Sequences of real and complex numbers

July 28, 2024

This chapter, as the title suggests, is dedicated to the study of sequences

of real and complex numbers. The rst sections contain preliminary notions,
conventional notations and a brief overview on primary notions necessary to
make this book as self-contained as possible.

1 Real numbers
Let X, Y be two nonempty sets. A triple ρ = (X, Y ; R), where R ⊆ X × Y,
is called a binary relation. The set X is called the domain of the relation ρ,
Y is the codomain or the range of ρ while R represents the graph of relation
ρ. If (x, y) ∈ R we say that x is ρ related to y (or x is in relation ρ with y )
and we write xρy.
The notion of binary relation, frequently used in many branches of math-
ematics and computer sciences, is in fact a generalization of the notion of
function. A function f = (X, Y ; R) is a relation with the property that for
every x ∈ X there exists a unique y ∈ Y such that xf y (xf y is denoted
usually by y = f (x).).

Denition 1 A binary relation ρ = (X, Y ; R) is called:

• reexive, if xρx for all x ∈ X;

• symmetric, if xρy =⇒ yρx;

• antisymmetric, if xρy and yρx =⇒ x = y;

• transitive, if xρy and yρz =⇒ xρz;

1
 • equivalence, if it is reexive, symmetric and transitive;
• order relation, if it is reexive, antisymmetric and transitive;
• totally order relation, if it an order relation and for all x, y ∈ X we
have xρy or yρx.
Example 1.1 Let P(X) be the collection of all subsets of a given set X.
Then the equality relation, ” = ”, and the inclusion relation, ” ⊆ ”, are an
equivalence respectively an order relation on P(X).
A set X endowed with an order relation is called an ordered set. An order
relation is usually denoted by ” ≤ ”.
Denition 2 Let (X, ≤) be an ordered set and A a nonempty subset of X.
An element x ∈ X is called an upper bound (a lower bound) of A if
a≤x (x ≤ a) for every a ∈ A.
A set possessing a lower and an upper bound is called a bounded set.
The numbers a and b are called an lower (upper) bound of the the se-
quence (an )n≥1
Denition 3 Let A be a bounded subset of an ordered set (X, ≤). The great-
est lower bound (the smallest upper bound) of A (if there exist) is called the
inmum ( supremum) of A and are denoted by inf A(sup A).
If inf A or sup A belong to A, they are called the minimum respectively
the maximum of A and are denoted by min A and max A.
Example 1.2 Consider the set A = {1, 12 , 13 , . . .}. Then inf A = 0 and
sup A = 1.

Denition 4 Let f : X → Y be a function, A ⊆ X, B ⊆ Y. The sets

f (A) = {f (x)|x ∈ A}
−1
f (B) = {x ∈ X|f (x) ∈ B}

are called the image of A, respectively the counterimage of A through the

function f. The set f (X) is called the range of f.

2
Denition 5 A set R endowed with the algebraic operations ”+ : R × R →
R”, ”· : R × R → R, ” and a totally order relation ” ≤ ” satisfying the
following properties:
a) (R, +, ·) is a commutative eld;

b) • If x, y ∈ R, x ≤ y, then x + z ≤ y + z for every z ∈ R.

• If x, y ∈ R, x ≤ y, then xz ≤ yz for every z ≥ 0.

c) Every nonempty and upper bounded subset of R has a supremum;

is called a set of real numbers.

Remark 1.1 1) The rst two conditions represent the algebraic part of
Denition 5. The last condition, called the axiom of upper bound of
Cantor-Dedekind, is the starting point for the basic results of mathe-
matical analysis.
2) Some example of sets satisfying the conditions of Denition 5 are the
set of innite decimal fractions and the set of points of an ordered axe.
One can prove that every two sets satisfying the conditions of Denition
5 are isomorphic.

If the set R is given, then one denes the set N of natural numbers, the
set Z of integers and the set Q of rational numbers by:

N = {0, 1, 2, . . .}
Z = {x ∈ R|x ∈ N or − x ∈ N}
Q = {xy −1 |x, y ∈ Z, y 6= 0}.

One denes also the sets

N∗ = N \ {0}
R+ = {x ∈ R|0 ≤ x}
R∗+ = {x ∈ R|0 < x}
R− = {x ∈ R|x ≤ 0}
R∗− = {x ∈ R|x < 0},

3
where x < y means x ≤ y and x 6= y.
The following characterizations of the supremum and the inmum of a
subset of R hold.

Proposition 1.1 Let A be a nonempty subset of R. Then a = sup A if and

only if the following conditions are fullled:

1. x ≤ a for every x ∈ A;

2. for every ε > 0, there exists xε ∈ A such that a − ε < xε .

Proposition 1.2 Let A be a nonempty subset of R. Then a = inf A if and

only if the following conditions are fullled:

1. a ≤ x for every x ∈ A;

2. for every ε > 0, there exists xε ∈ A such that xε < a + ε.

The proof of the previous propositions follows easily from the denition
of the supremum and inmum of a set.

Proposition 1.3 Every nonempty lower bounded subset of R possesses an

inmum.

Proposition 1.4 (Archimedes's axiom)

For every x, y ∈ R∗+ there exists n ∈ N such that nx > y.

Proposition 1.5 For every x ∈ R there exists a unique n ∈ Z such that

n ≤ x < n + 1.

The number n from Proposition 1.5 is called the integer part of x and is
denoted by [x].
The absolute value of a real number x is dened by

if x ≥ 0

x,
|x| =
−x, if x < 0.

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For a, b ∈ R, a < b one denes the following bounded intervals:

(a, b) = {x ∈ R|a < x < b}

[a, b] = {x ∈ R|a ≤ x ≤ b}
[a, b) = {x ∈ R|a ≤ x < b}
(a, b] = {x ∈ R|a < x ≤ b}

The sets

(a, +∞) = {x ∈ R|a < x}

[a, +∞) = {x ∈ R|a ≤ x}
(−∞, a) = {x ∈ R|x < a}
(−∞, a] = {x ∈ R|x ≤ a}
(−∞, +∞) = R,

are called unbounded intervals.

Denition 6 A set V ⊆ R is called a neighborhood of x ∈ R if there exists

ε > 0 such that (x − ε, x + ε) ⊆ V.

By V(x) we denote the collection of all neighborhoods of x ∈ R.

Denition 7 Let A be a subset of R. An element a ∈ A is called an interior

point of A if there exists V ∈ V(a) such that V ⊆ A.

Denition 8 An element x ∈ R is called an cluster point (accumulation

point) of a set A ⊆ R if for every V ∈ V(x) we have V ∩ (A \ {x}) 6= ∅.

We denote by A0 the set of all cluster points of A and by int A the interior
of the set A. By R we denote the set dened by R = R ∪ {−∞, +∞}, where
−∞ and +∞ are two elements satisfying the following properties of order:

−∞ < +∞, −∞ < x, x < +∞, for every x ∈ R.

5
We extend the operations ” + ” and ” · ” from R to R setting by denition:

x + (+∞) = (+∞) + x = +∞, x ∈ R ∪ {+∞}

x + (−∞) = (−∞) + x = −∞, x ∈ R ∪ {−∞}
x · (+∞) = (+∞) · x = +∞, x ∈ R∗+ ∪ {+∞}
x · (−∞) = (−∞) · x = −∞, x ∈ R∗+ ∪ {−∞}
x x
= = 0, x ∈ R.
+∞ −∞

Denition 9 A set V ⊆ R is called a neighbourhood of +∞ (or −∞) if

there exists a ∈ R with the property (a, +∞) ⊆ V (or (−∞, a) ⊆ V ).

The families of all neighbourhood of +∞ and −∞ are denoted by V(+∞)

and V(−∞).

2 Sequences of real numbers

Denition 10 A function f : N∗ → R is called sequence of real numbers.

Usually a sequence is denoted by (an )n≥1 or (an ), where an = f (n),

n ∈ N∗ .

Denition 11 A sequence (an )n≥1 is called monotonically increasing (de-

creasing) if
an ≤ an+1 (an ≥ an+1 ) for all n ≥ 1.

Denition 12 A sequence (an )n≥1 is said to be bounded if there exists

a, b ∈ R with the property

a ≤ an ≤ b for all n ≥ 1.

A sequence which is not bounded is said to be unbounded.

Denition 13 An element a ∈ R is called the limit of a sequence (an )n≥1 if

for every V ∈ V(a) there exists nV ∈ N∗ such that an ∈ V for every n ≥ nV .

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If a sequence has a limit, then it is unique. We denote usually a = lim an
n→∞
( a = lim an ) or an → a.
A sequence having a nite limit is said to be convergent. If a sequence is
not convergent it is called divergent. The following theorem is a characteri-
zation of convergent sequences.

Theorem 1 A sequence (an )n≥1 is convergent if and only if there exists

a ∈ R such that for all ε > 0, there exists nε ∈ N∗ with the property that for
all n ≥ nε we have |an − a| < ε.

Proof. Necessity Suppose that there exists n→∞

lim an = a, a ∈ R and take
ε > 0. Let V = (a − ε, a + ε) be a neighbourhood of a. Then

∃nε ∈ N such that an ∈ V, ∀n ≥ nε ⇐⇒ |an − a| < ε, ∀n ≥ nε .

Suciency Let V be a neighbourhood of a. There exists ε > 0 such

that (a − ε, a + ε) ⊆ V. If follows an ∈ V for all n ≥ nε , hence lim an = a.
n→∞

The next result, known as Weierstrass theorem, is frequently used in the

study of the convergence of a sequence.

Theorem 2 Every monotonic and bounded sequence of real numbers is con-

vergent.

Proof. Suppose that (an )n≥1 is an increasing and upper bounded se-
quence. Then the set A = {an |n ≥ 1} is upper bounded, hence there exists
a = sup A, a ∈ R. Then for all ε > 0, ∃nε ∈ N such that a − ε < an . Since
(an )n≥1 is monotonically increasing it follows 0 < a − an < ε for all a ≥ nε .
Hence (an )n≥1 is convergent to a.

Theorem 3 (Principle of nested intervals) Let (In )n≥1, In = [an , bn ], be a

sequence of closed nested intervals, In+1 ⊆ In , ∀n ≥ 1. Then ∩n≥1 In 6= ∅. If
lim (bn − an ) = 0, then ∩n≥1 In is a singleton
n→∞

Proof. Dene A = {an |n ∈ N∗ }, B = {bn |n ∈ N∗ }. The relation In+1 ⊆ In ,

n ≥ 1, implies that (an )n≥1 is increasing and (bn )n≥1 is decreasing. Since b1

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is an upper bound of A and a1 is a lower bound of B there exists sup A = a
inf B = b, a, b ∈ R. By the relation

an ≤ a ≤ b ≤ bn , n ≥ 1,

it follows [a, b] ⊆ ∩n≥1 In . If bn − an → 0, clearly a = b.

Denition 14 Let (an )n≥1 be a sequence and (nk )k≥1 a strictly increas-
ing sequence of positive integers. Then (ank )k≥1 is called a subsequence of
(an )n≥1 .

Example 2.1 (a2n )n≥1 , (a2n−1 )n≥1 are subsequences of the sequence (an )n≥1 .

Corollary 2.1 (Cesàro lemma) A bounded sequence of real numbers con-

tains at least a convergent subsequence.

Proof. Let (xn )n≥1 be a bounded sequence in R. There exists a, b ∈ R

such that a ≤ xn ≤ b, ∀n ≥ 1. Let c = a+b 2 . From the intervals [a, c], [c, b]
we choose the interval which contains an innite number of terms of (xn )n≥1
and we denote it by I1 = [a1 , b1 ]. The set {n ∈ N∗ |xn ∈ [a1 , b1 ]} is innite
and b1 − a1 = b−a 2 . Let c1 = 2 . From the intervals [a1 , c1 ], [c1 , b1 ] we
a1 +b1

choose the interval which contains an innite number of terms of (xn )n≥1
and we denote it by I2 = [a2 , b2 ]. We have b2 − a2 = b−a
22
.
Denoting I0 = [a, b] one obtains a sequence In = [an , bn ], n ≥ 0, with
the property that In+1 ⊆ In and bn − an = b−a 2n , n ≥ 0. Taking account of
Theorem 3 it follows ∩n≥0 In = {x}, x ∈ [a, b]. Now we choose from every
interval Ik a term xnk ∈ Ik , k ≥ 0. We have |xnk − x| ≤ b−a 2k
, k ≥ 0, hence
lim xnk = x.
k→∞
Cesaro lemma is also called as Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem.

Denition 15 A sequence (an )n≥1 is said to be fundamental or Cauchy

sequence if for every ε > 0 there exists nε ∈ N∗ such that for all m, n ≥ nε
we have |am − an | < ε.

The above denition is equivalent to the next one:

A sequence (an )n≥1 is fundamental if for every ε > 0, there exists nε ∈ N∗
such that ∀n ≥ nε , ∀p ∈ N |an+p − an | < ε.

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Remark 2.1 The notion of Cauchy sequence was introduced to obtain a
characterization convergent sequences without using their limit.
Theorem 4 A sequence of real numbers is convergent if and only if it is a
Cauchy sequence.
Proof. Necessity Suppose that (an )n≥1 is convergent and let n→∞
lim an =
a, a ∈ R.
Let ε > 0 be a xed number. Then there exists nε ∈ N∗ such that for all
n ≥ nε |an − a| < 2ε . Now, for all m, n ≥ nε we have
ε ε
|am − an | ≤ |am − a| + |a − an | < + = ε,
2 2
therefore (an )n≥1 is a Cauchy sequence.
Suciency Suppose (an )n≥1 is a Cauchy sequence.
1) We prove rst that (an )n≥1 is bounded. For ε = 1 in Denition 15
follows that ∃n1 ∈ N such that |an − an1 | < 1, n ≥ n1 Then
|an | ≤ |an − an1 | + |an1 | < 1 + |an1 |, ∀n ≥ n1 ,
hence (an )n≥1 is a bounded sequence.
2) We prove that (an )n≥1 is a convergent sequence. From the bounded-
ness of (an )n≥1 it follows that there exists a convergent subsequence
(ank )k≥1 , lim an = a. Let ε > 0 be a positive number. By the conver-
n→∞
gence of (ank )k≥1 we nd kε ∈ N with the property
ε
(2.1) |ank − a| < , ∀k ≥ kε .
2
Since (an )n≥1 is a Cauchy sequence it follows that there exists nε ∈ N∗
with the property
ε
(2.2) |am − an | < , ∀m, n ≥ nε .
2
Now take Nε = max{nε , nkε }. For every n ≥ Nε we have in view of
the relations (2.1) and (2.2)
ε ε
|an − a| ≤ |an − ankε | + |ankε − a| < + = ε,
2 2
hence (an )n≥1 is a convergent sequence.

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Example 2.2 Prove that (an )n≥1 ,
sin 1 sin 2 sin n
an = 2
+ 2 + ··· + 2
1 2 n
is a convergent sequence.

Solution. We prove that (an )n≥1 is a Cauchy sequence. For every

n, p ∈ N∗ we have:

sin(n + 1) sin(n + 2) sin(n + p)

|an+p − an | = 2
+ 2
+ ··· +
(n + 1) (n + 2) (n + p)2
sin(n + 1) sin(n + 2) sin(n + p)
≤ + + ··· +
(n + 1)2 (n + 2)2 (n + p)2
1 1 1
≤ 2
+ 2
+ ··· +
(n + 1) (n + 2) (n + p)2
1 1 1
≤ + + ··· +
n(n + 1) (n + 1)(n + 2) (n + p − 1)(n + p)
     
1 1 1 1 1 1
= − + − + ··· + −
n n+1 n+1 n+2 n+p−1 n+p
1 1 1
= − < .
n n+p n

For every ε > 0, ∃nε ∈ N∗ such that 1

n < ε, for all n ≥ nε . Thus

|an+p − an | ≤ ε, ∀n ≥ nε , p ≥ 1.

Since (an )n≥1 is a fundamental sequence it is convergent.

Example 2.3 Prove that n→∞ 1 1

lim 1+ 2 + ··· + n = ∞.

Solution. Dene (an )n≥1 , by

1 1
an = 1 + + ··· + .
2 n

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Since (an )n≥1 is monotonically increasing there exists lim an ∈ R. We prove
that (an )n≥1 is not a Cauchy sequence. For every n ≥ 1 we have
1 1 1
|a2n − an | = + + ··· +
n+1 n+2 2n
1 1 1 1
≥ + + ··· + =
|2n 2n {z 2n} 2
n times

Since (an )n≥1 is divergent and its limit exists, we conclude that lim an =
n→∞
+∞.

3 The upper limit and the lower limit of a sequence

Denition 16 Let (an )n≥1 be a sequence of real numbers. We call a ∈ R
a limit point of the sequence (an )n≥1 if every neighbourhood of a contains
innitely many terms of (an )n≥1 .

For a sequence (an )n≥1 we denote by L(an ) the set of its limit points.
Example 3.1 a) For (an )n≥1 , an = (−1)n , L(an ) = {−1, 1}.

b) The sequence (an )n≥1 , an = sin nπ

2 , has L(an ) = {−1, 0, 1}.

Theorem 5 The element a ∈ R is a limit point of (an )n≥1 if and only if

there exists a subsequence (ank )k≥1 of (an )n≥1 with lim ank = a.
k→∞

Proof. Necessity Suppose that a ∈ L(an ) and a ∈ R. Let Vk =

1 1
be a sequence of neighbourhood of a. Every Vk
N∗ ,


a− k,a+ , k ∈
k
contains innitely many terms of (an ). Let an1 ∈ V1 , an2 ∈ V2 , . . . , with
n1 < n2 < . . . . We have
1
|ank − a| < , k ≥ 1,
k
hence lim ank = a. Analogously follows the existence of (ank )k≥1 for a ∈
k→∞
{−∞, +∞}.
Suciency

11
 Suppose that (ank )k≥1 is a subsequence of (an )n≥1 with lim ank = a.
k→∞
Then every neighbourhood of a contains innitely many elements of (an )n≥1 ,
thus a ∈ L(an ).
Denition 17 Let (an )n≥1 be a sequence of real numbers. Then sup L(an )
is called the upper limit of (an )n≥1 and inf L(an ) is called the lower limit of
(an )n≥1 .

We denote the upper limit and the lower limit of (an )n≥1 by
liman , respectively liman ,
or by
lim sup an , respectively lim inf an ,

Example 3.2 a) For the sequence (an )n≥1 , dened by

1 1 1 1 1 1
an := 1, 1, , 1, , , 1, , , , . . . ,
2 2 3 2 3 4
we get L(an ) = {1, 12 , 31 , . . .} ∪ {0} therefore liman = 1 and liman = 0.
b) It can be proved that the sequence (an )n≥1 , an = sin n, has L(an ) =
[−1, 1], liman = 1 and liman = −1.

Theorem 6 A sequence (an )n≥1 has a limit if and only if

liman = liman .

4 Some remarkable sequences

Proposition 4.1 (the number e) The sequence (en )n≥1 ,
 n
1
en = 1+ ,
n
is monotonically increasing and bounded above. By denition
1 n
 
e = lim 1 + .
n→∞ n

12
 Proof. Dene (e0n )n≥1 , e0n = 1 + 1 n+1
We prove that (e0n )n≥1 is


n .
monotonically decreasing. We have
n+1  n+1
e0n n + 1 n+2 (n + 1)2
  
n+1 n+1
= = ·
e0n+1 n n+2 2
n + 2n n+2
 n+1  
1 n+1 1 n+1
= 1+ 2 · > 1 + (n + 1) 2 ·
n + 2n n+2 n + 2n n+2
2
n(n + 2) + 1
= > 1, ∀n ≥ 1,
n(n + 2)2

taking account of Bernoulli's inequality:

(1 + t)n > 1 + nt, t ∈ (−1, ∞) \ {0}, n ∈ N∗ .

We prove that (en )n≥1 is an increasing sequence.

 n+1  n  n+1
en+1 n+2 n (n + 2) n+1
= =
en n+1 n+1 n+1 n
n+1 n+1
n2 + 2n
 
n+1 1 n+1
= = 1−
(n + 1)2 n (n + 1)2 n
 
1 n+1
> 1 − (n + 1) 2
= 1, ∀n ≥ 1,
(n + 1) n

By the relation

e1 < e2 < · · · < en+1 < · · · < e0n+1 < e0n < · · · < e02 < e01

follows that (e0n ), (en ) are convergent sequences and by

1 n1
 
en e1
0< e0n − en = 1 + < ≤ , n ≥ 1,
n n n n

one gets
lim en = lim e0n := e.

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Corollary 4.1 The following inequality holds
1 n 1 n+1
   
1+ <e< 1+ , ∀n ∈ N∗ .
n n
Remark 4.1 The sequence (En )n≥1 ,
1 1 1
En = 1 + + + ··· +
1! 2! n!
is monotonically increasing and lim En = e (e ∈/ Q, e w 2, 71828 . . .).
n→∞

Proposition 4.2 (Euler's constant) The sequence (γn )n≥1 ,

1 1 1
γn = 1 + + + · · · + − ln n
2 3 n
is monotonically decreasing and bounded below. We denote
lim γn := γ
n→∞

(γ is called Euler's constant and γ = 0, 577 . . .).

Proof. From Corollary 4.1 follows
1 1
(4.1) < ln(n + 1) − ln n < , ∀n ≥ 1.
n+1 n
Summing the previous inequalities one gets
n n
1 X1
(4.2)
X
< ln(n + 1) < , ∀n ≥ 1.
k+1 k
k=1 k=1

We have
1
γn+1 − γn = − ln(n + 1) + ln n
n+1
and taking account of (4.1) follows γn+1 < γn , n ≥ 1.
Now, in view of inequality (4.2) we get
1 1 1
1+ + + · · · + − ln n > ln(n + 1) − ln n > 0, n ≥ 1.
2 3 n

The following theorems are often used for nding the limit of a sequence.

14
Theorem 7 (Sandwich Theorem) Let (an )n≥1 , (bn )n≥1 , (cn )n≥1 be se-
quences of real numbers with the property that
an ≤ bn ≤ cn for all n ≥ n0 .
If
lim an = lim cn = l, l ∈ R,
n→∞ n→∞
then lim bn = l.
n→∞

Theorem 8 (Stolz-Cesaro I) Let (an )n≥1 , (bn )n≥1 be two sequences of

real numbers satisfying the conditions:
1) (bn )n≥1 is strictly monotone and unbounded;
2) there exists lim abn+1 −an
= l, l ∈ R;
n→∞ n+1 −bn
Then lim bn = l.
an
n→∞

Theorem 9 (Stolz-Cesaro II) Let (an )n≥1 , (bn )n≥1 be two sequences of
real numbers satisfying the conditions:
1) lim an = lim bn = 0;
n→∞ n→∞
2) (bn )n≥1 is strictly monotone;
3) there exists lim abn+1 −an
n+1 −bn
= l, l ∈ R;
n→∞
Then lim an
= l.
n→∞ bn

Proof. We prove only Theorem 9. Suppose that (bn )n≥1 is monotonically

increasing and l ∈ R. Let ε be a positive number. There exists nε ∈ N such
that for all n ≥ nε
an+1 − an
−l <ε
bn+1 − bn
or
(bn+1 − bn )(l − ε) < an+1 − an < (bn+1 − bn )(l + ε), n ≥ nε .
Adding the previous relations from n to n + p − 1 follows
n+p−1
X n+p−1
X n+p−1
X
(l − ε) (bk+1 − bk ) < (ak+1 − ak ) < (l + ε) (bk+1 − bk )
k=n k=n k=n
(l − ε)(bn+p − bn ) < an+p − an < (l + ε)(bn+p − bn )
an+p − an
−ε < − l < ε,
bn+p − bn

15
for all n ≥ nε , p ≥ 1. Letting p → ∞ in the previous relation one gets
an
−ε ≤ − l ≤ ε, n ≥ nε ,
bn
hence
an
lim = l.
n→∞ bn

Corollary 4.2 Let (an )n≥1 , be a sequence of positive numbers

√
with the prop-
erty that there exists lim
an+1
= l, l ∈ R.Then lim n an = l.
n→∞ an n→∞

Proof.
√ √
n lim ln an
lim n
an = lim eln an
= en→∞ n
n→∞ n→∞
ln an+1 −ln an an+1
lim lim
= en→∞ n+1−n
= en→∞ an
= eln l = l.

5 Sequences of complex numbers

A sequence of complex numbers (zn )n≥1 has the form

zn = an + ibn , n ≥ 1,

where (an )n≥1 and (bn )n≥1 are sequences of real numbers, i.e., an = <zn ,
bn = =zn . Many notions and theorems carry over from real to complex
sequences.

Denition 18 A sequence (zn )n≥1 of complex numbers is said to be conver-

gent to z ∈ C if for every ε > 0 there exists nε ∈ N∗ such that |zn − z| < ε
for every n ≥ nε .

Denition 19 A sequence (zn )n≥1 of complex numbers is said to be funda-

mental (or Cauchy sequence) if for every ε > 0 there exists nε ∈ N∗ such
that for all m, n ≥ nε we have |zm − zn | < ε.

16
Theorem 10 A sequence (zn )n≥1 of complex numbers converges to z ∈ C
if and only if the real sequences (<zn )n≥1 and (=zn )n≥1 converge to <z and
=z respectively.

Proof. Consider zn − an + ibn , n ≥ 1, z = a + bi, a, b, an , bn ∈ R.

Necessity
Suppose that zn → z and let ε > 0 be given. Then ∃nε ∈ N∗ such that
|zn − z| < ε ∀n ≥ nε .
We have
|an − a| < |zn − z| < ε,
|bn − b| < |zn − z| < ε, ∀n ≥ nε ,
thus an → a, bn → b.
Suciency Suppose an → a, bn → b and prove that zn → z. Let ε > 0
be given. Then there exist n0ε n00ε ∈ N∗ such that
ε
|an − a| < , ∀n ≥ n0ε ,
2
ε
|bn − b| < , ∀n ≥ n00ε .
2

Taking nε = max{n0ε , n00ε } it follows

ε ε
|zn − z| < |an − a| + |bn − b| < + = ε, ∀n ≥ nε ,
2 2
hence lim zn = z.
n→∞
As for real sequences we can prove.
Theorem 11 A sequence of complex numbers is convergent if and only if is
a Cauchy sequence.
Since the complex eld C is not an ordered eld, all notions and propri-
eties where the order is involved do not make sense for complex sequences
or they need modications. The sandwich theorem does not hold; there is
no notion of monotone sequence, upper and lower limit. Nevertheless the
notion of boundedness, subsequence and limit points do hold in the complex
case too.

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