Introduction to Plane Kinematics of Rigid Bodies:

Today, we will discuss the plane kinematics of rigid bodies. Till now, we have discussed the
kinematics of particles.
A rigid body is composed of many particles, and in fact, it may consist of an infinite number of
particles. However, it has a fixed degree of freedom because the particles are constrained in their
motion, meaning the distance between any two particles remains constant.

Plane Motion of a Rigid Body:

We begin with plane motion, where the rigid body moves within a plane, which gives it three
degrees of freedom.
A point on the rigid body (like the mass center) can be used to define its position by specifying its
x and y coordinates, as well as the body's rotation about this point. These three variables are the
coordinates of the mass center (x, y) and the rotation angle (θ).
A rigid body in plane motion moves such that all parts of the body move within parallel planes.
The plane of motion typically includes the mass center, and the body is treated as a thin slab,
constrained to the plane of motion.

Categories of Motion:
1. Translation:
Translation is a motion where every line in the body remains parallel to its original position at
all times, with no rotation occurring. There are two types of translation:
Rectilinear Translation: All points in the body move in parallel straight lines.
Curvilinear Translation: The points in the body move along congruent curves, not
parallel straight lines.
Example: A body moving along a circular path may not rotate, which is considered
translation. However, if the body’s orientation changes as it moves along the path, it’s
considered rotation.
2. Rotation about a Fixed Axis:
Rotation occurs when a body undergoes angular motion about a fixed axis. A body rotating
around a fixed point will rotate through an angle θ. The motion follows circular paths for all
particles, and the angle of rotation remains the same for all points along a line perpendicular
to the axis of rotation.
3. General Plane Motion:
 This involves a combination of both translation and rotation. A rigid body can translate to a
point and then rotate, or it may first rotate and then translate. The result will be the same in
both cases.

Rotation Relative to a Reference Point:

When a rigid body rotates about a point, it is said to be in rotation relative to that point if the
velocity of the particles along the axis of rotation is zero.
The axis of rotation can be inside or outside the body. If the rotation is relative to a point outside
the body, we consider a hypothetical extension of the body, and its particles follow the same
kinematics as the body itself.

Angular Motion of a Rigid Body:

The rotation of a rigid body is described by the angular displacement, angular velocity, and
angular acceleration of any straight line within the body.
When two straight lines within the body make an angle β, they will have the same angular velocity
and angular acceleration because the angle between them remains constant.

Angular Displacement and Angular Velocity:

Angular displacement (θ) is a vector quantity, indicating the magnitude and direction of rotation
(clockwise or counterclockwise).
The rate of change of angular displacement with respect to time is called angular velocity (ω),
measured in radians per second (rad/s). The direction of angular velocity is represented by a unit
vector perpendicular to the plane of rotation (denoted by k).
If the body rotates counterclockwise, the angular velocity is in the positive k direction; if
clockwise, in the negative k direction.

Angular Acceleration:
The rate of change of angular velocity is called angular acceleration (α), and its unit is radians per
second squared (rad/s²).
 dω
Angular acceleration can be derived from the equation α = dt
​, or expressed as α = ω dω
dθ
.
​

Linear and Angular Motion:

If a particle moves along a circular path, the linear velocity v is related to the angular velocity by
v = rω , where r is the distance from the center of rotation, and ω is the angular velocity.
The tangential acceleration can be found as at = rα, and the radial (centripetal) acceleration is
​

ar = rω 2 . As the distance of a particle from the center increases, its acceleration also increases.
​

Conversion from RPM to Radians per Second:

For machinery, such as motors, the angular velocity is often given in revolutions per minute (RPM).
This can be converted to radians per second using the formula:
2π × RPM
ω=
60
​
Angular Velocity and Uniformly Accelerated Rotation
1. Angular Velocity (ω):
The formula for angular velocity is given by:
2πN
ω= radians per second
60
​

where N is the number of revolutions per minute.

2. Uniformly Accelerated Rotation:
In uniformly accelerated motion, the angular acceleration α is constant.
The equation for angular acceleration is:
dω d2 θ
α= =r 2
dt dt
​ ​

The tangential acceleration at is given by:

​

v2
at = = rω 2
r
​ ​

3. Equations of Motion for Angular Motion:

Angular velocity and angular displacement are related through the following equations,
similar to linear motion:

ω = ω0 + αt ​

where ω0 is the initial angular velocity and α is the angular acceleration.

​

The angular displacement θ is:

1
θ = ω0 t + αt2
2
​ ​

where ω0 is the initial angular velocity and α is the angular acceleration.

​

The third equation relates angular velocity and displacement:

ω 2 = ω02 + 2αθ ​

Instantaneous Center of Zero Velocity

1. Instantaneous Center of Zero Velocity:
For a body moving in a plane, there exists an axis normal to the plane about which the body
may be considered to be in pure rotation.
 This axis intersects the plane of motion at a point known as the instantaneous center of zero
velocity.
In rotational motion, the instantaneous center may change over time, but it represents the
point where the body is momentarily at rest in a given instant.
2. Example: Rotating Disc:
If a disc is rotating about an axis, the instantaneous center lies at the point O , which is the
center of rotation.
The instantaneous axis of rotation is perpendicular to the plane of motion and passes
through the center O .
3. Velocity of Particles:
The velocity of a particle at a distance rA from the instantaneous center is given by:
​

VA = ωrA
​ ​

Similarly, for a particle B at distance rB , the velocity is:

​

VB = ωrB
​ ​

The velocities are proportional to the distances from the instantaneous center, and the
direction of velocity is perpendicular to the line connecting the instantaneous center to the
particle.
4. Finding the Instantaneous Center:
If the velocities of two points A and B on the body are known, the instantaneous center can
be found by drawing perpendiculars to the velocity vectors VA and VB from points A and B .
​ ​

The intersection of these perpendiculars gives the instantaneous center of zero velocity.
5. Practical Use:
If the angular velocity ω of the body is known, the velocity of any point on the body can be
easily determined by multiplying the angular velocity by the distance from the instantaneous
center.

Translational Motion and Instantaneous Center

1. Translating Body:
If a body undergoes translation (not rotation), every point on the body moves with the same
velocity.
For such a body, the instantaneous center of rotation is considered to be at infinity, as no
rotation occurs.
2. Velocity Relation:
 In a translating body, the linear velocity of any point is the same, but there is no change in
angular position (i.e., angular velocity ω = 0).
3. Velocity in Translational Motion:
For translating bodies, the velocity at a given point is expressed as:
V = ωr
But, since ω = 0, the velocity of every point remains the same in magnitude but has no
rotational component.

Special Cases for Instantaneous Center

1. Two Points with Parallel Velocities:
If the velocities of two points A and B are parallel but have different magnitudes, the
instantaneous center lies on the line joining A and B .
The position of the instantaneous center is determined by the velocity ratio:
VA rA
=
​ ​

VB rB
​ ​

​ ​

2. Opposite Directions:
If the velocities of points A and B are parallel but opposite in direction, the instantaneous
center still lies on the line joining A and B .
The distances rA and rB from the instantaneous center are related by the velocity ratio:
​ ​

VA rA
=
​ ​

VB rB
​ ​

​ ​

3. Relative Velocity:
Only rotation causes relative velocity between two points on the body. In translational
motion, there is no relative velocity.

Conclusion
The concept of the instantaneous center of zero velocity is crucial for analyzing rotational
motion. It allows the determination of velocities of various points on the body by knowing the
angular velocity and the distance from this center.
Equations of motion for angular quantities are analogous to linear motion equations.
In cases of rolling or translating bodies, the instantaneous center plays a vital role in
understanding the kinematics of motion.
Relative Velocity in Rigid Bodies:
In a rigid body, the relative velocity between two particles is always perpendicular to the line joining
the two points representing the body. This can be shown as follows:
1. Consider a rigid body with a point O and another point A on the body.

Let the coordinates of point A be x, y in an axis system passing through point O.

The distance OA is given by:

OA = x2 + y 2 ​

Since the distance is constant, differentiating with respect to time gives:

2xẋ + 2y ẏ = 0
​

Simplifying:

xẋ + y ẏ = 0
​

This leads to the relationship:

ẏ x
=−
ẋ y
​ ​

or equivalently:

ẋ y
=−
ẏ x
​ ​

2. Interpretation of the Relation:

The components of the velocity of point A are ẋ (velocity along the x-axis) and ẏ (velocity
​

along the y-axis).

The relation between these components shows that the direction of the velocity is at a 90°
angle to the line joining points O and A.
If the velocity components ẏ and ẋ are considered, the velocity vector makes an angle θ with
​

the x-axis, where:

x
tan θ = −
y
​

Similarly, the angle ϕ of the line joining points O and A with the x-axis is:
y
tan ϕ =
x
​

Therefore, the angles θ and ϕ satisfy:

tan θ ⋅ tan ϕ = −1 ⇒ θ = ϕ + 90∘

This shows that the velocity of point A is always perpendicular to the line joining it to point O.
Instantaneous Center of Rotation:
The concept of the instantaneous center of rotation can be applied to various mechanisms. Here are a
few examples:
1. Slider Mechanism:
Consider a mechanism with a slider A and a point B, where the slider can move horizontally,
and point B moves vertically.
Point A has a horizontal velocity VA , and point B has a vertical velocity VB .
​ ​

Draw perpendiculars from VA and VB ; their intersection is the instantaneous center O.

​ ​

To find the angular velocity ω of the rod AB:

VA VB
ω= =
​ ​

OA OB
​ ​

The velocity of any point C on the rod can be found using:

VC = ω × OC
​

where the magnitude of VC is perpendicular to the line OC.

​

2. Four-Bar Mechanism:
Consider a four-bar mechanism with links 1, 2, 3, and 4.
The instantaneous centers of rotation for each link can be determined:
The instantaneous center of link 2 is at point A.
The instantaneous center of link 4 is at point D.
For link 3 (BC), velocities at points B and C are known. Draw perpendiculars to these
velocities at points B and C on link 3. The intersection of these perpendiculars gives the
instantaneous center O for link 3.
3. Modified Four-Bar Mechanism:
In a modified four-bar mechanism, the velocity direction at point B is vertical, and the velocity
at point C is perpendicular to CD.
The perpendiculars to the velocities at B and C intersect at a point O, which is the
instantaneous center of rotation for link BC.

Instantaneous Center in Other Mechanisms:

1. Slider in Four-Bar Mechanism:
In a mechanism where a slider moves along a straight line, the instantaneous center of
rotation for the slider is at infinity. This can be shown by drawing a line perpendicular to the
motion of the slider.
2. Velocity Components at Points B and C:
The velocity of point B is in the vertical direction, while the velocity at point C is perpendicular
to CD.
 By drawing perpendiculars to these velocities on link BC, the intersection point gives the
instantaneous center.

Angular Acceleration in Rotating Bodies:

In cases where a rotating body experiences angular acceleration, such as in a motor, the angular
acceleration α is given by:

α = −kω

where ω is the angular velocity, and k is a constant.

The solution to this differential equation can be found by integration, leading to:
α0
ω(t) = (1 − e−kt )
​

k
​

As time tends to infinity, the angular velocity ω approaches a steady value, and the angular
acceleration α becomes zero.

This concludes the discussion of relative velocities, instantaneous centers of rotation, and angular
acceleration in rigid body motion. You can solve numerical problems based on the principles covered
in this lecture, often involving differential calculus.