Life Sciences

Grade 12
DNA: The code of life
P2 = 27 marks

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DNA – THE CODE OF
LIFE
❑ Cytoplasm is the base substance in which the
organelles of the cell are suspended. It is a watery
substance and allows for metabolic reactions to take
place.
❑ Ribosomes are small, round organelles which are
mainly found attached to the endoplasmic reticulum or
are free-floating in the cytoplasm. Ribosomes can also
be found inside other organelles such as the
chloroplast and mitochondria but in smaller numbers.
They are the site of protein synthesis and consist of
RNA and protein.
 The nucleus
The nucleus controls all of the cell’s activities.
four
parts

➢ the double nuclear membrane – it encloses the nucleus

and contains small pores to allow for the passage of
substances in and out of the nucleus
➢ the nucleoplasm – this is a jelly-like fluid within the
nucleus
➢ the nucleolus – a dark body suspended in the
nucleoplasm which contains free nucleotide bases and
produces ribosomes
➢ the chromatin network – found in the nucleoplasm:
contains the DNA which forms the chromosomes
containing the genetic code of a person / organism
 • DNA has a double helix
structure(Figure4A),
consisting of monomers
called nucleotides which link
to form long chains, called
polymers.
• The sugar in DNA is
deoxyribose sugar and is
attached to a nitrogenous
base.
• The phosphate and sugar
molecules are attached to
one another by strong
bonds alternately to form
the long chains (Figure 4B).

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This pairing of bases means that two strands of DNA are joined together, forming a long ladder-like
structure. The nitrogenous bases are held together by weak hydrogen bonds. The ladder-like structure
becomes coiled and is known as a double helix structure. The DNA strands wind around proteins which
are known as histones. Adenine & guanine are referred to as purines while thymine & cytosine are
pyrimidines.
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 The main functions of DNA include:

• DNA makes up genes which carry

hereditary information.
• DNA contains coded information for
protein synthesis.

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 A brief history of the discovery of DNA

• 1952 – Rosalind Franklin and her assistant Maurice Wilkins

researched the structure of DNA using X-ray diffraction images.
• Watson and Crick did independent research on DNA. Upon
seeing Franklin’simages, they proposed a 3-D double helix
model for DNA in 1953.
• 1962 – Watson and Crick received the Nobel Prize for the
discovery of the structure of DNA, and Wilkins received an
award for his X-ray photography. Franklin had died of cancer.

• Rosalind Franklin – background:

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 Location of RNA

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is formed in the nucleus but then

enters the cytoplasm where it attaches to ribosomes.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is found in the ribosomes in the

cytoplasm of the cell.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is found freely in the cytoplasm of

the cell.

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 Structure of RNA
• Like DNA, RNA also consists of monomers (nucleotides)
which link to form longer-chains (polymers).
• However, RNA is a single-stranded structure which is
not coiled. The sugar in RNA is ribose and is attached to
a nitrogenous base.
• The phosphate and sugar molecules are attached to one
another alternately to form the chains.
• There are four types of nitrogenous bases in RNA:
• Adenine (A)
• Cytosine (C)
• Guanine (G)
• Uracil (U) – not Thymine as in DNA
 Similarities & differences
Between DNA & RNA molecules
DNA and RNA are similar in some respects. They both …
• contain sugar alternating with phosphate
• contain the nitrogenous bases adenine, guanine and cytosine
• play a role in protein synthesis

The main differences between DNA and RNA.

DNA RNA

Double stranded molecule Single stranded molecule

Has a helix/coiled shape Is a straight shape/not coiled

Has nitrogenous base thymine Has nitrogenous base uracil

Contains deoxyribose sugar Contains ribose sugar

A longer molecule A shorter molecule

Paired nitrogenous bases Unpaired bases

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DNA
REPLICATION
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DNA & cell division

• A DNA molecule is able to make identical a
copy of itself. DNA replication occurs during
interphase before cell division.

• This is how chromosomes are copied before

cell division.

• DNA’s ability to copy itself means that all the

genetic information is passed on to new cells.

• How does a DNA helix make a copy of itself?

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DNA replication
A T
continue……
G C

New bases
attached
themselves in
the correct
place of each
strand

Free nucleotides
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Two identical strands are formed
Each strand now becomes a double helix.

Strand 1 Strand 2
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•

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 Significance of DNA replication

❖The genetic material is doubled

❖So that each of the cell receives the same amount of DNA
❖To ensure that all the daughter cells are genetically identical

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Activity 2

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 DNA PROFILING/FINGERPRINTING

• DNA fingerprints are pattern of black bars left on X-ray film when an extract of DNA is put through a special
biotechnical process. Every person except identical twins has his/her own unique profile or fingerprinting.
• DNA profiling is the process of comparing a DNA profile of a person to another.
• DNA profiles can be extracted from body tissue or fluid e.g. hair, skin, blood, saliva etc.

Uses
- Diagnosis of inherited disorders
- Developing cures for inherited disorders
- Crime detection
- Paternity
- Identifying dead bodies
- Tracing siblings
- Matching tissues for organ transplants

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Interpretation:

• The DNA profile of the victim is determined.

• The DNA profile found at the crime scene is
determined.
• The DNA profiles of the suspects are also
determined.
• A comparison of the DNA bands/stripes/ bars of
the crime scene and the suspects is made.
• If all the DNA bands of a particular suspect match
the DNA bands found at the crime scene
• then he is the culprit.
Interpretation:

- A child received DNA from both parents

- The DNA profiles of the mother, child and the

possible father are determined.

-A comparison of the DNA bands of the mother

and the child is made.

- The remaining DNA bands are compared to

the possible father’s DNA bands

- If all the remaining DNA bands in the child’s

profile match the possible father’s DNA bands

- then he is the biological father.

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Protein synthesis

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The role played by DNA in protein synthesis
• The DNA molecule contains a coded information (message) about a protein that
needs to be formed
• The code is in the form of DNA base triplets (3 consecutive NB)
• This message is copied by an RNA molecule and taken to the site of protein
synthesis-ribosomes
The role played by RNA molecule in protein synthesis
• Messenger RNA (mRNA): formed during transcription stage
1. mRNA copies coded message from DNA
2. Carries this code as ‘Codons’ (three consecutive NB)
3. Then moves to the ribosomes
4. So that amino acids can be arranged in a specific manner
5. For the formation of a specific protein
The role played tRNA in protein synthesis
• tRNA picks up specific amino acids
• And brings them to the ribosomes
• In its tip it has specific anticodons (three consecutive NB) that are
• Complementary (matching) to the mRNA codons
• The process in which proteins are made is called protein synthesis. Proteins are made by linking various
amino acids that are present in the cytoplasm of cells. There are 20 different amino acids, and they combine
in a large variety of combinations.
• The number of amino acids and the sequence of the amino acids determine the type of protein that is
formed.

❑ Figure 9 illustrates a protein with different amino acids represented by the different shapes and color.
❑ The bond between the amino acids is known as a peptide bond.

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Transcription (formation of mRNA)

❑The double helix DNA unwinds and

❑Unzips/weak hydrogen bonds break
❑To form two separate strands
❑One strand is used as a template
❑To form mRNA
❑Using free nucleotides from the
nucleoplasm
❑The mRNA is complementary to the DNA
❑The coded message for protein synthesis
is thus copied onto mRNA

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Translation (formation of a protein)

❖Each tRNA carries a specific amino acid

❖When the anticodon on the tRNA
❖matches the codon on mRNA
❖then tRNA brings the required amino acid to
the ribosome
❖amino acids are attached to each other by
peptide bonds
❖to the form the required protein/polypeptide

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DNA REPLICATION TRANSCRIPTION
Both DNA strands acts as template/each strand acts as template Only DNA strand acts as template

The whole DNA molecule is used Only a short section of DNA is used

DNA unwinds & unzips completely DNA unwinds & unzips partially

Free DNA nucleotides are complimentary to DNA strand Free RNA nucleotides are complimentary to DNA strand

Adenine pairs with thymine Adenine compliments uracil

Two identical DNA molecules are formed mRNA molecule is formed.

Main differences
GENE MUTATIONS

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Gene mutations will NOT always lead to the formation of a different amino acid/protein

No change in amino acids Change in amino acids

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 Thank you!!!

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