission Media

Guided Media

It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is also known as Bounded media.

Types Of Guided media:

Twisted pair:

Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A twisted pair cable is cheap
as compared to other transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable.
The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.

The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per foot. Increasing the number
of turns per foot decreases noise interference.

Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the categories of the unshielded
twisted pair cable:

o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:

o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.

Shielded Twisted Pair

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows the higher transmission
rate.

Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

22
 o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

Disadvantages

o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

o It has a higher attenuation rate.

Coaxial Cable

o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually a coaxial
cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is made up of
copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner conductor
from the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents from
the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals simultaneously.

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed.

o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

Fibre Optic

o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used to send the data by pulses
of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic interference from other
types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:

23
Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A core is a light
transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the core, the more light will be transmitted into the
fibre.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality of the cladding is
to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that
the light waves are transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main purpose of a jacket
is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra fibre protection.

Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:

o Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared copper. Therefore,
the fibre optic carries more data as compared to copper cable.
o Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows the fibre optic cable to
carry the signals at a higher speed.
o Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as compared to copper cable.
o Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it is immune to any
temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the connectivity of copper cable.
o Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can withstand more pull
pressure than copper cable.

UnGuided Transmission

o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any physical medium.
Therefore, it is also known as wireless transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy can flow easily.

Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:

Radio waves

o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions of free space.
o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e., the wave sent by the
sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

24
Applications Of Radio waves:

o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.

Advantages Of Radio transmission:

o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

Microwaves

o Terrestrial microwave
o Satellite microwave communication.

Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a radio signal
from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned, i.e., the waves sent
by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna which is km away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers are the direct sight of
each other.

Characteristics of Microwave:

o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-23 GHz.
o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental conditions and antenna
size.

Advantages Of Microwave:

o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.

o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of cables.
o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation of cable in terrain
is quite a difficult task.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.

Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:

o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious user can catch the
signal in the air by using its own antenna.
o Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave transmission.

25
 o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather condition. This
means that any environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.
o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave transmission.

Satellite Microwave Communication

o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than cable and fibre optic
systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.

How Does Satellite work?

The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies the signal. The amplified
signal is retransmitted to another earth station.

Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the centre of the coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
o It is easy to install.
o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV signal broadcasting,
mobile communication, etc.

Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it remains in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch of the satellite has to be
planned before it becomes non-functional.

Infrared

o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over short ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell phones, TV remote
operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone resides in the same closed area.

Characteristics Of Infrared:

o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared communication in one room cannot be
interrupted by the nearby rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will interfere with the
infrared waves.

Switching
A network is a set of connected devices. Whenever we have multiple devices, we have the problem of how to
connect them to make one-to-one communication possible. One solution is to make a point-to-point connection
between each pair of devices (a mesh topology) or between a central device and every other device (a star
topology). These methods, however, are impractical and wasteful when applied to very large networks. The
number and length of the links require too much infrastructure to be cost-efficient, and the majority of those links
would be idle most of the time. A better solution is switching. A switched network consists of a series of
interlinked nodes, called switches. Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections between two

26
or more devices linked to the switch. In a switched network, some of these nodes are connected to the end systems
(computers or telephones, for example). Others are used only for routing.

CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches connected by physical links. A connection between two
stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links. However, each connection uses only one dedicated
channel on each link. Each link is normally divided into n channels by using FDM or TDM.
In circuit switching, the resources need to be reserved during the setup phase; the resources remain dedicated for
the entire duration of data transfer until the teardown phase

Three Phases
The actual communication in a circuit-switched network requires three phases: connection setup, data transfer,
and connection teardown.

Setup Phase
Before the two parties (or multiple parties in a conference call) can communicate, a dedicated circuit
(combination of channels in links) needs to be established. Connection setup means creating dedicated channels
between the
switches.

Data Transfer Phase

After the establishment of the dedicated circuit (channels), the two parties can transfer data.

Teardown Phase
When one of the parties needs to disconnect, a signal is sent to each switch to release the resources.

Efficiency
It can be argued that circuit-switched networks are not as efficient as the other two types of networks because
resources are allocated during the entire duration of the connection. These resources are unavailable to other
connections.

Delay
Although a circuit-switched network normally has low efficiency, the delay in this type of network is minimal.
During data transfer the data are not delayed at each switch; the resources are allocated for the duration of the
connection. The total delay is due to the time needed to create the connection, transfer
data, and disconnect the circuit.

Switching at the physical layer in the traditional telephone network uses the circuit-switching approach.
27
PACKET SWITCHED NETWORKS
1. DATAGRAM NETWORKS
In a packet-switched network, there is no resource reservation; resources are allocated on demand. The
allocation is done on a first come, first-served basis. When a switch receives a packet, no matter what is the
source or destination, the packet must wait if there are other packets being processed. This lack of reservation
may create delay. For example, if we do not have a
reservation at a restaurant, we might have to wait.
In a datagram network, each packet is treated independently of all others.Packets in this approach are
referred to as datagrams. Datagram switching is normally done at the network layer.

Figure shows how the datagram approach is used to deliver four packets from station A to station X. The
switches in a datagram network are traditionally referred to as routers. The datagram networks are sometimes
referred to as connectionless networks. The term connectionless here means that the switch (packet switch) does
not keep information about the connection state. There are no
setup or teardown phases. Each packet is treated the same by a switch regardless of its source or destination.
A switch in a datagram network uses a routing table that is based on the destination address. The destination
address in the header of a packet in a datagram network remains the same during the entire journey of the

packet.
Efficiency
The efficiency of a datagram network is better than that of a circuit-switched network; resources are allocated
only when there are packets to be transferred.
Delay
There may be greater delay in a datagram network than in a virtual-circuit network. Although there are no setup
and teardown phases, each packet may experience a wait at a switch before it is forwarded. In addition, since not
all packets in a message necessarily travel through the same switches, the delay is not uniform for the packets of
a message. Switching in the Internet is done by using the datagram approach to packet switching at the network
layer.

2. VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS

A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched

network and a datagram network. It has some characteristics of both.

1. As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases in

addition to the data transfer phase.
2. Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-switched
network, or on demand, as in a datagram network.
3. As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet carries an
address in the header. However, the address in the header has local jurisdiction
(it defines what should be the next switch and the channel on which the packet
is being carried), not end-to-end jurisdiction.
4. As in a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path established
during the connection.
5. A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data link layer, while
28
a circuit-switched network is implemented in the physical layer and a datagram
network in the network layer.

Addressing
In a virtual-circuit network, two types of addressing are involved: global and
local (virtual-circuit identifier).
Global Addressing
A source or a destination needs to have a global address-an address that can be
unique in the scope of the network.
Virtual-Circuit Identifier
The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is called the virtual-circuit
identifier (VCI). A VCI, unlike a global address, is a small number that has only
switch scope; it is used by a frame between two switches. When a frame arrives
at a switch, it has a VCI; when it leaves, it has a different VCl. Figure shows how the VCI in a data frame
changes from one switch to another.
Note that a VCI does not need to be a large number since each switch can use
its own unique set of VCls.

Message Switching –
Message switching was a technique developed as an alternative to circuit switching before packet switching
was introduced. In message switching, end-users communicate by sending and receiving messages that
included the entire data to be shared. Messages are the smallest individual unit.
Also, the sender and receiver are not directly connected. There are a number of intermediate nodes that
transfer data and ensure that the message reaches its destination. Message switched data networks are hence
called hop-by-hop systems.
They provide 2 distinct and important characteristics:
1. Store and forward – The intermediate nodes have the responsibility of transferring the entire
message to the next node. Hence, each node must have storage capacity. A message will only be
delivered if the next hop and the link connecting it are both available, otherwise, it’ ll be stored
indefinitely. A store-and-forward switch forwards a message only if sufficient resources are
available and the next hop is accepting data. This is called the store-and-forward property.

2. Message delivery – This implies wrapping the entire information in a single message and
transferring it from the source to the destination node. Each message must have a header that
contains the message routing information, including the source and destination.
Message switching network consists of transmission links (channels), store-and-forward switch nodes, and
end stations as shown in the following picture:

Characteristics of message switching –

Message switching is advantageous as it enables efficient usage of network resources. Also, because of the
store-and-forward capability of intermediary nodes, traffic can be efficiently regulated and controlled.
Message delivery as one unit, rather than in pieces, is another benefit.
However, message switching has certain disadvantages as well. Since messages are stored indefinitely at each
intermediate node, switches require a large storage capacity. Also, these are pretty slow. This is because at

29
each node, first there is a wait till the entire message is received, then it must be stored and transmitted after
processing the next node and links to it depending on availability and channel traffic. Hence, message
switching cannot be used for real-time or interactive applications like a video conference.
Advantages of Message Switching –
Message switching has the following advantages:
1. As message switching is able to store the message for which communication channel is not
available, it helps in reducing the traffic congestion in the network.
2. In message switching, the data channels are shared by the network devices.
3. It makes traffic management efficient by assigning priorities to the messages.
4. Because the messages are delivered via a store and forward method, it is possible to include
priority in them.
5. It allows for infinite message lengths.
6. Unlike circuit switching, it does not necessitate the actual connection of source and destination
devices.
Disadvantages of Message Switching –
Message switching has the following disadvantages:
1. Message switching cannot be used for real-time applications as storing messages causes delay.
2. In message switching, the message has to be stored for which every intermediate device in the
network requires a large storing capacity.
3. Because the system is so intricate, people are frequently unaware of whether or not messages are
correctly conveyed. This could cause problems in social relationships.
4. The type of message switching does not create a dedicated path between the devices. It is not
dependable communication because there is no direct relationship between sender and receiver.
Applications –
The store-and-forward method was implemented in telegraph message switching centres. Today, although
many major networks and systems are packet-switched or circuit-switched networks, their delivery processes
can be based on message switching. For example, in most electronic mail systems the delivery process is
based on message switching, while the network is in fact either circuit-switched or packet-switched.

What is network bandwidth?

Network bandwidth is a measurement indicating the maximum capacity of a wired or wireless communications
link to transmit data over a network connection in a given amount of time. Typically, bandwidth is represented
in the number of bits, kilobits, megabits or gigabits that can be transmitted in 1 second. Synonymous with
capacity, bandwidth describes data transfer rate. Bandwidth is not a measure of network speed -- a common
misconception.

How does bandwidth work?

The more bandwidth a data connection has, the more data it can send and receive at one time. In concept,
bandwidth can be compared to the volume of water that can flow through a pipe. The wider the pipe's diameter,
the more water can flow through it at one time. Bandwidth works on the same principle. The higher the capacity
of the communication link, the more data can flow through it per second.

The cost of a network connection goes up as bandwidth increases. Thus, a 1 gigabit per second (Gbps)
Dedicated Internet Access (DIA) link will be more expensive than one that can handle 250 megabits per second
(Mbps) of throughput.

Bandwidth vs. speed

The terms bandwidth and speed are often used interchangeably but not correctly. The cause of the confusion
may be due, in part, to advertisements by internet service providers (ISPs) that conflate the two by referring to
greater speeds when they truly mean bandwidth.

Essentially, speed refers to the rate at which data can be transmitted, while the definition of bandwidth is the
capacity for that speed. To use the water metaphor again, speed refers to how quickly water can be pushed
through a pipe; bandwidth refers to the quantity of water that can be moved through the pipe over a set time
frame.

Why bandwidth is important

30
Bandwidth is not an unlimited resource. In any given deployment location, such as a home or business, there is
only so much capacity available. Sometimes, this is due to physical limitations of the network device, such as
the router or modem, cabling or wireless frequencies being used. Other times, bandwidth is intentionally rate-
limited by a network administrator or internet or wide area network (WAN) carrier.

Multiple devices using the same connection must share bandwidth. Some devices, such as TVs that stream 4K
video, are bandwidth hogs. In comparison, a webinar typically uses far less bandwidth. Although speed and
bandwidth are not interchangeable, greater bandwidth is essential to maintain tolerable speeds on multiple
devices. To help illustrate this, here's the average bandwidth consumed for various services:

How to measure bandwidth

While bandwidth is traditionally expressed in bits per second (bps), modern network links now have far greater
capacity, which is why bandwidth is now more often expressed as Mbps or Gbps.

Bandwidth connections can be symmetrical, which means the data capacity is the same in both directions --
upload and download -- or asymmetrical, which means download and upload capacity are not equal. In
asymmetrical connections, upload capacity is typically smaller than download capacity; this is common in
consumer-grade internet broadband connections. Enterprise-grade WAN and DIA links more commonly have
symmetrical bandwidth.

Considerations for calculating bandwidth

Technology advances have made some bandwidth calculations more complex, and they can depend on the type
of network link being used. For example, optical fiber using different types of light waves and time-division
multiplexing can transmit more data through a connection at one time compared to copper Ethernet alternatives,
which effectively increases its bandwidth.

In mobile data networks, such as Long-Term Evolution, or LTE, and 5G, bandwidth is defined as the spectrum
of frequencies that operators can license from the Federal Communications Commission and the National
Telecommunications and Information Administration for use in the U.S. This spectrum cannot be legally used
by anyone other than the business that owns the license to it. The carrier can then use wireless technologies to
transport data across that spectrum to achieve the greatest bandwidth the hardware can provide.

Wi-Fi spectrum, on the other hand, is considered to be unlicensed. Thus, anyone with a Wi-Fi access point (AP)
or Wi-Fi router can create a wireless network. The caveat is that the spectrum is not guaranteed to be available.
Thus, Wi-Fi bandwidth can suffer when there are other Wi-Fi APs attempting to use some or all of the same
frequencies.

Effective bandwidth -- which is the highest reliable transmission rate a link can provide on any given transport
technology -- can be measured using a bandwidth test. During a bandwidth test, the link's capacity is determined
by repeatedly measuring the time required for a specific file to leave its point of origin and successfully
download at its destination.

After determining bandwidth consumption across the network, it is then necessary to see where applications and
data reside and calculate their average bandwidth needs for each user and session.

To understand how much bandwidth a network uplink or internet broadband requires, follow these four steps:

1. Determine which applications will be in use.

2. Determine the bandwidth requirements of each application.
3. Multiply the application requirements of each application by the number of expected simultaneous
users.
4. Add all application bandwidth numbers together.

31
32