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PLASTIC ANALYSIS &

DESIGN

INTRODUCTION:
• The method of elastic design of a structure is defined as a method
which limits the structural usefulness of the material of the
structure upto a certain load, at which the maximum stress in
extreme fibres reaches the yield stress of the material in bending.
• The rest of cross-section remains under-stressed.
• This method is also known as working stress method of design.
• The elastic design does not take into account the strength of the
material beyond the yield stress.
• The method of plastic design of a structure is defined as a method
which limits the structural usefulness of the material of the
structure upto ultimate load.
• The term plastic has occurred due to the fact that the ultimate
load is found from the strength of steel in the plastic range.
• This method is also known as method of load factor design or load
and resistance-factor design or ultimate load design.

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INTRODUCTION:
• In this method, the selection of members is done such that under
various combinations of the service loads, each multiplied by a
load factor, the member forces shall not exceed the specified
ultimate strengths.
• The strength of steel beyond the yield stress is fully utilized in this
method.
• The sections designed by the method of plastic analysis and
design are smaller in size than designed by the method of elastic
design.
• The most indeterminate structural steel building frames collapses
due to plastic deformation.
• The plastic analysis and design is based on the ultimate load the
structure may support just before it plastic collapse.

DUCTILITY OF STEEL:
• The mild steel is a ductile material.
• The ductility of steel is a unique property in this material. This
properly does not exist in any other structural material in the
same manner, as it exists in the steel.
• The concept of ductility of structural steel forms the basis for the
plastic theory.
• The structural steel is capable to withstand large deformations
beyond the elastic limit without fracture.
A: Proportional limit
B: Elastic Limit
C: Upper yield point
D: Lower yield point
E: Beginning of strain
hardening
F: Ultimate stress point
G: Fracture Point 4

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DUCTILITY OF STEEL:
• Some of the structural steel do not show the upper yield point in
the stress-strain curve.
• In the simple plastic theory of bending, the upper yield point and
the strain hardening range are neglected.
• The simple plastic theory of bending leaves a major part of the
ductility of the steel.
• The idealized stress strain curve shown in Figure is followed as the
basis of plastic theory.

PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAMS:

• Consider any beam section as shown in Figure (a), having at least

one axis of the symmetry.
• The beam is subjected to pure bending by applying couples or
moments M, at the ends of the beam.
• The distribution of bending stress remains within the elastic range
so long as the values of moments M, are small.
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PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAMS:

• The neutral axis of the section N.A. (the line about which the
moments of the areas in compression and tension are equal)
passes through the centroid of the section as shown in Figure (a)
and (b).
• When the moment is increased, then, the bending stress in the
extreme fibre from the neutral axis reaches the yield stress σy.
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PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAMS:

• The bottom fibres are at extreme distance from the neutral axis in
this case.
• The stress at the top fibre remains less than the yield stress as
shown in Figure (c).
• The neutral axis still passes through the centroid of the section.

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PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAMS:

• The moment at which the first yield has occurred is termed as the
yield moment.

where, I = Moment of inertia of the section about the neutral axis

y1 = Distance to the extreme fibre from the neutral axis
Z = Elastic modulus of the section
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PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAMS:

• When the moment is further increased, the curvature (M/EI) also

increases, and the yielding of fibres spreads inside at the bottom,
and the bending stress at the top fibre reaches yield stress as
shown in Figure (d).
• The neutral axis shifts downward.

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PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAMS:

• When the moment is still increased, the yield further spreads

from the bottom and also from the top towards the neutral axis as
shown in Figure (e).
• The neutral axis further shifts downward. Finally, a stage is
arrived, when the yield spreads upto an axis from bottom and top
both and the section is fully plasticized.
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PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAMS:

• The distribution of bending stress is shown in Figure (f).

• This axis is known as equal area axis.
• The moment corresponding to this stage is termed is fully plastic
moment or the ultimate plastic moment of the section or simply
plastic moment.

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PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAMS:

• The fully plastic moment of a section is denoted by Mp or Mult.

• The term plastic moment MP is the ultimate moment which the
section can maintain under the assumption of an ideal elastic-
plastic stress strain law.
• In case the section of a beam is symmetrical about both the axes,
then the neutral axis does not shift.
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FULLY PLASTIC MOMENT OF A SECTION:

• The fully plastic moment MP, of a section is defined as the
maximum moment of resistance of a fully plasticized or yielded
cross-section.
• Assumptions made in order to evaluate the fully plastic moment
of a section:
1. The material obeys Hooke’s law until the stress reaches the
upper yield value; on further straining, the stress drops to the
lower yield value and thereafter remains constant.
2. The upper and lower yield stresses and the modulus of elasticity
have the same value in compression as in tension.
3. The material is homogeneous and isotropic in both the elastic
and plastic states.
4. The plane transverse sections (the sections perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the beam) remain plain and normal to the
longitudinal axis after bending, the effect of shear being
neglected.
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FULLY PLASTIC MOMENT OF A SECTION:

5. There is no resultant axial force on the beam.
6. The cross-section of the beam is symmetrical about an axis
through its centroid parallel to plane of bending.
7. Every layer of the material is free to expand and contract
longitudinally and laterally under the stress as if separated from
the other layers.

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FULLY PLASTIC MOMENT OF A SECTION:

• Consider any beam section as shown in Figure.

• The beam section is fully yielded or plasticized.
• The bending stress in each fiber of the section is equal to the yield
stress.
• The fibers above the neutral axis are in compression.
• The fibers below the neutral axis are in tension.

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FULLY PLASTIC MOMENT OF A SECTION:

• Total force in compression over the section:

• Total force in tension over the section:
• The resultant force over the section is zero. Therefore,

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FULLY PLASTIC MOMENT OF A SECTION:

• The area above the neutral axis is equal to the area below the
neutral axis.
• Therefore, the neutral axis of the completely plasticized section is
known as equal area axis.
• These two equal and opposite forces form a couple to resist the
plastic moment.

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FULLY PLASTIC MOMENT OF A SECTION:

= + = + = + =
2
• Where,

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ELASTIC-PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAM:

• Consider a rectangular section in
the elasto-plastic region as shown
in Figure.
• From the value of yield moments
My, upto the stage of fully plastic
moment of the section MP, some
of the middle fibres are elastic
while the outer fibres are plastic.
• The section is in the elastic-plastic range. The rectangular section
of the beam is partially yielded or plasticized.
• In the elastic-plastic range, a middle layer of depth ‘e’, remains
elastic and it is known as elastic core.
• The moment carrying capacity of the elastic section is given as:

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ELASTIC-PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAM:

• If the section is fully plastic, then
the section modulus is given as

• The section modulus at elastic

core is given as:

• The bending moment resisted by the fibers in plastic region:

• Thus, the total moment is the sum of the moments of both the
elastic and plastic sections and is given as
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ELASTIC-PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAM:

• For a rectangular section, we
know that the plastic section
modulus is given as

• Thus, the total moment is written

as follows:

• Thus,

• The moment of resistance of partially plasticized rectangular

section or the section in elastic-plastic range may be worked out
from above equation, in case depth of elastic core ‘e’ is known. If
the value of applied moment M, is known, then, the depth of
elastic core ‘e’, can also be worked out.
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PLASTIC HINGE:
• When the fully plastic moment is developed at any section of a
structure, subjected to a system of load, then the section is
completely yielded or plasticized.
• The curvature at the section becomes infinitely large, and the
section continues to rotate at constant moment.
• The fibers carrying bending compressive stress equal to yield
stress, tend to contract. The fibers carrying bending tensile stress
equal to yield stress, tend to expand.
• The section acts like a hinge. The hinge is known as plastic hinge.
• At the plastic hinge, an infinite rotation can occur, under a constant
moment equal to plastic moment of the section.
• The plastic hinge is defined as a yielded zone due to bending in a
structural member, at which the infinite rotation can take place at
a constant plastic moment MP, of the section.

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PLASTIC HINGE:
• In contradiction to mechanical hinge, at which the value of
moment is zero, the plastic hinge allows free rotation at constant
plastic moment.
• A mechanical hinge is represented by a hollow small circle, and a
plastic hinge is represented by a solid black dot.
• The value of the moment at sections adjacent of the yield zone for
a certain length is more than the yield moment, this length is
known as hinge length.
• To simplify the analysis, this small length is neglected and the
plastic hinge is assumed to be formed at discrete points of zero
length.
• However, the hinge length cannot be neglected for the calculation
of deflections (serviceability condition) and the design of bracings
(involved in stability) as the length over which yielding extends is
quite important.
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PLASTIC HINGE:
• The hinge length depends upon the loading and geometry of the
section.
• Consider a simply
supported rectangular
beam subjected to a
gradually increasing
concentrated load W,
at the center.
• The value of bending
moment reaches to
fully plastic moment MP, of the section and a plastic hinge is formed
at the center.

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PLASTIC HINGE:
• Let the width of rectangular beam be ‘b’ and depth be ‘h’.
• The yield stress, σy is first reached at the yield moment, My

• Let the length of plasticity zone be ‘x’.

• From the bending moment diagram,

The hinged length of length of plasticity

zone is equal to one-third of the span. 26

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PLASTIC HINGE:
• Now consider a section X1X1 in the region of plasticity at a distance
x1 from the center.
• The bending moment at the section X1X1, when fully plastic
moment exists at the center,

• Let the depth of elastic core at this section be ‘e’, then,

• From above equations,

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PLASTIC HINGE:
• This shows that the depth of elastic core varies parabolically with
x1.
• The region of the plasticity and variation of elastic core have been
shown in Figure.
• The regions of plasticity are wedge-shaped.
• It is to note that the section is fully yielded or plasticized only at
the central section.
• The regions of plasticity along the span have only a point contact,
which acts like a hinge.
• For simply supported beam carrying uniformly distributed load,
hinge length is equal to L/ 3
• Similarly, it can be worked out that the length of region of plasticity
of an I- section simply supported beam subjected to concentrated
load at the center is about one-eighth of the span.
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SHAPE FACTOR:
• For a ductile material like structural steel, a member reaching yield
at the extreme fibers retains a reserve of strength that varies with
the shape factor.
• Higher the shape factor, more ductile will be the section and will
give greater deflection at collapse. This implies that such a section
gives longer warning before collapse.
• In other words, shape factor gives an indication of reserve capacity
of a section from onset of yielding at extreme fibers to full
plastification.
• Shape factor may be defined as the ratio of the plastic moment
and the yield moment of the section.
• It is a function of the cross section form or shape and is
represented by ‘S’.

• ZP = Plastic modulus of the section

• Z = Elastic modulus of the section
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SHAPE FACTOR:
• Shape factor for standard shapes:

• Solved Examples for shape factors of other shapes

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MOMENT CURVATURE RELATIONSHIP:

• Consider a simply supported beam. The beam is subjected to
gradually increasing couples ‘M’ applied at the ends. From theory
of simple bending:
= =
1
, = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (1)
• Where, R= radius of curvature of beam
• (1/R)= curvature of beam (φ)
• When, the value of moment ‘M’ increases, the curvature of beam
also increases.
• The curvature of beam is directly proportional to the moment ‘M’,
upto the limit of proportionality.
• When the value of moment ‘M’, reaches yield moment My, then
= = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (2)
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MOMENT CURVATURE RELATIONSHIP:

• If the depth of section is ‘h’, then

1 2
, =
.ℎ
• When the value of moment ‘M’, further increases, the section
becomes elastic-plastic. The section is partially plasticized.
• Let the depth of elastic core be ‘e’.
• The curvature of beam is still governed by the elastic core. The
curvature of beam becomes:
1 2
=
.
• When the value of moment ‘M’, reaches the fully plastic moment,
MP, the section is fully plasticized. The depth of elastic core is zero.
As such the curvature of the beam increases infinitely.

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MOMENT CURVATURE RELATIONSHIP:

• The moment curvature
relationship is shown in Figure.
• When the fully plastic moment Mp,
is reached, then finite change of
slope can take place over an
infinitely small length of the
structural member, at this section.

• The section behaves like a hinge which shows the significance

of the plastic hinge developed at a section.
• In case the curve follows A, B and C, the dotted portion instead
of A to C directly, then such a curve represents an idealized
moment curvature relationship.
• From eqn (1)
1
= ϕ = … … … … … … … … . (3)

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MOMENT CURVATURE RELATIONSHIP:

• From eqn (2)
1
=ϕ = … … … … … … . (4)
• Dividing (3) by (4), we get,
ϕ
=
ϕ
• When the value of moment ‘M’, reaches the fully plastic moment
of the section, then,
ϕ
=
ϕ
• This expression shows that the shape of the curve also depends
upon the shape factor.

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MOMENT CURVATURE RELATIONSHIP:

• We know,

• Substituting the equation

for the depth of elastic
core, the above equation is
simplified to the following form:

• At yield, we know the following:

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LOAD FACTOR:
• Load factor is defined as the ratio of the collapse load to the
working load.
• The prime function of the load factor is to ensure that the
structure will be safe under service conditions.
• It depends upon the nature of loading, the support conditions,
and the geometrical shape of structural members.
• Uncertainty of the loads, imperfection in workmanship and errors
in fabrication are some of the other factors which influence the
choice of load factor.
& ) • where S is the shape
• " #$ , % = &' = )*
( ( factor, σy is the yield stress,
σall is the allowable stress
• ratio of yield stress to
allowable stress is termed
,- as the factor of safety
• Thus, % = + , = + × %. 1. +
.//
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LOAD FACTOR:
• Thus, the load factor is also defined as the product of shape
factor and the factor of safety as used in the elastic design.
• Let us take the example of an I-section beam whose shape factor
S = 1.12.
• Factor of safety (F.O.S)= σy/ σall= σy/ (0.66σy)=1.515
• σall= 0.66σy; is the permissible bending stress
• Load factor, F= 1.12 x 1.515= 1.70

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FUNDAMENTAL CONDITIONS FOR

PLASTIC ANALYSIS:
• In the elastic analysis, the equilibrium condition, continuity or
compatibility condition (viz., conditions of geometry at the joints
of the structure) and limiting stress condition are satisfied.
• According to first condition, the structure subjected to any system
of loading should be in equilibrium.
• According to the second condition the distortion or deformation
of the various fibers should be compatible with those of adjacent
fibers.
• According to third condition, the maximum stress at any section,
in any fiber should be less than the yield stresses i.e., the bending
moment should be less than the yield moment.
• Similarly, in the plastic analysis, the following fundamental
conditions should be satisfied:
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FUNDAMENTAL CONDITIONS FOR

PLASTIC ANALYSIS:
1. Mechanism condition
• The ultimate or collapse load is reached when a mechanism is
formed.
• The number of plastic hinges developed should be just sufficient
to form a mechanism.
• It is important to learn that the redistribution of moments occurs
for the frame structure, which one is the basis of the mechanism
condition.
2. Equilibrium condition
• The algebraic sum of all vertical & horizontal forces and moment
acting over a structure should be zero.
3. Plastic moment condition
• The bending moment at any section of the structure should not
be more than the fully plastic moment of the section.
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MECHANISM:
• When a structure is subjected to a system of loads, it is stable and
hence functional until a sufficient number of plastic hinges have
been formed to render the structure unstable.
• As soon as the structure reaches an unstable condition, it is
considered to have been failed.
• The segments of the beam between the plastic hinges are able to
move without an increase of load.
• This condition in a member is called mechanism.
• If the body is unable to offer resistance to the applied load, then
it is referred to as a mechanism.
• The concepts of mechanism formation in a structure due to
loading beyond the elastic limit and of virtual work are used in
the plastic analysis and design of steel structures.
• The load at which the body stops offering resistance to the
external load is called collapse load.
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MECHANISM:
• If the degree of indeterminacy of the structural system is ‘n,’ then
‘n +1’ plastic hinges are required to form a mechanism.
• The plastic hinges will form at the following locations of the
structure:
fixed supports
point of action of concentrated loads
the section at which the bending moment is maximum
the section where the moment of inertia changes
• Types of mechanisms:
a. Independent mechanism
i. Beam mechanism
ii. Panel or sway mechanism
iii. Gable mechanism
iv. Joint mechanism
b. Combined mechanism

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MECHANISM:
1. Beam mechanism
• A simply supported beam has to form one plastic hinge at a point
of maximum bending moment.

Mechanical hinge
Plastic hinge

r= no. of redundant moments = 0

No. of plastic hinge formed = r +1 = 1
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MECHANISM:
• A propped cantilever requires two hinges to form a mechanism.

Mechanical hinge
Plastic hinge

r= no. of redundant moments = 1

No. of plastic hinge formed = 1+1 = 2

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MECHANISM:
• A fixed beam requires three hinges to form a mechanism.

Mechanical hinge
Plastic hinge

r= no. of redundant moments = 2

No. of plastic hinge formed = 2+1 = 3

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MECHANISM:
2. Panel or Sway mechanism
• Sway mechanisms are formed due to lateral
forces acting on framed structure.
3. Gable mechanism
• Gable mechanisms form in gable frames
wherein the relative movement of columns
tops or spread is much more than in portal
frames.
4. Joint mechanism
• It occurs at a joint where more than two
structural members meet.
5. Composite or Combined mechanism
• The independent mechanisms given above
can be combined to eliminate some of the
plastic hinges to obtain composite
mechanism.
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MECHANISM:
Number of independent mechanism:
• If ‘r’ is the redundancy of the structure and ‘N’ is the number of
possible plastic hinges, then the number of independent
mechanisms,
2=3−
• After finding out the numbers of independent mechanisms all the
possible combinations are made in such a way so as to make the
external work maximum or the internal work a minimum.
• This is done to obtain the lowest possible load.

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BASIC THEOREMS FOR FINDING COLLAPSE LOAD:

• The collapse load for the plastic analysis of structures can be
determined from the following theorems:
1. Static theorem
2. Kinematic theorem
3. Uniqueness theorem
Static Theorem:
• It states that, “For a given structure and loading, if there exists any
distribution of bending moment throughout the structure which is
both safe and statically admissible with a set of loads W, the value of
W must be less than or equal to the collapse load Wc.” i.e. W ≤ Wc
• ‘Statically admissible’ means the bending moment diagram satisfies
static equilibrium conditions.
• ‘Safe ‘ means at no point bending moment is more than plastic
moment capacity of the section. 47

BASIC THEOREMS FOR FINDING COLLAPSE LOAD:

• This theorem is called as lower bound theorem, since, the value
of loads obtained are always less than or equal to collapse load.
Kinematic Theorem:
• It states that, “ For a given structure subject to a set of loads W,
the value of W found to correspond to any assumed mechanism
must be either greater or equal to the collapse load Wc.”
i.e. W ≥ Wc
• Since for any assumed mechanism, the value of W obtained is
greater than or equal to collapse load, this is also called as upper
bound theorem.
Uniqueness Theorem:
• The static and kinematic theorems can be combined to form a
theorem which gives unique value for collapse load. This theorem
is called as uniqueness theorem. 48

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BASIC THEOREMS FOR FINDING COLLAPSE LOAD:

• It states that, “ If for a given structure
and loading, at least one safe and
statically admissible bending moment
distribution can be found and in this
distribution the bending moment is
equal to the fully plastic moment at
enough cross-sections to cause failure
of the structure due to unlimited
rotations at plastic hinges (forming
mechanisms), the corresponding load
will be equal to the collapse load Wc.”
i.e. W=Wc
• As this theorem uses both the bending
moment diagram and the assumption
of mechanism for the estimation of
collapse load, it is also called combined
theorem. 49

BASIC THEOREMS FOR FINDING COLLAPSE LOAD:

• A structure can be analysed by using either the static or kinematic
theorem.
• A solution arrived at by drawing a statical moment diagram (not
violating the plastic moment condition) will either be correct or
too low.
• On the other hand, a solution arrived at by assuming the
mechanism will give a load-carrying capacity, either correct or too
high.
• Thus, depending upon the theorem used, we can obtain a lower
limit (or bound) which is less than the true load capacity, or the
upper limit (or bound) which is more than the true load capacity.
• When both the theorems are satisfied in a given problem then
the solution is said to be the correct (unique) one.

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PLASTIC COLLAPSE OF STRUCTURE:

• When a structure is subjected to a system of loads, and sufficient
plastic hinges are formed to form a mechanism, then the plastic
collapse of a structure would take place.
• At the state of plastic collapse, the deflections of the structure
continue to increase and the external loads remain constant.
• The distribution of bending moment remains unchanged as the
deflection increases.
• The work done by the external loads during small motion of the
collapse is equal to the work absorbed by the plastic hinges.
• Further, the curvature of the structural member at any cross
section other than those at which the plastic hinges rotate, also
remains constant.
• Therefore, no internal work is done by the bending moment at
those sections other than the plastic hinges.

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PLASTIC COLLAPSE OF STRUCTURE:

• The plastic collapse of a structure may be a partial collapse or a
complete collapse or a over complete collapse.
Partial Collapse:
• In the partial plastic collapse for a structure, a part of the structure
may fail, which makes the structure as a whole useless.
• The number of plastic hinges is less than (r + 1), where r is the
degree of redundancy of the structure.
• The number of plastic hinges formed does not convert the
statically indeterminate structure to determinate structure at
collapse.
Complete Collapse:
• When the number of plastic hinges formed is (r + 1), then the
complete plastic collapse of the structure takes place.

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PLASTIC COLLAPSE OF STRUCTURE:

• The complete collapse of a structure enables to determine all the
redundancies of the structure together with the collapse load.
• The value of collapse load corresponds to one mechanism.
Over Complete Collapse:
• When the number of plastic hinges formed at collapse in a
structure is more than (r + 1), then the over complete collapse of
the structure takes place.
• The value of collapse load corresponds to two or more number of
mechanisms.
• In the case of over-complete collapse, there are two or more
mechanisms for which the corresponding value of the load is the
same; this load value being the actual collapse load.

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METHODS OF PLASTIC ANALYSIS:

• With the principle of virtual work and the upper and lower bound
theorems, a structure can be analyzed for its ultimate load by any
of the following methods:
1. Static Method
2. Kinematic Method
• The important assumption in both method is that once plastic
hinge is formed, rotation takes place freely without any change in
the moment acting (Mp) at the section.

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METHODS OF PLASTIC ANALYSIS:

1. Static Method
• This method is suitable for the analysis of a structure for which the
shape of the bending moment diagram is easily known.
• This method consist of drawing statically admissible bending
moment diagram and equating B.M. at sufficient points to plastic
moment, so that collapse mechanism forms.
• This is also called as equilibrium method.
• While doing this, care should be taken to see that B.M. will not
exceed plastic moment capacity of the section at any point.
2. Kinematic Method
• This method starts with an assumed collapse mechanism.
• After collapse mechanism is formed, there can be no change of
curvature at any cross-section except where plastic hinges are
formed.
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METHODS OF PLASTIC ANALYSIS:

• Hence, if a virtual displacement is given to the structure just after
collapse mechanism is formed, the internal work is done only at
the plastic hinges, where plastic moment Mp is acting.
• Hence, by equating internal work done by plastic moments at
plastic hinge to external work done by loads, we can get the
collapse loads.
• Hence, all possible mechanisms can be investigated and the one
giving least value may be considered as the real collapse load.
• This method is also known as mechanism method or virtual work
method.

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COLLAPSE LOAD OF STANDARD CASES:

Concentrated load at center:

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COLLAPSE LOAD OF STANDARD CASES:

Concentrated load at center:

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COLLAPSE LOAD OF STANDARD CASES:

Eccentric load:

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COLLAPSE LOAD OF STANDARD CASES:

Eccentric load:

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COLLAPSE LOAD OF STANDARD CASES:

Uniformly Distributed load:

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COLLAPSE LOAD OF STANDARD CASES:

Uniformly Distributed load:

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COLLAPSE LOAD OF STANDARD CASES:

Concentrated load:

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COLLAPSE LOAD OF STANDARD CASES:

Concentrated load:

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