LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT

Livestock includes all animals kept on a farm for economic purposes e.g pigs, cattle, goats,
sheep, camel, chicken, ducks; bees, pigeons, turkeys e.t.c.

Importance of Livestock.

It’s a source of income more especially when the animals are sold wholly by the farm.

The livestock industry provides market to the agro chemical industry through the sell of
drugs and feeds.

Live stock are a good source of proteins for man in form of eggs, milk, meat e.t.c

The livestock industry provides employment both directly to people working in leather
turning industries and milk processing plants.

Livestock provides manure which is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus to be used in crop
gardens.

Livestock have found a place in cultural and traditional ceremonies where they are being
used as sacrifices.

Some animals like the cattle, donkeys and the horses are being used as a source of Labour
in transporting farm produce and ploughing.

On the national level, live stock products like hides and skins are a good source of foreign
exchange for the country which improves the economy.

The live stock industry is a source of government revenue when taxes are levied on live
stock and their products.

FACTORS DETERMINING THE TYPE AND BREED OF LIVE STOCK TO BE KEPT.

Climate:

The high temperatures of the day tend to discourage most of the exotic animals of European
origin and such animals are limited to particular areas of Uganda with favourable
environmental. Conditions

Pests:
The presence of pests like ticks and tsetse flies has limited the raring of exotic animals since
they are more prone to tick borne-diseases like: East Coast fever, Red water, etc.

Availability of Feeds:
Animals like pigs require high protein feeds which are expensive for most of the farmers.
This may discourage the rearing of such animals where feeds are not available.

Diseases:
Like swine fever in pigs, cocidiosis and new castle in poultry tend to limit the distribution of
livestock in many parts of Uganda.

Risk baring capacity of the farmers:

Most farmers in Uganda are peasants with low income. This means that such farmers can
not easily take high risks of looking after high value exotic animals like Friesian cattle.

A low level of skills and education among farmers:

Most farmers in Uganda are illiterate and have little knowledge on how to manage live stock
to look after. This will affect their choice of live stock and hence distribution.

The expected additional function of the animals:

Animals that have many functions will always be liked and their distribution in an area is high
e.g. Cattle. Cattle can provide meat, milk, manure and Labour which other animals may not

Religion and traditional beliefs:

Some animals are viewed as unclean by certain religion and traditions e.g. The pigs among
the Muslims. This meant that such people can’t look after the pigs.

Capital:
In the presence of enough capital, a farmer can look after the highly productive exotic
animals with less problems since he can raise all the necessary infrastructure like dips,
perimeter fences, spray races e.t.c.

Government policy:
Enabling policy has led to an increase in the distribution of livestock in some places e.g.
restocking of cattle some areas in Uganda like Teso with cattle.

Market:
The availability of market for certain livestock or their product in a particular area will
increase their distribution and vice versa.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY IN UGANDA

The number of animals kept is unrestricted with most farmers preferring quantity to quality.

There is very little attention given to the improvement of the pastures since they are grazed
communally.

The grazing time is limited as the animals are taken out to graze during the day and brought
in the kraal at night.

There is little planned mixed farming i.e. crop and animal units are rarely integrated.

Breeding is rarely controlled e.g. animals mate when they are still very young and there is a
lot of inbreeding.

The watering places are very far away from the grazing places and animals spend a lot of
energy walking.

Generally the standard of livestock management in Uganda is very poor with no records kept
at farms.

PROBLEMS OF THE LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY IN UGANDA.

Pests and diseases:

The tropical conditions favour the multiplication of the pests like tsetse flies and internal
worms. These have caused a lot to farmers.

Lack of enough capital:

Most farmers in Uganda are poor and therefore can’t afford expensive inputs like drugs,
animal feeds e.t.c.
Breeding:

In Uganda most animals are mated when they are still young and there is a lot of inbreeding
which will affect the quality and quantity of livestock products.

Poor Housing:

There is no proper housing for livestock in Uganda and the animals are left to sleep outside
where they are exposed to adverse environmental conditions which will affect their products.

Poor Record Keeping:

Most farms in Uganda lack records of individual animals and the farms in general. This
makes selection for breeding and culling difficult (removal of unproductive animals in the
farm)

Limited Extension Services:

Most farmers do not receive enough information on livestock management from extension
staff. This is because extension workers are far and are not well facilitated.

Poor Marketing System:

The markets for livestock and their products are still few and scattered with fluctuating
prices which discourage the farmers.

Poor Pastures:

Most of the pastures gred by the animals are of poor quality which lowers animal production

Insecurity and cattle rustling;

Some places in Uganda are politically insecure which leads to loss of life and property hence
discouraging live stock production.

Harsh Climatical conditions

Long drought leads to inadequate water and pasture which lower animal production
SOLUTIONS TO THE LIVESTOCK PROBLEMS.

Extension workers should be facilitated so that they can give services to the farmers more
especially those who are in remote areas.

Provision of loans, farmers should be provided with loans more especially soft loans so that
they have enough capital to improve on their infrastructures like fences, dips e.t.c.

Artificial insemination should be encouraged so that farmers can maintain high quality
animals which are more productive through the importation of semen.

Marketing of livestock and their products should be organized so that farmers can easily get
the information through the internet, news papers and farmers journals about the markets
and the available prices.

Settled grazing should be encouraged so that more attention is given to the animals for
better production.

The land ownership laws should be improved so that farmers can get access to land easily
with fewer costs involved. Proper land ownership also encourages the development of that
particular land.

The paddock system of grazing animals should be introduced so that animals can be
controlled to reduce over grazing, encourage mixed farming and improvement of the
pastures.

Routine vaccination of animals against killer diseases e.g rinder pest, Africans wine fever,
foot and mouth diseases. N.B: should be done by the Government to reduce the incidence of
such diseases.

Government should endeavour to subsidize agricultural inputs so that the farmer can enjoy a
higher profit margin that can encourage them to develop their farms.

Security should be maintained in all areas so that livestock farmers are encouraged by
reducing risks of property and life loss

Valley dams should be constructed so as to solve the problem of inadequate water during
drought

CATTLE.
 DIAGRAM OF A COW

Classification of cattle

Phylum; Chordata

Class; Mammalia

Order; Artiodactyla

Genus; Bos

Species; indicus (humped cattle)

taurus (hump less cattle)

The immigrant cattle (long horned and short horned) are considered as ancestors of
Bostaurus (European type of cattle) and the Bosindicus (zebu) type.

These mixed at different times in different ways to create the sanga cattle which is the
predominant type of cattle today.

In East Africa, the sanga have been displaced by the zebu.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN Bostaurus AND BosindicusCATTI.E

Bos taurus /Exotic Bos indicus / Indigenous

Don’t have a prominent hump. Have a prominent hump.

Rounded ears held at right angles Have long dropping pointed ears.
with the head.

Have a short and wide head. Have long and comparatively narrow head.

Relatively large with the bull weighing up to Relatively small with the bull rarely weighing
1000kgs exceeding 700kg.

The dewlap, umbilical cord and the brisket Dewlap and brisket are extensively
are small or absent. developed.

Have thick skin which is relatively tight. Have a thin and loose skin.

Have large amounts of subcutaneous fat. Have small amounts of subcutaneous fat.

Hair tends to be relatively long and rough Hair is relatively short and smooth.

Legs tend to be short and are slow moving. Legs are long and fast moving.

Mature more easily and reach full maturity at Slow maturity and reach full growth at 5½
4 years. years

Back line is straight Backline is high at the shoulders, low behind

the hump and higher over the pin bones.

Indigenous cattle

These are humped cattle of tropical origin. Examples are; Zebu, Brahmin, Sanga, Nkole and
Boran

Characteristics of indigenous cattle

They are resistant to adverse Climatical conditions like high temperatures and drought

They can walk for long distances without losing condition

They easily convert poor pastures into milk and meat

They are tolerant to tick borne diseases like east coast fever

They have few problems of reproduction

They are cheap to buy and maintain

They are less productive in terms of milk and meat

The indigenous cattle are being kept for meat and milk by the communities in Uganda.
Improvement of these animals is being carried out through upgrading with exotic cattle

Exotic cattle

These are hump less cattle that have been imported into east Africa from European countries.
They are kept for milk and meat or both

Examples of exotic dairy breeds; Friesian, Jersey, Guernsey and Ayrshire

Examples of exotic Beef breeds; Galloway, Hereford, Charolais, Sussex, Aberdeen Angus,
Lincoln Red, e.t.c.

Examples of dual purpose exotic breeds; Red Poll, Dexter, Short horn, South Devon and
Welsh Black

Characteristics of exotic cattle

They have a high growth rate

They are not resistant to tick borne diseases

They may reproductive problems

They cannot tolerate high temperatures and drought

They require high quality feeds for high production

They lose condition after walking for long distances

They require a high level of management

They are highly productive in terms of milk and meat

MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE
This is the care given to cattle to improve and maintain a high production.

A stockman is the person entrusted with the work of caring for livestock on a farm

Qualities of a good stock man

Should be kind to the animals by avoiding rough treatment that can cause injury and death
to animals

Should know well the monthly or routine operations on the farm like drenching, vaccination
to reduce risks of disease and death of animals

Should have a high ability of identifying sick animals and those on heat for prompt action.

Should be able to identify and remove dangerous objects from the farm to reduce injury to
livestock

Must be able to keep good up to date records for reference purposes

Should be able to take correct decisions as and when required to reduce losses on the farm

Should be honest to reduce losses to the farm

Should be healthy and energetic so as to carry out work as and when required

Should be highly knowledgeable in livestock management to ensure high animal production

Should be able to do work on the farm under minimum supervision from the high officers

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN CATTLE

These are operations done on cattle to ensure high production.They include the following:

Feeding.
Branding

identification

Housing.

Castration

Dehorning.

Grooming

Casting / putting animals down

Vaccination

Hoof trimming

Drenching / dehorning

Restraining
1. DEHORNING:

This is the removal or suppression of horns on animals. Suppressing horn growth at an early
stage is called Disbudding

Importance

To make the handling of the animal move easy especially during drenching, castrating,
ploughing e.t.c.

To allow more animals to fit in space during transportation of the animals and even in kraals.

To reduce injury which is may be caused by horned cattle to others.

To prevent the destruction of farm structure like fences by animals that are horned.

To beautify animals hence making them more appealing.

It introduces uniformity in a herd

Makes animals to grow faster as nutrients meant for horn development are used in growth

METHODS OF DEHORNING

The method used will depend on the age of the animal, farmer’s skill and to some extent
capital. Methods used in dehorning are;

Use of caustic pencils or chemical dehorning

Use of hot iron

Use of dehorning saw

Use of a rubber ring

Use of dehorning wire

Use of dehorning clippers

i) Chemical Method:
 This is where caustic pencils or sticks are used in suppressing horns by rubbing it
against the horn buds. It’s done to young animals between 3-14 days of age.

Procedure

Restrain the calf using ropes and cast it down

Clip the hair around the horn bud to expose it

Rub the caustic sticks or pencils are against the horn bud until bleeding occurs

Apply fly repellants and antibiotics on the wound created

Release the calf after the operation

Do not allow the calf into rain for a few days for faster healing of the wounds.

ii) Hot iron method:

This is where a hot iron is applied on the horn bud to burn and kill the growing cells.

Procedure

Restrain the calf using ropes and cast it down

Heat the iron in fire or gas until it’s red hot.

Apply the hot iron around the horn bud for about 10 seconds to burn the growing cells.

Care should be taken not to go deep as it can damage the brain

Apply fly repellants on the wound created to keep away flies and stop the wound from
becoming septic respectively

The animal should be released after the operation

Monitor the animal to ensure that it does not go under rain

iii) Use of a rubber ring;

 A rubber ring is placed at the bottom of the horn bud which will stop blood
supply to the horn and cut it off with in three to six weeks depending on the size
of the horn. It is done on small horns at early age

Procedure

Restrain the animal in a crush or using ropes

Use an elastrator to stretch out the rubber ring

Place the rubber ring at the base of the horn and remove the elastrator to release the rubber
ring

Release the animal after the operation

iv) Use of dehorning saws:

This is used where the horns have grown up and is long enough. The horns are cut off near the
base after restraining the animal.

Procedure

Restrain the animal using ropes and cast it down

Administer a localized pain killer in the skin surrounding the horn

Tie a piece of thin rope around the base of the two horns to control bleeding

Cut off the horn at the base using a dehorning saw

Repeat the same procedure to remove the second horn

Use a hot iron to seal the wound to stop bleeding.

Apply insect repellants and antibiotics on the wound

Release the animal after the operation and closely monitor it to assess the healing process

Remove the ropes around the base after two days

Use of dehorning wire

 This where a brittle wire is stretched and rubbed against a horn until it is cut
off. The animal is restrained and the operation carried out

vi) Use of dehorning clippers

Dehorning clippers are tools with open blades that remove horns by
cutting.

They are used in the removal of large horns

2. CASTRATION:

It’s the practice of rendering male animals sexually un functional. In female animals,
the practice is referred to as spaying

Reasons for castration:

To prevent the bad smell especially in the Billy goats.

To prevent undesirable males from breeding.

To make the animal docile and easy to work.

Castrated animals grow faster and produce quality meat.

Castration increases the quality of wool in sheep as more nutrients are channeled to the
development of the wool.

It helps in the control of venereal diseases like contagious abortion.

It controls in breeding on the farm when males born on the farm are castrated.

Methods of Castration.

There are two main methods of castration namely:

Open operation/ castration.

Closed castration

1. Open castration:

This is where the scrotum is opened to remove the testicles. It can also be referred to as
surgical operation.

This requires a sharp knife or blade to split the scrotum vertically up to the bottom for better
bleeding.

Advantages of open castration

Ensures complete castration of the animal

It’s a cheaper method of castration since can be done using local implements like the knife

Disadvantages

It requires a lot of skill to be carried out

There is a high risk of infection due to the wound created

It is slow to be carried out

There is risk of over bleeding more especially in mature bulls

Procedure of carrying out open castration:

The animal should be restrained first using ropes.

Wash your hands using clean water and soap or wear clean gloves.

The scrotum of the animals should be washed and disinfected using clean warm water and soap

Dry the scrotum using a clean hand towel

Apply a localized anaesthesia a round the scrotum to reduce pain

Pull and squeeze the scrotum to locate the testes

Use a clean blade or knife to cut the scrotum vertically in order to remove the testes.
Pull the spermatic cords out and tie it using a clean string

Cut the spermatic cord just below the knot to release the testis

Repeat the same procedure to remove the second testis

Seal the wound to stop bleeding by using a hot iron

Apply fly repellants on the wound to keep a way flies

Apply antibiotic cream to stop the wound from becoming septic

14. Release the animal and keep it in reach for easy supervision

Closed castration;

This is a type of castration which is done without opening the scrotum. It can be done
using the burdizzo/burdizzo method or using a rubber ring/ rubber ring method

A burdizzo is an instrument with handles which exerts pressure on closing it’s jaws while a
rubber ring is a thick round rubber which is stretched using an elastrator before being
placed on the “neck” of the scrotum.

Advantages of closed castration

It’s a fast method of castration

Does not require a lot of skill

No bleeding experienced

Less risk of infection since no open wound is created

Disadvantages

Chances of a failed castration are common

It is expensive to buy a burdizzo

Castration using a rubber ring is very painful

 Castration using a burdizzo

Restrain the animal using ropes and cast it down

Pull the scrotum down wards to locate the spermatic cords, ducts and nerves

Open the jaws of the burdizzo by pressing the handles out wards

Place the burdizzo at the “neck” of the scrotum

Press the handles of the burdizzo in wards to lock the jaws and crush the spermatic cords,
ducts and nerves

Open the jaws of the burdizzo and remove it from the crushed area

Release the animal after the operation

Keep the animal within reach for easy supervision

Castration using a rubber ring:

Here a strong rubber band is straightened using an elastrator and fixed around the
“neck” of the scrotum. This cuts off blood supply to the scrotum and the testes which
eventually degenerate and fall off after sometime. It’s the most painful method of
castration though very effective. The farmer doesn’t expect any development of the
scrotum for a life time.

3. IDENTIFICATION:

This is done in order to:

Enable a farmer to recognize his animal in case it’s lost.

To facilitate record keeping.

Methods of identification:

The main methods of identification are:

Branding

Ear tagging

Tattooing

Ear notching

Naming

A. BRANDING

This involves sealing numbers, letters, designs or a combination of this on the skin of the
animal.

Methods of branding

These include:

Hot iron branding

Chemical branding

Freeze branding

1. Hot Iron branding

This is done using a branding iron which is heated and stamped on the animal skin to
leave marks for identification. Branding is done on the less valuable part of a hide like
lower part of the thigh, jaw and hump

Procedure of hot iron branding

Restrain the animal in a crush

Heat the branding iron in fire or gas until red hot

Stamp the hot iron on a less valuable part of the animal to burn the skin and leave marks

Remove the iron from the skin after a few seconds

Release the animal from the crush

 2. Chemical branding

In this method, corrosive chemicals are applied on the skin causing leaving marks on the
skin.

Restrain the animal in a crush

Clean the area to be banded

Dip the branding equipment in the branding chemical

Apply the chemical to the less valuable parts of the hide.

Release the animal fro the crush

3. Freeze Branding

This involves applying liquid nitrogen to the skin which freezes the hair follicles so that
they die and stop hair growth in that area.

A branding iron can be dipped in liquid nitrogen and then applied on the skin. The
method is good since the skin / hide is not damaged and hence can be applied to any
part of the animal.

B. EAR TAGS

They are made of light metals or strong plastics written on with different numbers, letters or
designs.

The ear tags are of two types.

piercing tags)

The self fixing tags will be fixed on to the ear with force while a non – piercing ear tag, a hole
must be made where it is fixed. An ear tag applicator can be used in stapling piercing ear
tags on the ear
C. EAR NOTCHING

This involves cutting V – shaped notches on the edge of the ear using sharp scissors or pincers.
This method is popular in pigs because of their soft skin. The number and location of notches
on the ear can be used for identification

D. TATTOOING

A special ink is used to inflict marks on the skin of the animal more especially inside the ear.
The hair must be removed from that place before tattooing.

E. NAMING

Animal are given specific names for identification depending on a number of things like origin,
coat colour, e.t.c.

4. RESTRAINING

This is the hindering of movements of animals by physical force. It’s done so as to perform
operations on the animals like: dehorning, castration, de-worming, identification, vaccination
and drenching with minimum disturbance.

The amount of force applied during restraining depends on the temper, size and type of the
animals. Cattle are not restrained in the same way as goats.

5. CASTING

This is a practice of putting animals down and it’s done when animals are to be controlled for a
long time during operations like castration, dehorning and identification.

6. GROOMING

This involves brushing off loose hair, dung, dirt and lice from the skin of an animal
Reasons for grooming

To stimulate blood and lymph circulation in the body of the animal

To remove loose hair, lice and other external parasites

To facilitate mating in animals

For cleanliness and good appearance for the animals

For production of clean milk in lactating animals

7. FOOT TRIMMING

This involves removing overgrown parts of the foot which impairs movement of the animal. It
controls lameness in animals

8. CULLING

This involves removing un-productive and sick animals from the herd for slaughtering / selling.

It controls disease spread and wastage of feeds on the farm

9. VACCINATION

This is done in order to control highly infectious diseases in livestock e.g. Swine fever, foot and
mouth disease, New castle, rabies etc.

10. DRENCHING

This involves administering oral treatment as supposed to animals. Its done using a drenching
gun/bottle to control internal parasites like liver flukes, round worms, tape worms, hook worms.

11. ROUNDING UP
This is done in beef animals and it involves bringing all animals on ranch in the centre of the
kraal for the following reasons:

Castrate and vaccinate animals

Physical assessment of the animals

To separate animals according to age, sex, type etc.

To cull and market un productive animals

To wean calves of at the right age

To carry out pregnancy diagnosis

12. HOUSING

The main reasons why animals are housed are

To protect animals from bad weather condition mostly young ones

To provide animals with a good opportunity of being fed well

To provide an area for special handling of the animals e.g. Crushes, dips, spray etc.

To provide a conducive environment for production and temporary storage for milk
(quality milk)

To provide conducive working conditions for the farmer

Qualities of a good animal house

Provide an adequate floor space to avoid overcrowding

Should be water proof to avoid damp conditions that breed pathogens

Should have a concrete floor which is easy to clean

Should provide adequate light since it affects the productivity and behaviour of animals

Should have adequate ventilation to control respiratory infections

The floor surface should have a gentle slope to allow urine to drain off easily

Should be built in such a way that animals can easily see each other
 LIVESTOCK BREEDING:
This is the mating of selected animals in a planned manner

AIMS OF ANIMAL BREEDING

To maintain desirable qualities in animals like increased number of eggs produced in chicken,
high number of off springs born per animal,

Produce animals with a high mothering ability i.e. low temperament and high milk production

Produce highly fertile animals

Produce animals with a High growth rate

Produce animals that can give a lot products like milk and eggs

To come up with breeds that produce high quality meat, milk and egg

To produce breeds of animals that are resistant to parasites and diseases

Elimination of undesirable qualities in livestock

To produce animals with a high resistance to harsh environmental conditions

To produce animals that can provide products for a long period of time

TERMS USED IN ANIMAL BREEDING

Allele: These are different forms of a gene at a particular locus e.g. Tt

Back Cross: This is a cross between an animal offspring and one of the parents

A breed: This is a large group of animals developed by the efforts of man having a common
ancestry and possessing similar morphological, physiological and economic characteristics.

Breeding: This is a technique involved in mating selected animals because of their desirable
characteristics.

Chiasma: This is a place of connection between two chromosomes seen during prophase I of
meiosis.

A clone: This is the population of organisms reproduced by a sexual reproduction from a one
individual.
Crossing over: This is the process of exchange of genetic information between two
homologous chromosomes during meiosis.

Diploid: It’s an individual cell having 2 complete sets of chromosomes.

Epistasis: This is where a gene masks the effect of another. The gene which masks is
called epistatic gene. The masked gene is called a hypostatic gene.

Dominant gene: Its one which can express itself phenotypically in both homozygous and
heterozygous states e.g. a gene for tallness (TT) in a garden pea.

Inheritance: It’s a mechanism by which characteristics are passed on from parents to

offsprings. If a character is 20% heritable. It means that the 20% is determined by the genes
while the 80% depends on the environment.

A hybrid: These are the offsprings resulting from a cross between two parents of different
breed or stock.

Hybrid Vigor: (heterosis) this is un usual growth and healthiness (better performance) of
organisms resulting from the cross between two different parents or better performance of a
hybrid beyond that of parents

Inbreeding: This is the mating of closely related animals

Locus: This is the physical position of the gene on a chromosome

Linkage: This is the tendency of genes located on the same chromosome to be inherited
together in a successive generation

Out Breeding: This is the mating of unrelated animals and is sometimes called crossing

Pedigree: It’s a chart showing the ancestry history of an individual

Progeny: These are offsprings resulting from a mating

Recessive Gene: A gene whose expression is only seen when in a homozygous state only.

Heterozygous: It’s a situation where an organism has two different alleles e.g. Tt

Homozygous: It’s a situation where an organism has two like alleles e.g. TT

Sex chromosomes: These are chromosomes that determine the sex of organisms e.g. X and
Y chromosomes in animals.

SELECTION
This is a practice of allowing some animals to be parents of future generations while depriving
others of that privilege.

Types of selection

There are mainly two types of selections i.e. natural selection and artificial selection

Natural Selection

This is one which always takes place through random mating and its influenced by natural
forces e.g. the ability of one individual to survive and reproduce in a certain environment.

In such a selection only the fittest animals are able to survive hence survival of the fittest in the
struggle for existence.

Artificial Selection

This is the type of selection controlled by man and doesn’t allow random mating but mating is
based on desired characteristics

Methods used in artificial selection

Individual / mass selection

Pedigree selection

Collateral relatives selection

Progeny tests

Tandem selection

Independent culling

Selection index

Individual Selection
This is done basing on the information about the animals performance as well as the
performance of its progeny. It measures the likelihood of a trait being passed onto the next
generation.

A comparison of animals based on their own individual performance is called the performance
test. It’s used for traits of high heritability such as growth rate, fertility, mothering ability and
feed conversion efficiency.

Pedigree Selection

Here animals are selected basing on the performance of their ancestors. This method is used
for traits that can’t be measured in life e.g. quality of beef.

This method is not highly recommended because it can be easily manipulated by leaders and
farm managers.

Collateral relatives Selection

This is selection done basing on performance records of close relatives like brothers, sisters,
half brothers etc.

The transmission of traits (characteristics) with known importance between relatives can be
measured using subtests.

The accuracy of sub testing depends on;

Family size

Heritability of a character i.e. the ability of a trait to be transmitted from one generation to
another

Intra family genetic relationships

Progeny Tests

This is where selection is made basing on the performance of an animal’s offspring (progeny)

It determines the value of an animal breed and performance reflected in the following
Milk and butter fat production incase of dairy animals

Carcass quality in beef animals

Belly length in pigs

Advantages

Weakly inherited traits are easily noted and decisions made

Its easy to know practically the productive qualities for both the bull and the cow

It’s more suitable for traits which are exposed after slaughter such as the carcass quality.

Disadvantages

It’s a very expensive method of selection because it involves a lot of consideration before
reaching the final judgement

It needs a lot of time hence its time wasting

Tandem selection

This where a desired trait is selected among many and improved before going for another

Independent culling

The breeder lays down a minimum standard for several traits and any animal that does not
measure up to standard is culled

Selection index

Here, numerical values are given to potential parents basing on their characters and one with
the highest value is selected

Factors considered in selecting animals for breeding

Adaptability of the animal to environmental conditions

Availability of the breed with in the environment

Availability of market for animal products for the animal being bred

Animal temperament should be low for easy handling

Animal resistance to pests and diseases should be high

Animal body conformity should confirm the breed and type

History of success of the breed in the environment

Feed conversion ratio of the breed i.e. should have a high ability of converting feeds into
products like milk , meat and eggs

Growth rate of the breed

Availability of quality feeds for the animals

Fertility of the animal being considered

Productivity of the animal in terms of milk, meat and eggs

BREEDING METHODS

This refers to those methods which deal with how the breeds that have been selected as
parents for the next generation are mated.

Breeding methods are classified into two broad groups namely:

Close breeding

Out breeding/ cross breeding

Close Breeding

This is the mating of related animals e.g. a daughter and a father, a son and a mother, brother
and a sister, grandparents and grand offspring.

Close breeding involves inbreeding and line breeding

Inbreeding
This is that mating of closely related animals like brother and sister, son and mother, e.t.c.

Advantages of in breeding

It helps to maintain a high relationship with the desirable ancestor.

It increases the degree of uniformity in the herd

The less desirable recessive genes are easily brought to light and therefore culled.

The good qualities of a particular breed can be easily maintained

Disadvantages

It requires a lot of skill in making planned mating and rigid selection

It leads to a reduction in survival chances of offsprings

Leads to a reduction in the fertility of animals

The offsprings got are usually of poor size

Line Breeding

This can be defined as the mating of animals of the same breed or distant relatives e.g.
cousin, grandson and grandmother

It’s actually practiced in order to conserve the good traits of a certain outstanding sire or
dam.

Out breeding /out crossing

This is the mating of unrelated animals. Sometimes such animals can be of the same breed
but show no close relationship in the first four generations

Out breeding results in the production of offsprings that are of better performance than the
parents i.e. hybrid vigour.

Crossing can be done between breeds, species and lines. Examples of crosses between species
are;
Male lion and female tiger results in a Liger

Male donkey and female Zebra results in an Asbra

Male Horse and female Zebra results in a Zebroid

Male horse and female Donkey results in a Mule

Bull and female buffalo results in a Beefalo

Grading Up

This is a system whereby pure exotic sires are mated with the local animals to improve the
characteristics of local animals e.g.

Local female x 100% pure sire/ male

F1 50% pure female x 100% pure sire/ male

F2 75% pure female x 100% pure sire/ male

F3 87% pure female x 100% pure sire/ male

F4 93.7% pure female x 100% pure male

BREEDING EFFICIENCY

This is the ability with which the herd is able to reproduce and multiply. It covers the entire
period of breeding i.e. mating, conception, gestation and calving.

It measures the following;

Calving interval: This is the period between calving. Normally it is about 12 -13 months.
In order to get a good calving interval, a rest period of 60 days should be given for the animal.

Age of heifer at first calving which should be 24 months. A higher age indicates a low
breeding efficiency
Services per conception. The ideal ratio should be 1.6-1.8 and is measured by Number of
services

Number of animals that conceive in a herd

Percentage of cows that calve within a year. A high percentage indicates a high breeding
efficiency

Number of days a cow is pregnant in a year. The more the days, the higher the breeding
efficiency

The percentage of non-returns. Non-returns arise when the service is done and pregnancy
does not occur. A low percentage of non- returns indicates a high breeding efficiency and vice
versa

Maintaining a high breeding efficiency

1. Good feeding: Breeding animals should be fed well but excessive fattening should be
avoided as it may reduce the fertility.

2. Observing the rest period: Animals should be given a rest period of about 60 days
to allow the uterus to return to normal

3. Insemination at the right time: Incase of A.I, the cow should be inseminated
towards the middle and late part of heat period as ovulation occurs 14 hours after the
beginning of oestrus

4. Observation of animals on heat: This should be done as early as possible more

especially where A.I is being used to avoid the animal missing service.

5. Veterinary Attention: Animals that fail to conceive should be identified and

examined to find out the causes and treated if possible.
6. Pregnancy diagnosis: Animals should be diagnosed to find out whether they have
conceived or not so that appropriate measures can be taken in time.

7. Keep accurate breeding records for the herd to be used as reference were necessary

8. Use teaser bulls for early detection of heat in farm animals for early service

9. Maintain a good ratio of bulls to females to avoid over working the bulls which lowers
fertility

10. Use correct techniques of artificial insemination to ensure successful fertilization

hence high breeding efficiency

11. Females with abnormal discharges should examined and treated early enough

12. Know a complete breeding history of the animals before buying it into the farm

Mating animals

Animals can be mated using two main methods i.e. natural service and artificial
insemination

NATURAL SERVICE

This is where a male mates with the female directly. It is the most common method of service
in Uganda

Advantages of natural service

Less costly since collection and processing of semen is not involved

Best method of serving serving animals with silent heat

Conception rate is higher than in artificial insemination

Its a quick method of service

Does not involve special skills and training

Disadvantages

Reproductive diseases can be easily spread

It’s difficult to practice controlled breeding under this method

Heavy bulls can easily injure weak females

Wastes semen on one female that would otherwise serve 100 females

Breeding records are difficult to keep

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION

It’s a method of breeding in which semen is obtained from the male and introduced into the
female reproductive tract by means of an instrument without direct contact between the
female and male.

Advantages

Its easier and cheaper to transport semen from distant places than transporting a bull

Semen from good males may be stored for use in future years even after the death of such
animals

This enables controlled seasonal and planned breeding on farms

Its easy to keep accurate breeding records since the time of service is always known

Its easy to control venereal diseases e.g. contagious abortion and trichomoniasis in a herd
since semen used is first examined

Poor breeds or bulls can be easily eliminated from the breeding programme giving room for
better sires

Semen from lame bulls and those that are dead but of good quality can be easily used in the
breeding programme

Injury to small and weak females by heavy bulls can be controlled using artificial insemination.

It reduces the cost and the risk of keeping a bull on the farm since bulls are usually aggressive.

Semen from good sires can be easily made available to farmers in rural areas through artificial
insemination.
Artificial insemination is economical since one ejaculation can serve over 100 cows after dilution.

PROBLEMS OF ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION (A.I)

Silent heat;

Some female animals do not show signs of heat hence it’s very difficult to carry out A.I on
such animals

The method of communal grazing in Uganda does not easily allow A.I since poor bulls from
different herds can mount animals.

There is a danger of disease outbreak more especially if contaminated semen are used.

Special skills are required to carry out A.I which may be lacking among the farmers

Semen requires special equipment and conditions for storage which may not be easily available
to the rural farmers.

Poor roads in rural areas make the transportation of semen to such places difficult and
expensive.

Methods of carrying out AI

There are two main methods of AI i.e. recto-vaginal method and speculum method

Recto-vaginal method

This is where the rectum and vaginal are manipulated in order to have successful insemination.
The hand is pushed in the rectum to remove dung and locate the cervix at the end of the
vagina

Procedure

Restrain the animal in a crush to restrict its movement during the operation

Wash your hands with clean water and soap to reduce infection

Put on clean gloves

Thaw the semen in a basin of water at room temperature to reactivate the sperms

Sterilize all the equipment to be used

Insert the semen straw in the inseminating syringe

Lift the animal’s tail and insert one of the hands into the rectum to remove dung

Clean the anus and vulva using clean water and soap

Insert the hand in the rectum to locate the cervix in the reproductive system

Insert the inseminating syringe through the vagina and gently direct it to the cervix

Release the semen to the cervix

Massage the cervix after releasing semen so that it can be sucked into the uterus

Gently remove the inseminating syringe from the vagina and the hand from the rectum

Release the animal from the crush and monitor it for 21 days to ensure that it has conceived

Speculum method

This is where special equipment called a speculum is used in locating the cervix by inserting it
in the vagina.

Procedure

Restrain the animal on heat in a crush

Wash your hands using clean water and soap and dry it with a hand towel

Sterilize all the equipment to be used in inseminating

Thaw the semen in a basin of water at room temperature

Insert the semen straw in the inseminating syringe

Wash the vulva with clean water and soap

Wear clean gloves

Insert the speculum into the vagina to locate the cervix

Insert the inseminating syringe into the speculum and release the semen

Gently remove the inseminating syringe from the speculum

Remove the speculum gently from the vagina

Release the animal from the crush

REPRODUCTION IN FARM ANIMALS

This is a process that determines the existence of any animal species and the profitability of
that animal. Reproduction is responsible for the number of organisms / animals which will lead
to increased animal products, employment and diversification of the economy.

Hormonal control of oestrus

Oestrus is a period of high sexual desire in female farm animals. It is characterized by

physiological and behavioural changes.

The female oestrus cycle

The anterior pituitary gland secrets a hormone called follicle stimulating hormone (F.S.H.)
which stimulates the growth of graffian follicles in the ovary

It also stimulates the ovary to secrete a female sex hormone – oestrogen.

Oestrogen causes the signs of heat in females and also stimulates the anterior pituitary glands
to produce another hormone called Lutenising hormone (LH).

Oestrogen makes the female animal more receptive to the male and increases sex urge in
females.

Lutenising hormone causes the rapture of mature follicles to release the ova in the process
of ovulation.

After ovulation, lutenising hormone stimulates the development of the yellow body (corpus
luteum) from the remains of the follicles.
The corpus luteum produces a hormone known as progesterone which stimulates the growth
of the endometrium in preparation for implantation.

Progesterone also inhibits the release of follicle stimulating hormone and lutenising hormone
from the anterior pituitary gland.

After a successive fertilization, the progesterone stimulates the growth and improves blood
supply to the endomentrium for successful implantation.

After implantation, the corpus luteum degenerates and the placenta becomes the new source
of progesterone.

Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer (MOET )

This is the ability to make female animal simultaneously produce several ova which
are fertilize to form embryos

Objectives of MOET

Increases the number of offsprings in the life time of a female farm animal

Makes cows with good traits produce more offspring for breeding beyond they natural capacity

Can be used in preserving endangered species since multiplication of offspring is high

It is easier to transport embryos than a live animal

Enables offspring to acquire better immunity from surrogate mothers

Weak and sick females can participate in the breeding programme

Limitations

It is very expensive to carry out

It requires a lot of skill to be carried out

Success rate is very low

 Important reproductive events in farm animals

Animal Age at Length Length of On set of Length of

puberty of heat heat cycle heat after pregnancy in
in in hours in days giving birth days
months
In days

Cow 9-18 18-24 21 30-60 280

Ewe 7-8 24-48 21 17 147

Sow 5-6 48-72 21 7-56 110-118

Nanny / 7-10 48-72 21 Next season 150

female goat

Dog 7-9 18-25 6 months 6 months 63

days

Horse 12-36 2-12 days 18-28 5-15 335

Rabbit 3-7 31

Buffalo 10-20 2-24 11-30 40-60 320

Camel 24-36 3-6 days 20-28 20 390

SIGNS OF HEAT IN CATTLE

The vulva swells and becomes red in colour

The animal urinates frequently

An animal on heat mounts other animals and allows others also to mount on it.

There is a reduction in milk yield for lactating vows

The animal becomes restless i.e. moves up and down in such for the male
It sniffs the vagina of another cow

Licking and rubbing of each other has also been noted amongst animals on heat.

There is less feeding as more time is spent in walking

There is a slight rise in the body temperature

There is mucus d discharge from the vagina

The animal will stand still to be mounted by a bull (standing heat)

Note: Production of bloody mucus from the vagina means that heat has been missed.

SIGNS OF HEAT IN SHEEP

The female pays close attention to the male

The female wags its tail more vigorously

It stands still when mounted by the male but its hard for it to mount others.

Signs of heat in pigs

There is an intense search for the male by the female

The female pays little attention to food

The vulva becomes congested and swollen

The sow emits short grunts

It stands still when pressure is applied to the back

There is reddening of the vulva more especially in the white breeds

The sow can mount others and also allows others to do so.

Infertility in farm animals

This is a temporary failure of an animal to reproduce which can be corrected

Sterility is apermanent and irreversible failure of an animal to reproduce

Causes of infertility in cattle

Inheritance : some families of animals inherit low fertility from their parents

Twinning in cattle: Although its rare in cattle, but when it happens, heifers born co-twin with
males (free martins) can be sterile.

White heifer’s disease: This is infertility which is caused when the hymen is too strong and
thus preventing natural mating or artificial service of the cow.

Cryptochidism: This is when the male animals is born with both testes retained in the
abdominal cavity making it un able to produce sperms.

Retained corpus luteum: this prevents the development of the eggs in the ovary by
continuous production of progesterone (maintains pregnancy)

Cystic ovaries: This is when follicles fail to rapture in order to release the ova causing a
condition called Nymphomania (excessive desire for sex) and the cow is set on prolonged
heat.

Nutritional deficiency : Lack of vitamin A which is responsible for the formation and
maintenance of membranes in the reproductive system lowers the fertility of cattle

Excessive conditioning (fattening) animals: Heavy fat deposits on the ovary affects its
functioning and cause low fertility / infertility.

Management : Mating the animal too soon after calving , too early or late after on set of heat
and failure to recognize heat signs will lead to infertility.

Venereal diseases like brucellosis and Trichomoniasis can also cause low fertility in farm animals.

Un favourable conditions in the reproductive tract of a female can cause infertility

Use of defective sperms during service lowers animal fertility

SIGNS OF PREGANANCY

Failure of the animals to have heat after 21 days.

Increase in the size of the belly more especially on the right hand side.
A higher concentration of progesterone in milk and plasma 21 – 24 days after conception

The cervix opening is sealed and closed by a gelatinous and tough secretion

Udder tissues develop and enlarge especially in heifers at the 6th month of pregnancy

At the later stage, the signs of life in the foetus can be felt after applying slight pressure on the
right hand side of the belly

Laboratory analysis of blood shows a higher level of progesterone in it

Care for a pregnant cow

Provide clean water to the animal without any restriction

Carry out pregnancy diagnosis two month after service to confirm pregnancy

Dry off the animal at the 7th month of pregnancy to prepare it for the next lactation

After drying carry out dry cow therapy to control mastitis

Regularly deworm the animal to control internal parasites that may affect the unborn calf

Provide adequate feeds through out the period to cater for high nutrient demands

Steam up in the last 2 month of pregnancy to prepare the animal for lactation

Regularly control external parasites by spraying Atleast twice a week

Vaccinate the animal against killer diseases so as to protect the un born calf

Isolate the animal in the last 2 month from the general herd in put it in a nurse paddock

Provide a clean dry calving pen for the cow

During calving, assist the animal with difficulties

Milk the animal a little to reduce the udder pressure

If the after birth is retained, call in a vet for help

Steaming Up

This is the practice of giving extra nutritious feed to a pregnant cow two months prior to calving.
Importance of steaming up

1. It prevents nutritional disorders associated with milk secretion like milk fever

2. It allows the heifer to get used to the milking place when steamed in a milking
parlour.

3. Replaces the nutrients that have been used in the development of the foetus

4. It prepares the cow/ heifer physiologically for the next lactation period.

5. Allows the animal to put on weight in preparation for calving

6. Makes a heifer get used to feeding on concentrates

7. Stimulates the development of mammary glands for milk production

8. Encourages the production of high quality colostrums for the calf at birth

9. For proper growth of the foetus

Signs of calving

1. The cow / heifer stays away from the general herd and lies down rather than standing.

2. The udder becomes extended as well as the teats

3. The cow becomes increasingly uneasy

4. Loss of appetite

5. The vulva becomes flabby (becomes soft and loose)

6. There is frequent urination

7. Repeated arching of the back and raising of the tail

Care of the cow at calving

1. The animal should be taken to the calving paddock or stall

2. The place where the cow is to calve should be clean and free from sharp objects
3. The animal should be let to deliver by itself for at least 1 hour

4. In case of failure, the veterinary officer should be called in for help.

5. Remove the after birth as soon as possible

Care after calving

1. The calf should be left with the mother so that it can clean it by licking.

2. Normally, the calf removes the mucus membrane from the nostrils by sneezing

3. In case the calf fails to breath, artificial respiration should be initiated by:

mouth to mouth respiration

handling the calf with the hind legs and lifting it up then releasing it gently

tickling the nostrils with a piece of straw to initiate sneezing

4. Give the cow warm water to drink so as to assist in the digestive system

5. Disinfect the naval cord of the calf with iodine to reduce infections

6. Milk the cow a little to release the pressure in the udder

7. Allow the calf to stay with the mother for 2 – 3 days to ensure that it takes colostrum.

Management of calves from birth to weaning

Clean the calf by removing the mucus membranes from the calf in case the mother fails

Disinfect the umbilical cord using dettol and tie it to stop tetanus infection

Incase the calf fails to breath normally, artificial respiration should be initiated

Leave the calf with the mother to ensure that it takes colostrum

Incase of artificial rearing, the calf should be trained to drink from the bucket with in two days
after birth

Feed the calf on clean milk Atleast twice a day

Provide plenty of clean drinking water at all times of the day

Provide roughage to the calf at the age of about 2 weeks to facilitate rumen development

Towards weaning, introduce milk replacers to save milk for the market

Carry out identification of the calf Atleast 2 weeks after birth

Male calves that are not going to participate in the breeding programme should be castrated in
the 4th week from birth

From extra teats fro female calve at the age of 2 weeks

Calves should be dehorned using the hot iron method in the second week

Deworm calves regularly to control internal worms that affect growth

Vaccinate calves against killer diseases to reduce mortality

Clean the pen regularly by removing dirty litter so as to reduce infections

Wean the calves at about 2 month after attaining the right weight

Major causes of calf mortality

Calf scours characterized by diarrhea with a foul smell

Calf pneumonia; this caused by poor housing conditions

Navel infection; this caused by bacterial attack of the navel creating septic conditions

Internal worm infections resulting into stunted growth and diarrhea

Calf coccidiosis characterized by feaces with foul smell. It is caused by bacteria

East Coast Fever which is transmitted by ticks and caused by protozoa. It is the leading cause
of death in exotic calves. It is characterized by swollen lymph nodes of the parotid and diarrhea

Feeding calves

After calving, the calf should not be removed from the mother for the first 2 – 3 days in
order to ensure colostrum intake.
 Colostrum:

This is the milk produced by a cow for the first 3 – 4 days after calving. It is different
from normal milk in the following ways:

i) It contains very high antibody content about 5 times more than normal milk.

ii) It has a high protein and vitamin content

Reasons for giving the calf colostrum

1. Contains antibodies which help the calf to fight disease

2. Removes sticky materials from the alimentary canal of the calf

3. It contains a lot of nutrients which are needed highly by the calf.

Methods of feeding / raring the calves

1. Natural rearing/ Suckling: This includes single suckling (natural suckling), restricted
suckling and foster mothering (multiple suckling)

2. Artificial rearing / bucket feeding

Single Suckling

This is where a calf is left to suckle from the mother without any restriction until it is weaned at
about 4 – 6 months. This method is restricted to beef production and places where there is
little market for milk.
Advantages of single suckling

1. It is the simplest and best way of producing large healthy calves

2. It is a suitable method for the beef farmers who have a little interest in milk but more
in the beef of the animals.

3. It is Labour saving as compared to the artificial rearing

4. Diseases due to unhygienic conditions eg. Calf scours observed in bucket feeding
are rare in this system.

5. Calves get milk at the normal body temperature which enhances proper digestion

6. This is the most suitable method of raising calves in places with low market for milk.

7. There is low mortality rate under this method of raising calves.

Disadvantages of single suckling

1. It is very difficult to keep feeding records in this system since the amount of milk
taken by the calf is not known.

2. Injury to the teats is common as the calves suckle

Restricted suckling

The calves are allowed to suckle at certain periods of the day e.g. after the morning and
evening /afternoon milking. Supplementary feeds can be easily introduced.

Advantages

1. Well grown calves can be realized with proper management

2. There is a tendency of getting a high milk yield from the dam as it is milked in the
presence of the calf.

3. There is low mortality rate since calve get clean milk at the right temperatures

4. Less cases of mastitis are noted under this method

5. It saves both Labour and time.

6. Provision of supplementary feeds to calves would greatly improve their growth.

FOSTER MOTHERING

In this method, a substitute mother is used in providing milk to the calves. The calf is first
allowed colostrum for three days then allocated to the foster mother.

Advantages

1. The dam will give more milk when the calves are left to suckle it.

2. The method gives good calves as compared with bucket feeding.

3. The method uses less Labour since supervision is little

4. The calves are able to get the milk at the normal body temperatures

5. There are fewer cases of calf scours

7. Case of mastitis in cows is rare

8. Milk from other dams can be saved for the market

Disadvantages

1. In case of an infectious disease, a farmer may lose a good number of calves.

2. Weak calves are denied a chance of suckling at most times by the strong aggressive
calves.

3. Injury to teats caused by the calves is more common

4. It is very difficult to keep feeding records in this system.

ARTIFICIAL REARING (BUCKET FEEDING)

In this method, calves are removed from the dams three days after birth and reared by feeding
them on milk or milk substitutes from a bucket.

Training the calf to drink from the bucket

1. The calf should be removed from the dam three days after birth to ensure colostrum
intake.

2. Immediately After milking, the bucket with the milk should be presented to the calf for
training.

3. Wash your hands with clean water and soap and dry them using a clean hand towel

4. The trainer should dip the index and middle fingers in the milk and later place it in the
calf’s mouth to suckle.

5. The calf suckles the fingers as the trainer lowers the hand in the bucket containing milk.

6. As the mouth of the calf approaches the milk in the bucket containing milk, the fingers
are removed slowly to allow the calf to drink milk.

7. The calf begins slowly to drink the milk and later learns

8. The calf should not be allowed to drink in large quantities at ago as the milk can choke
it or enter the undeveloped rumen where it would ferment causing digestive
disturbances.

9. Training can be repeated until the animal learns

Advantages of bucket feeding

1. It is easy to keep feeding records that can be referred to in any case since the amount
of milk taken is known

2. Calves can be easily rationed according to their body needs

3. The farmer can introduce milk substitutes easily and therefore save milk for market.

4. The method permits early weaning which can save milk

5. The dam will give milk even when the calf dies
6. It encourages better management of the herd since the lactating cows are fed according
to their production.

Disadvantages

1. The mortality rate in this system is high since in most cases calves are given less or dirty
milk.

2. Calves are more prone to diseases due to unhygienic conditions associated with feeding
the calves

3. The method requires more labour and attention which are expensive to the farmer.

4. Incase of an infectious disease, the farmer may lose a good number of calves.

DIARY CATTLE

These are cattle reared specifically for milk production.

Examples of exotic dairy breeds

Friesian, Ayrshire, Jersey, Guernsey and Kerry

Characteristics of a good dairy breed

Should be a high milk yielder

Should be resistant to pests and diseases

Should have a high fertility

Should be docile hence easy to be milked

Should have a large udder

Should be able calve easily

Should have a big milk vein

Should be able calve regularly for along time

Should have a well suspended udder with four functional teats

Should have a long lactation which ensures continuous milk production

Should have strong hind legs for supporting a big udder

Factors to consider before establishing a dairy herd

1. Capital

This is needed in the construction of farm structures, purchase of land and the animals.

2. Land

There should be enough land to accommodate farm buildings and paddocks where
animals can graze from

3. Labour

Both skilled and unskilled Labour is required for performing specialized work and manual
Labour respectively.

4. Reliable source of water: Water is needed by the animals for drinking and also in
other farm operations like cleaning and mixing of drugs.

5. There should be a ready market for milk and milk products which is easily accessible
to reduce the costs incurred in looking for market.

6. Pastures: The place in consideration should have good pastures since the production
of the animals is greatly affected by the quality of what they eat.

7. There must be reliable transport so that the farmer can easily move farm products to
the market and bring back inputs.
8. The breed selected should fit the market demand and the Climatical conditions of the
place in consideration.

Security is a very important factor for any business since insecurity results into loss of
property and life

Government policy in place should be encouraging dairy farming through the provision of good
breeds of cattle

Climate in the area should be good for dairy farming

Importance of Dairy farming

Provides income to the farmer all year round since animals produce at any given period of the
year

They can provide dung used for making farm yard manure

Can provide quality meat at the end of milk cycle after fattening

Provide food to the farmer in form of milk

Provide market for industrial products like meat

They are good converters of inedible pastures into milk

Strength of the dairy industry in Uganda

High demand for dairy products in Uganda

Integrated farming practices can accommodate dairying

Suitable climate in most areas of Uganda that favours animal production

Availability of quality fresh pastures through out the year

Improved infrastructure that make transportation of milk to the market easy

Increased research and development in dairy farming

Improved extension services in dairy farming

Historical factors like a long history of cattle keeping among tribes in Uganda

Introducing exotic dairy cattle in an area

Fence off the whole grazing area to keep out intruders and pests

Partition the grazing land into paddocks for easy pasture management

Remove all weeds and injurious objects from the grazing land

Install water points in all paddocks for the animals

Introduce bait animals to the paddock to control ticks 3-6 months before bringing in the exotic
animals

Spay or dip the bait animals regularly over the whole period

Remove the bait animals after a specified period and introduce the exotic animals

Regularly spray or dip the exotic animals to control external parasites

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE

1. Regularity of care: The operations done on these animals should be performed

regularly without abrupt interruptions as those may affect the production of
animals.

2. Kindness to animals: Rough handling of animals like beating reduces the

productivity and can even cause injuries that may be expensive to treat.

3. Exercise: Animals need light exercise for good health but long distances of
movement should be avoided as these require a lot of energy lowering animal
production.
4. Grooming : Keeping hind quarters of animals off dung, loose hair and any dirt by
brushing and dipping leads to production of high quality milk.

5. Hoof trimming: Overgrown hoofs should b trimmed to avoid difficulty in movement

and lameness

6. Dehorning: Apart from introducing uniformity in the herd, handling of dehorned

animals is easy and less risky

7. Identification: For record purposes, dairy animals should be identified by ear

tagging notching, branding and tattooing.

8. Provision of adequate water; Animals need enough water since the biggest percentage
of their body is water. Excessive loss of water from the body reduces milk produced.

9. Breeding: A farmer should aim at breeding of his herd to increase animal number
and productivity by incorporating good breeds in the breeding programme.

10. Proper feeding; dairy animals should be given enough and highly nutritious feeds to
improve and maintain a high level of production

MILK SCIENCE

This is the way how milk is harvested from a cow.

Structure of the udder

Milk secretion

Milk is secreted by the secretory cells called alveoli secretory cells in the udder under the
influence of prolactin hormone fro the anterior pituitary gland

Milk is made from the nutrients eaten by the animal like blood sugar, amino acids and fatty
acids

Vitamins and minerals can be added to milk from blood

The manufactured milk can be stored in cavities of the alveoli and small ducts

Milk composition

Component Percentage

Fat (Butter fat) 3.7

Sugar (Lactose) 4.8

Protein (Casein) 3.2

Mineral 0.7

Water 86.6

Solids 1.0

MILK LET DOWN

This is down flow of milk from the udder to the lowest part of the teat or it is process by which
milk is removed from the alveoli and small duct systems to the lower part of the udder i.e.
gland cistern and teat canal.

Process of milk let down

When the udder is stimulated, by washing with warm water or suckling by the calf, a
message is sent to the anterior part of the brain through the spinal cord.

A hormone called oxytocin is released in the blood stream from the anterior pituitary gland.

When the hormone reaches the udders it causes contraction of muscles surrounding the
alveoli

The squeezing action forces the milk into the gland and teat cisterns

The action of suckling / milking will bring the milk outside.

Ways of stimulating milk let down

1. Taking the cow to the milking parlour

2. Massaging the udder or washing it with warm water

3. Noise or rattling of milk buckets

4. Feeding of the on concentrates cow in the milking parlour

5. Approach of milking time

6. Presence of the calf at the milking place

Rules of good milking

Avoid exciting the animal before and during milking

Prepare and assemble the milking equipment before hand

Milking tie should never be interrupted

Milk at the same time every day

Prepare the cow for milk letdown by washing the udder with warm water

Use a strip cup to test for mastitis

Begin milking soon after preparing the cow to utilize short period of milk letdown

Milk hold up

This is the opposite of milk let down where the cow holds up milk due to the production of
adrenaline. Adrenaline limits blood supply to the udder therefore preventing oxytocin from
reaching the muscles surrounding the alveoli. Adrenaline is produced when:

Presence of strangers around the milking parlour like dogs and cats

Rough handling of the animal by beating

Too much noise at the milking parlour

Improper dressing and change of the milking person

Pain during the milking process caused by mastitis or injury to the teats.

Milking Procedure

1. Assemble all milking equipments like buckets, cans and milking strainer in the parlour
to avoid time wastage.

2. The cow to be milked should be restrained while in the parlour by tying the hind legs
with a milking rope.
4. Wash the udder with warm water and soap and dry it using a hand towel.

5. Milking salve should be smeared on the teats to reduce friction and injury to teats

6. A strip cup should be used to test milk from each teat for mastitis

7. Cows suspected of mastitis should be milked last and the milk poured away

8. Follow the right milking technique of applying pressure to the outside of the teat while
holding the it between the index finger and thumb.

9. Weigh and record milk from each cow immediately after milking

10. Milk should be filtered using a milking strainer before being put in the can for cooling to
remove all dirt and any foreign material like hair.

11. All the milking equipment should be washed after milking and hanged upside down in
the sun to dry.

Note: The milking should be done in seven minutes to utilize the time for milk let
down.

GUIDELINES TO CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION

Milk is said to be clean if:

1. It is free from dirt and any other visible matter

2. Has normal composition

3. Has desirable flavour

4. Free from harmful bacteria

In order to produce clean milk, the following points are important:

1. Clean, healthy cows must be maintained free of brucellosis and tuberculosis

2. Regular grooming and washing of animal is important for removal; of dirt and l loose
hair that can contaminate milk.

3. All the equipments used during milking must be kept sterile by washing and drying.
4. The milking parlour should be kept spotlessly clean to reduce contamination of milk
by microbes

5. Personnel handling milk should be clean by having clean clothes, short hair and finger
nails

6. Milk should always be covered when in containers to stop foreign material from
entering it.

7. The person milking should not be suffering from any contagious disease e.g.
Tuberculosis.

8. Cows suffering from mastitis should be milked last and the milk poured away to reduce
the spread f the disease.

9. Regular tests for tuberculosis in the herd should be carried out regularly and animals
found with tuberculosis should be cull

10. Before milking, the milker should wash his hands thoroughly and dry it with a hand
towel to reduce contamination of the milk with dirt.

11. The milking parlour should be far away from poultry houses, piggeries, manure pits and
latrines which may pollute the air and provide a breeding ground for flies.

12. The milking parlour should be built on a high ground to permit good drainage

13. Wild plants which have an odour that can taint milk should be removed from the milking
place.

14. Milk should be cooled from the normal temperature of 37oC to 4oC to reduce
bacteria multiplication.

15. Proper milking techniques should be followed to reduce injury to teats and
contamination of the milk.

FACTOR AFFECTING THE QUALITY (COMPOSITION) AND QUALITY (YIELD) OF MILK

1. Breed

Friesians produce large amounts of milk but of low butter fat while the indigenous produce less
milk of high butter fat.
2. Age

Older cows produce more milk than the young. However, the butterfat of the milk produced by
the older cows is lower than that of the young cows.

3. Period of lactation

Milk yield increases until the 7th week then it starts declining up to drying off.

4. Animal Health

Sick animals give less milk which may also contain antibodies and drugs more especially after
treatment.

5. Animal Temperament

Quiet animals are the best milkers while nervous cows which kick about give less milk.

6. Water Supply

Water is needed for the health of the cow and also in the manufacture of milk since it is 87%
water. Provision of enough water increases milk yield

7. Food eaten

Animals fed on concentrates will produce more milk which is of better quality than those feed
on the ration full of roughages.

8. Season of the year

During the rainy season cows produce milk with high butter fat content. The quantity of milk is
also high due to the abundant pastures and water.
9. Heat Period

Oestrus causes a slight decline in milk production which may be due to the reduced feed intake.
The butterfat content of the milk can also fluctuate by 1% above / below normal.

10. Temperature

High temperatures reduce milk yield due to the increased evaporation of water from the
animal’s body.

11. Management

Proper feeding of animal and better handling during milking will increase the quality and
quantity of milk produced. Rough handling leads to the increase of adrenalin and hence milk
hold up.

12. Milking Interval

The greater the number of milking times, the higher the amount of milk produced. However,
morning milking produces milk with higher butter fat content.

METHODS OF MILKING

There two main methods of milking

hand milking

machine milking

Hand milking

Advantages

Spread of mastitis is limited as compared to machine milking where mastitis is easily spread
through the teat cups.

Hand milking has a low initial capital and therefore peasants can afford it.
 It can not be limited by power therefore more applicable to rural areas with no power.

Injury to teats is not common as witnessed in machine milking due to faulty machines.

Disadvantages

It is very slow in operation and therefore can not cope with large herds.

Efficiency declines with increase in the time worked

It is difficult to produces clean milk under this method

It is difficult to have complete milking hence a farmer stands to loose.

It increases Labour costs as more people are employed.

MACHINE MILKING

Advantages of machine milking

1. It produces clean milk more easily than hand milking

2. Complete milking is easily achieved

3. There is reduction of Labour cost since one person can handle more than 1000 cows in
a short time.

4. It is faster in its operation hence saving time for animals to graze.

5. Can easily cope up with a large piece of work without getting tired.

Disadvantages

1. Needs skilled Labour to operate the machine which may be difficult to attain.

2. Its limited by power supply and can not work in places with no power.

3. Faulty machines can cause injury to teats

4. Diseases like mastitis are easily spread since the animals share the same teat cups

5. The initial cost of buying and installing the machine is high for most of the farmers in
Uganda
6. It is only economical on farms with very large numbers of lactating animals.

DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH LACTATING COWS

1. Mastitis

This is un inflammation of the udder caused by a number of bacteria and the most
common are: - Streptococci and staphylococci

TYPES OF MASTITIS

a) Acute Mastitis:

This is sudden in occurrence, marked with changes in the udder.

b) Chronic Mastitis:

This is slow in onset without obvious signs

Spread of Mastitis:

Can be spread through:-

The milkers’ hands,

Teat cups of milking machines

Udder towels
Signs of mastitis

1. Blood stains in milk

2. Flakes and clots in milk

3. Discoloured milk

Treatment of mastitis

Use intra mammaries which are antibiotics injected into the affected teats.

Control of mastitis

The milker must ensure that his hands are clean before milking

A strip up should be regularly used to test for mastitis

Before milking, the udder should be washed with warm water and dried using a towel

The farmer should pay more attention to soars on teats and prevent the plucking by using a
milking salve

The teat cups should be rinsed and disinfected immediately after milking each cow

Animals suffering from mastitis should be treated promptly to stop the spread of the disease

Infected animals should be milked last and the milk poured away.

Factors predisposing lactating animals to mastitis

Stage of lactation; it is more common at the beginning of lactation

Age of cattle; older animals are more prone to mastitis due an ageing immune system

Level of milk yield; high milk yielders are more prone to mastitis than the low yielders

Injury to teat and udder; this makes animal more prone to mastitis

Unhygienic practices; milking infected animals with health ones increases the chance of mastitis
spread
2. Milk Fever (Parturent Paresis/ Hypocalcaemia)

It affects cattle, sheep and occasionally goats

Causes

Low blood calcium and phosphorus level with an increase in magnesium concentration. The
normal ratio of calcium phosphorus should not be above or below 2:1.

Too much calcium in the ration

Symptoms

It occurs in high milk producing cows soon after calving

Loss of appetite

Constipation and general depression

Muscular spasms (convulsions )

Uncoordinated movement and inability to stand

Nervousness is experienced by the animal

Paralysis and turning of the head back

Prevention

Feed the cow on a ration containing 0.5 – 0.7% calcium and 0.3 – 0.4% phosphorus

Calcium shock treatment; feed the pregnant animal 10 – 14 days before calving on a calcium
deficient ration to activate the animals calcium mobilizing mechanism.

The pregnant animal should be fed on a ration with high vitamin D, six days before calving

Treatment

The animal should be injected with calcium salts in form of calcium chloride, calcium lactate,
and calcium gluconate.
Drying a cow

The dry period is when a cow is left without giving milk immediately after lactation period. The
dry period should be for at least 60 days.

Reasons for observing the dry period

Allow the cow to restore udder tissues before getting back to lactation

Allow the cow to replace the minerals depleted during lactation

To give the foetus enough time to develop and also enough nutrients

To maintain a high future milk yield in the next lactation

Enable the cow to gain weight before delivering

To ensure high quality colostrum at birth

Procedure of drying a cow

Incomplete milking :

This involves milking the cow half way its production capacity so that the remaining milk
in the udder exerts pressure on the milk secreting cells which will stop secreting milk.

Intermittent milking:

The cow is milked at intervals of days and later left completely after 5 days or more.

Cessation Milking

This is when milking stopped once for all. It causes a lot of pain to the animal and can
easily result into mastitis

Dry cow therapy:

 Here antibiotics are included in feeds which will control mastitis.

BEEF PRODUCTION

The main objective of beef production is to produce healthy young stocks, fatten them and sell
for slaughter as meat.

Breeds of beef cattle in East Africa

The main indigenous breeds are the boran and small short horned zebus

The exotic breeds are Hereford, Aberdeen Angus, charlolais short horn and Galloway

Characteristics of a good beef breed

Should have a high ability to mature early

Should have a high ability to grow fast i.e. put on weight quickly

Should have thick muscles to increase the quantity of beef produced (have a deep body)

It should be able to breed regularly so as to increase the herd

Should have a high ability of converting herbage into beef

Should have a high resistance to pests and diseases common in the environment

Should be able to survive long drought periods without losing excessive weight

Should show a high degree of tolerance to heat

FACTORS LIMITING BEEF PRODUCTION IN UGANDA

1. Climate

Long droughts that are rampant in many places of Uganda have led to the scarcity of
pastures and water hence decreasing animal productivity.

2. Poor Soils
 Potential areas for beef production have poor soils which cannot support quality
pastures for the animal.

3. Diseases

There are a number of diseases which attack livestock in Uganda. The most notable
diseases are those transmitted by the vectors e.g. ticks and tsetse flies.

4. Inadequate Extension Services

Most farmers live in rural areas which are difficult to reach by the extension staff. This
denies them an opportunity of acquiring knowledge about beef production.

5. Conservation

Most pastoral communities in East Africa look at cattle number rather than the quality
hence low production from the large number of poor quality animals in terms of beef.

6. Poor Markets

Animal markets are poor and far from the production areas making transport to be
difficult and expensive.

7. Poor Animal Breeding

Animals are mate while young and little time is spent on selecting the right breeds that
are productive.

8. Poor Management

This can be reflected in the way records are kept and referred to if necessary. Most
farmers do not keep update records and therefore animal production is difficult
to judge.

9. Inadequate land
 Most areas of do not have enough grazing land due to competition between crops and
animal production

FACTORS DETERMINING ANIMAL PRODUCTIVITY

Inheritance

This is the most important factor since as the animal received genes of high productivity,
and then it can always have the potential. However, productivity is affected by
environmental factors which include:

Management

This involves proper care for the animal and observation of signs of ill health

Feeding

Animals that are underfed will have low production and are more prone to diseases.

Diseases

Irrespective of the animals potential of production diseases will always lower the
animal’s production.

Climate

Under this, the most important factors are temperature rainfall and humidity. High
temperatures of the day increase evaporation of water from the animals body which
reduces milk production in lactating animals.

Humidity
 High humidity reduces evaporation of water from the animals body hence conserving
it for other productive purposes like milk secretion.

Parasites

A part from transmitting pathogens, animal parasites can extract a lot of nutrients that
are supposed to be used by the animals’ body.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE ESTABLISHING A BEEF HERD

Beef cattle may be raised under the farm herd system similar to having a dairy farm, or under
the range / ranch cattle system. Under any of these systems, when establishing a beef herd
there are a number of factors a farmer may need to consider.

Type of stock

Uniformity

Size of the herd

Health

Condition

Age and longevity

Reproductivity / fertility

Size of cattle

Adaptability

SYSTEMS OF BEEF PRODUCTION

There are a number of systems for beef production requiring different levels of skill and
management and some of the systems serve different purposes

Breeding pure bred animals

 This is a specialized undertaking and requires great skill and experience in breeding and
selection of animals. The purpose is to provide pure breed bulls / replacement stock to
other breeders.

Cow and calf systems

Calves are left with their dams until weaning and the cows are not milked . It requires
plentiful pasture and little supplementary feeding except in severe dry seasons.

Growing Stockers

Stockers are mainly steers and heifers or thin animals. They are only kept for one year
and are fed on pasture. Progressive farmers and ranchers can adequately manage the
undertaking. The purposes are to recondition steers and prepare them for fattening and
heifers are conditioned for breeding.

Baby Beef Production

This is the production of tender meat from young stock. It involves breeding, rearing
and fattening all done on the same farm.

At 4 – 6 months, all the calves are fed on concentrates.

The cows need full feeding in order to produce good calves.

The purpose is to finish the baby beef animals when they are 12 – 18 months old.

Fattening or growing

This involves the fattening of bought in animals after being fed on high energy feeds
before selling

Aims of ranch management

To decrease the animal fluctuations in stocking numbers

To reduce the seasonal fluctuation in live weight of stock

To minimize reproductive performance towards the ideal of one calf per cow per year.

To minimize calf mortality and losses due to diseases

To maintain and improve breeding efficiency.

Factors that determine the size of the herd

The type of pasture species; high nutritive value of pastures therefore high carrying capacity

The productivity of the pasture species; high rate of dry matter or forage for grazing means
high number of stock

The type of stock e.g. hardy types which can survive well in drier conditions and scarce pasture
can be kept in large numbers.

Availability of reserve feeds which enable a large herd to be carried through dry periods
when pasture is scarce.

Economic considerations which are usually of a long term nature e.g. Whether the farmer
requires cash immediately and the cost of keeping a large number of animals.

Topography of the land where over – stocking in hilly areas could result into a serious
case of soil erosion.

Availability of water , sufficient and available at all times

The presence of poisonous plants and trees that should render portions of the ranch useless.

BEEF CATTLE HEALTH

The Buildings

The buildings should be big enough to avoid over crowding

Should be well ventilated to avoid respiratory infections.

The floor should be made of concrete which is easy to clean.

All buildings should be kept clean and be washed out regularly control disease.

The calf pens should have adequate bedding which should be changed regularly.

Flies and lice can be controlled by spraying / dusting.

The Grazing Area

All shrubs and trees which hinder good growth of grass of which could Harbour tsetse
flies should be removed.

Water Troughs

These should be cleaned out twice a week. Murrum should be put around them to avoid
muddy conditions that would encourage foot rot.

Breeding

Cows should be serviced by healthy bulls to control diseases which can be transmitted
by breeding or A.I should be used.

Dispensary

This is mainly for animal drugs that should be kept at hand although some should not
be kept by qualified veterinary personnel.

Drugs equipment and material that need to be kept at hand in the ranch dispensary
include:

Healing oil which can be applied on wounds i.e. after castration and dehorning

Cotton wool for dressing wounds

Syringes for injecting drug in the bodies of animals

Sulphur drugs such as sulphurdimidine which is a general drug for oral treatment or injection
Stilboestrol used in injections on cows after calving, if the after birth is retained and has to be
removed.

Spirit for cleaning wounds and sterilization of instruments

Terramycin spray for skin wounds

Terramycin injectable solution which has a wide spectrum and can be used as a general drug
against bacterial infections

Chlorohexidine for disinfecting e.g. cow’s udders

BUTCHERY

PROCEDURE OF SLAUHTERING AN ANIMAL

a) Before Slaughter

The animals should at all times be handled humanly, rested and starved for 24 hours.
This allows emptying of the gut and reduces spoilage and contamination of meat.

The resting also conserves stored body glycogen. After slaughter, glycogen is converted
into lactic acid which has a preserving effect on the meat.

Inspection of the animal to check for any deformities, injuries, sex etc. is done at this
stage.

Stunning

This renders the animals senseless just before slaughter to reduce pain. Painless
killing of animals is human and it is strongly recommended.

Stunning can be achieved either by use of a hammer gun or electric shock.

Slaughter

The neck of the animal is cut and its allowed to bleed by hoisting it up. Adequate
bleeding is essential to reduce meat spoilage. Skinning is then followed by
devisceration which is the cutting open of the carcass to remove the internal
organs.
Inspection

This is the postmortem inspection for infection by tuberculosis, cysts etc.

The carcass has to be passed for public consumption. Condemned carcasses are buried
/ burnt.

Grading

The products looked for are fat, degree of marbling, texture of meat and colour.
A pale colour indicates poor quality

Factors leading to poor quality of meat from animals

Poor feeding of animals leading to disease and nutritional deficiencies

Poor meat preservation causing putrefaction

Diseases in animals that contaminate meat

Parasitic infection in animals causing cysts and eggs in meat

Age of animals i.e. very young and old animals produce poor quality

Poor animal breed that may produce poor quality meat

Chemical poisoning of meat by drugs administered shortly before slaughter

Harsh treatment of the animal before slaughter through beating

HIDES AND SKINS

Uses
Used in the leather tanning industry for making shoes, belts, bags etc.

Source of government revenue when the government taxes the products.

Making musical equipments e.g. drums

Decorations in cultural centers

Used as clothing for traditional ceremonies.

PREPARATION OF HIDES AND SKINS

Washing

This is done in running water with a scrubbing brush to remove dung, dirt and blood

Draining

The hides and skins are hanged over poles to remove water and some blood after washing

Fleshing

This involves the removal of fat and meat from the hide using a knife or scrapper

Trimming

Here, odd flaps at the edge of the hide / skin are removal with an aim of making regular in
shape.

Preserving

This can be done by wet/dry salting or hanging them in frames using ropes to dry.

Tanning
This is the process of soaking hides and skins in chemicals such as tannic acid to soften and
turn then into leather.

SOURCES OF DAMAGE TO HIDES AND SKINS

During the animals life:

i) Injuries / wounds that may be caused by rough handling and sharp objects such
as barbed wire.

ii) Some parasites like ticks can cause wounds which will eventually lower the
quality of the hide or skin

Diseases like ringworms in cattle and goats can also damage their skins by causing
open wounds

Bad branding more especially at the thigh and back will lower the quality of hides and
skins

Bad roping can cause calluses and wounds which will eventually lower the quality

During slaughter

Incomplete bleeding which causes blood to remain in a hide or skin attracting microbes that
may lead to putrefaction.

Dragging carcass on the floor or over sharp objects can damage the hide

c) During Flaying

Delay in flaying after killing the animal will make the whole process more difficult hence
prone to more mistakes during flaying

Use of pointed knives which may accidentally make holes in the hide/skin

Mixing the hide with dung or blood during the process of flaying the carcass attracting microbe
that speed up putrefaction

Failure to wash and dry the skin immediately after flaying can encourage rapid decomposition
hence reduction in quality.
The fresh skin should not be folded with the hair inside as these creates anaerobic
conditions that speeds up putrefaction

An even removal of flesh from the hide causes distortion and damage of the pattern during
flaying.

Drying of the skin on the ground can cause the following

Causes flaking due to over drying since temperatures are high on the ground

The fat on the skin/hide will melt and spread all over increasing chances of microbial attack.

Rain drops can collect on the hide/skin which may easily encourage decomposition and hence
loss in quality

The outside of the hide/skin is hard while the inside is soft ie.

There is uneven drying.

There is putrefaction of the hide/skin more especially in spots which touch the ground

d). Damage during transportation

i) Bad packing causes the hide/skin to rub against each other which may lead to
damage

ii) During transportation, rain can soak the hides/skin encouraging microbial
action on them

e). Damage during storage

i) Pests like the rodents and insects can attack the hides while in store more
especially if stored in poor houses

ii) Moisture from leaking stores can soak the hide/skins speeding up decomposition

SMALL RUMINANT PRODUCTION

Small ruminant are kept for milk, meat and skins. The main animals here are sheep and goats
Systems of small ruminant production

In East Africa, there are two main systems i.e. tethering and open grazing though zero
grazing is also being practiced in the breeding stock.

Tethering

Here, sheep or goats are tethered using ropes of about 3m long that allows grazing in a limited
area.

The animals can be given green supplements on top of tethering.

Open Grazing

The small ruminants are allowed to gaze freely in uncultivated land or a garden with crop
residues. This system is common in arid and semi arid and areas with low human population.

Breeds of goats in Uganda

1. Small East African Goats:

This is the largest breed in Uganda making up to 42% of the total goat population.

Characteristics

they are small in size

they mature early reaching a live weight of about 23 – 30kg

they reach sexual maturity at about 4 months

they have a fine hair coat with various colour

Most of them are horned and they are mainly kept for meat.

2. Mubende Goat

This is found in areas of North and North West of Lake Victoria.

 Characteristics

It is a larger breed than the small East African goat.

The mature live weight ranges between 30 – 35 kg for males and 25 – 30 for the females

It has straight and short hairs

it is predominantly black in colour though black and white are other colour.

It has a long neck

The body conformation of the female is angular

Kigezi

This is usually found in the highlands of south Western Uganda

Characteristics

it has a thicker hairy coat than the other two breeds

it has spaced long hair around the hind quarters

It is small, more compact with short legs.

They have black and grey hair coat

At maturity , they can weigh between 25 – 30kg

SHEEP

The main breeds of sheep reared in Uganda are:

Red Masai sheep

East African black head sheep

East African long tailed sheep

 Advantages of raring small ruminants

They require small initial capital so poor people can easily start such a venture without much external
financial assistance.

Their reproduction turn over is high i.e. they have short gestation period and frequently deliver
twins

They can be easily managed by family Labour i.e. women and children

They can be easily kept in mountainous and dry areas where cattle can’t do well

They can be combined with beef cattle utilizing the same land and farm facilities with less
competition for food

Indigenous breeds of these small ruminants are resistant to the number of diseases which affect cattle
including East coast Fever.

They have a big genetic variation giving room for improvement by selection

There is ready market for their product more especially meat locally and for export.

It is safer to keep small ruminant s in areas with cattle rustlers since little interest is accorded to them.

They can tolerate contamination of drinking water

Can survive in a wide range of environmental temperatures

Need limited land for grazing hence good for densely populated areas

Constraints to small ruminant production in Uganda

Lack of sound breeding males and defective breeding practices

Most farmers in Uganda have poor management skills

The animals are attacked by internal parasites which are difficult to control

The indigenous breeds are being threatened by neglect in preference for the highly
productive erotic breeds

Inadequate extension services amongst farmers limiting information about small ruminants

The marketing system in Uganda is still poor where animal prices are determined by their size
rather than actual weight.
 POULTRY

These are birds that have been selected and domesticated by man, e.g. Domestic fowl, chicken,
ducks, Turkey, geese, guineas fowl.

Diagram of a bird Volume 2 (109)

Importance of poultry

Provide meat and eggs that are of high nutritive value to the human diet.

They are a source of income when sold wholly or after selling the eggs.

Some poultry add beauty to places and therefore are kept for environmental purposes e.g.
pigeon. Parrots.

They provide market for industrial products like feeds, drugs etc.

They are used for various traditional functions and ceremonies.

They give quick returns since they grow fast and reach productive stage early.

Poultry products serve as raw materials for industries e.g. feathers are used in feeling pillows
and sofa sets.

Some poultry especially the chicken provide entertainment in the old game with which fighting
practiced in Asia.

Advantages of Poultry over other enterprises

Poultry does not require a lot of land as compared to cattle.

It gives faster returns e.g. broilers mature in about 8 weeks and layers in 24 -21 weeks

Provides many areas of specialization such as egg selling, old chick selling, broiler production
etc.

Chicken meat has low cholesterol and is highly nutritious.

Poultry are highly prolific

Poultry farming requires less initial capital

Challenges to poultry farming

Inadequate capital needed for raising farm structures

Lack of reliable source of poultry feeds

Poor poultry housing in relation to environmental conditions

Inadequate market for poultry products

Inadequate skills in poultry management

Poor breeds of poultry being kept

Presence of pests and diseases that reduce bird production

Commercial poultry farming.

There are more than 300breeds of chicken in the world. Commercial breeds can be divided into
3 groups.

1. Egg producers e.g. leg horn.

These have the following characteristics:-

consume less feeds

produce more eggs

Produce white eggs mainly.

They do not go broody

2. Duo-purpose breeds

They have characteristics

They produce brown eggs

Consume more feeds than egg producers

They are better meat producers than the white leghorn.

Example Rhode Island Red, New Hampshire.

Meat producers

Characteristics

They have a low egg production capacity.

They show much broodiness than the other two.

Produce fast growing chicks

Have a high weight at maturity

 Examples white Cornish, white Plymouth.

Characteristics of a good poultry house.

It should be water proof to avoid dump conditions in the house that can easily invite pathogens.

It should have proper ventilation to control respiratory infections.

It should have a concrete floor which is easy to clean.

Should be rodent and wild bird proof to avoid spread of diseases.

Should be located within outer of the owner for security

House should be well sheltered from direct sunshine and strong winds.

The place where the house is to be constructed should be well drained.

Should be an accessible place so that birds and eggs are easily removed when necessary and
taken to the market.

Should have enough laying boxes in case of layers to reduce rises specifically egg eating.

Should have enough litter in relation to the bird population.

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. Beak

Its composed of two horny parts i.e. the upper and lower beak. It picks food and passes it to
the crop via the gullet.

2. Gullet

These acts as a passage for food from the mouth to the crop.
3. Crop

Stores food before proceeding to the glandular stomach. It also softens the food.

4. Glandular stomach.

This is an enlarged part just before the gizzard. Its wall contains many glands that secrete
hydrochloric acid. Its also referred to as the first stomach.

5. Gizzard / muscular stomach

This is the real stomach of the chicken with very muscular walls. It grinds down the feeds to
increase action by gastric juice enzyme. It contains grease which is taken up with food.

6. Small intestines.

The 1st part forms the duodenal loop where most of the digestion takes place. Its about 1.5
long in an adult chicken.

Digestion of fats, proteins and carbohydrates takes place here.

7. Caeca

This lies between the small and large intestines and it’s also called the blind gut. Digestion of
crude fibre takes place here due to the presence of bacteria.

8. Large intestines / colon.

Its relatively short of [about 1cm] and its were absorption of moisture takes place.

9. Vent / cloaca /Common sewer

The digestive, urinary, and productive trait empty here their products.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF POULTRY

It comprises of the following: infundibulum, magnum, uterus, vagina, and isthmus.

Infundibulum

Its where fertilization takes place and also the formation of yolk sac takes place here.

The egg takes about ¼ an hour while here.

Magnum

This is where 45% of the albumen and the chalazae are formed. The egg takes about 3 hrs
here.

Isthmus

This is where 10% of the egg white is added. The egg membranes are also formed here and
the egg takes between 1 ¼ hr while here.

Uterus / shell gland

In this place the outer calcium shell is added to the egg and 45% of the albumen is also added.
The egg spends 18-22hrs while here.

Vagina

The egg is inverted in this place and vaginal fluid is secreted to reduce friction. The egg spends
about one minute before moving to the cloaca.

ABNORMALITIES THAT OCCUR IN EGGS DURING FORMATION

Meat spots; a piece of tissue is torn off the ovary during ovulation. It comes down with the
yolk resulting into a blood spot

Blood spots; a drop of blood is shed off the ovary during ovulation and comes along with the
yolk resulting into blood spot.

Double yolk; two ova are shed at ago by the ovary later being enclosed in the same shell.

Shell less eggs; nutritional imbalances and defects in the shell gland cause failure of the shell
to be deposited on the egg during formation

Thin shell; disease and nutritional imbalances lead to the laying of eggs with thin shells

Deformed eggs; eggs with abnormal shapes due to defects in the isthmus where the shape of
the egg is determined

Eggs with rough surface; uneven deposition of the shell on the egg leads to the formation of
such eggs

Soft shelled eggs; failure of shell gland to deposit a hard shell due to inadequate calcium in
the diet or other defects

Small sized eggs; these may be due to poor feeding or hormonal imbalances

Abnormal smell of the yolk; it may be due to diseases of poor feeds eaten

Factors that determine the level of laying in birds

Level of feeding; giving adequate amount of feeds leads to high level of laying

Quality of feeds give; well balanced ration ensure high production of eggs

Health of bids; sick birds will lay less eggs of poor quality

Pest attack; pests cause stress in birds which lowers egg production

Temperature in poultry house; high temperature reduce feed and water intake which will lower
egg production

Breed; high laying breed produce more eggs than the meat producers

Provision of enough water; giving less water affects body metabolism which may lower egg
production

Ventilation; poor ventilation in the poultry causes stress which reduces egg production
SYSTEMS OF POULTRY PRODUCTION

They can be divided into three major groups i.e. extensive system, [free range], semi intensive
[fold system and poultry run] and Intensive system [cage and deep litter system]

EXTENSIVE SYSTEM

In this system the birds are allowed to move freely over large area of grass land where they
experience nearly natural or wild conditions.

The birds are not confined and during bad weather the birds can find shelter under natural
covers like trees.

Advantages of free range

Manure is spread all over the field or in any place where the birds eat from.

The system is less expensive as compared to the deep litter and battery system since it requires
little initial capital

Birds will be able to get enough exercise which is good for their health as they move allover the
place.

Birds get almost all the nutrients required in their diet from the environment more especially
vitamins.

Vices are not common in this system as observed in deep litter system.

It’s a good system for the management of the breeding stock because it enables the birds to
become hardy and strong

Birds are able to get vitamin A and D from the environment.

Requires less Labour which reduces operational costs hence increasing profits

Disadvantages
Birds can easily be attacked by wild animals

It’s very difficult to collect the eggs since sometimes they are laid in bushes.

The birds are more prone to parasitic attack from the environment.

It’s very difficult to keep feeding and production records under this system since birds cannot
be easily monitored.

Birds can easily get diseases from others of a different stock in the neighborhood.

The production from these birds is low since they spend a lot of energy meant for production in
movement.

The system cannot easily support exotic birds that cannot tolerate harsh conditions.

POULTRY RUN

In this system birds are rotated in paddocks for a particular period of time during day. They
are later confirmed at night.

Advantages

It requires far less land than the free range system

It’s suitable for commercial egg production as compared to the free range since clean eggs are
easily produced.

It doesn’t require expensive equipment therefore has a low initial capital.

Birds are protected against thieves and wild animals.

Spread of diseases from out side stocks is under control.

Disadvantages
There is a high risk of disease as land becomes contaminated with parasites.

The eggs may be dirty and therefore of low quality.

Costs are high in terms of feeding, fencing, and housing.

FOLD SYSTEM

Here birds live old the time in a simple design and partially roofed structure which is movable.
The fold unit is systematically moved daily over an area and therefore must be of size and
weight which is easily moved.

Advantages

It’s easy to inspect birds and isolate sick ones.

Manure is distributed evenly on the farm

Birds are well protected against predators and thieves.

The system can be used for commercial egg production.

It’s a more ideal system of raising breeding stock since birds are exposed to natural conditions
that makes them hardy.

Production is higher than the free range since birds spend less energy.

Disadvantages

It may not be used easily on a ground which is not flat because the unit may be difficult to
move.

The system can accommodate a few birds so as to allow easy movement of the unit.

The unit is quite expensive therefore may not be affordable to peasants.

Birds’ performance is affected by change in the environment.

BATTERY / CAGE SYSTEM

This is an intensive system of poultry production were birds are kept in individual cages indoor
of about 0.14m2.

Feeders and drinkers are arranged at one side.

The wire making up the floor is slated to allow eggs roll to one side for easy collection.

Food and water may be mechanically provided or using computerized system.

The floor beneath the cages is made of concrete slanting at one side for easy drainage and
cleaning

Advantages of cage system

Reduce chances of vices like cannibalism since birds are confined in individual cages.

Feed and water contamination with droppings is reduced since water and feed troughs are
locate higher at one end.

Clean eggs can be easily produced.

It is easy to keep individual feeding and egg production records.

Disease spread easily controlled since birds are confined.

Bullying amongst birds is easily controlled since birds are under confinement.

It requires less Labour for management of large flocks.

A large number of birds can be kept on a small piece of land

Bird production is high since they spend less energy in movement.

Culling out of birds is to carry out since they are in close observation

Disadvantages

It requires a high initial capital for installing cages and other equipment.
Birds lack exercise which may affect their health

It may require skilled Labour to run the system

There is a danger of concentrating parasites in the poultry unit

Birds may not get vitamins like D from the environment

DEEP LITTER SYSTEM

This is the most common and popular modern system of keeping commercial poultry. Birds are
confined in a house on litter of about 20cm deep which has to absorb moisture from the
droppings. Materials used for litter are coffee husks woods and having chopped straw and rice
husks.

Litter is turned frequently to mix it with droppings thoroughly and more materials added

Advantages

It requires a small area of land to raise large number of birds.

Its easy to control birds since they are confined in one place

Birds are protected from predators and thieves.

It gives comfort to both attendant and the birds since there is little wastage energy and time in
feeding and collection of eggs.

Manure obtained under this system is of high quality

Records of stock and egg production are easy to keep under this system.

It’s easy to observe sick birds in the flock hence easy to cull out such birds.

Spread of disease from the neighborhood is easily controlled since birds are confirmed.

Disadvantages
The system encourages the build up of parasites in the litter unless turned, treated and
replaced regularly.

Its may require more Labour in terms of feeding and collection of eggs as compared to the free
range system.

Its difficult to control diseases incase of an outbreak within the deep litter house.

Birds easily develop vices more especially due to over crowding within the deep litter house.

It’s difficult to keep individual production records.

It’s expensive to establish since money is needed for the construction of houses and purchase
of the necessary equipment.

Feeders, waterers, and nesting boxes are easily contaminated with litter and droppings which
may lead to disease.

Comfortable litter in poultry house may induce birds to go broody.

MANAGEMENT OF LAYERS IN A DEEP LITTER HOUSE

Provide enough space in the house to control overcrowding that result into vices and disease
outbreak

Keep the litter dry by continuous raking and removal of wet spots to control dampness that
encourages disease outbreak

Provide enough perches for the birds and they should be well spaced

Provide enough water and feed troughs to reduce overcrowding at the feeding and drinking
place which increase feed and water contamination

Provide clean drinking water at all times for proper bird health and high production

Keep feeders and drinkers clean to reduce disease outbreaks due unhygienic conditions

Provide adequate feeds to birds to maintain a high production level

Collect the eggs regularly to reduce chances of breaking and occurrence of egg eating vice

Supply grit in feeds to help birds to digest grains in the feeds provided
Cull poor layers and diseased birds to reduce wastage of feeds and disease spread in poultry

Vaccinate birds against killer diseases in time to reduce losses

Spray birds with pesticides to control external parasites like mites and ticks that may lower
production

Avoid stressing factors that may affect bird production

Repair equipment and house to reduce accidents

Provide enough feeds to ensure high production from birds

Isolate and treat sick birds to reduce disease spread in poultry

Keep proper records for easy management of poultry

Promptly dispose off dead birds by burying or burning to reduce disease spread and vices

Maintain a disinfectant at the door for any body entering the poultry house to disinfect himself.

Causes of disease outbreak in poultry houses

Introduction of sick birds in poultry house

Mating between sick and health birds

Contaminated vaccination equipment

Contaminated water and feeds given to birds

Poor disposal of dead birds

Visitors and attendants who move from one farm to another

Introduction of disease carriers to the poultry farm

Direct contact between health and diseased birds

Through infected eggs to chicks

Vectors and wild birds that may come into contact with poultry

Through contaminated drinkers and feeders

Overcrowding in poultry house

Poor ventilation in the house leading to respiratory infections

Control of disease outbreaks in poultry houses

Regular vaccination of birds to control killer diseases

Provision of coccidiostats in feeds to control coccidiosis

Providing clean feeds and water

Regular deworming to control internal parasites

Provide enough high quality litter for to control respiratory infections

Do not mix young and old birds since the former are more prone to disease

Avoid unnecessary visitors in the poultry houses

Provide a disinfectant at the door way

Dead birds should properly disposed

Isolate the sick birds to control disease spread

Raise feeders and drinkers to reduce contamination by litter

Regular cleaning of feeders and drinkers

Buy birds from reliable sources that show less instance of disease

Provide a balanced diet to control nutritional deficiency diseases

Keep proper records on vaccinations

Provide adequate feeds to birds

MAINTANANCE OF GOOD LITTER IN A POULTRY HOUSE

Periodic racking to remove feathers and spreading of droppings.

Removal of wet litter spots

Addition of agricultural lime at a rate of 4g/10m2 to increase moisture absorption.

Removal of litter after the laying cycle.

Characteristics of good litter

It should not cake up

Should cheap to the farmers to afford

It should not be dusty

Should not be poisonous to the birds

Should be pest free

Should not be bulky

Should be a good moisture absorbed

Should not be too dry

Causes of wetness in litter

Drinking water that may splash over the litter as birds drink it

Moisture from chicken droppings

Rain water from leaking roof

Capillary water from underground in poorly drained places

Rain water through the windows during storms due to a short overhang of the poultry house

Flooding of the site

Overcrowding of birds that increases humidity

Accumulation of bird dropping

Poor ventilation that increases humidity

VICES IN POULTRY

A vice is a bad behavior practiced by birds e.g. egg eating feather pecking, cannibalism.

Causes of vices

Heredity: some line of birds show more vices like cannibalism than others.

overcrowding is the poultry houses can cause vices like cannibalism as birds become more close
to each other

Introduction of new birds in a flock with unique characters of the body and size may cause
cannibalism and feather pecking.

Exposure of wounds and smell of blood can cause cannibalism

Lack of enough laying boxes which causes breakage of eggs and exposes eggs to the birds can
easily result into egg eating.

Improper feeding of the birds that encourages mineral deficiency can lead to cannibalism

Bright light in the poultry house can stimulate feather and toe pecking.

Insufficient drinking and eating place may also lead to pecking as birds struggle to get near to
feeds and water.

Irritation of the skin through direct sunlight and lice infection can result into cannibalism and
pecking.

Diseases like gumboro can easily cause cloaca pecking since the droppings usually stick in that
area.

Introduction of birds that are moulting (shedding feathers) in a flock can easily encourage
cannibalism due to exposure of bare skin to other birds.
Control of vices

The farmer should provide enough laying boxes that should be placed in easy to reach dark
places.

The birds should be debeaked between 9 – 12 weeks in order to control egg eating.

Give the birds balanced feeds to reduce the laying of soft shelled eggs that easily break and
cause egg eating.

Over crowding of the birds in the poultry house should be avoided by reducing the stocking rate.

Greens to be fed to the birds should be hanged over their heads so that birds are kept busy.

Sick birds and weak ones should be isolated from the general flock to control cannibalism.

The farmer should remove all the slow moulting birds from the general flock since such birds
encourage cannibalism.

The breeding stock should be selected from the birds that do not show any sign of vices.

The nests should be enough and must be well positioned to reduce accidents that can cause
breaking of the eggs resulting into egg eating.

There should be enough feeds and water troughs for the birds.

Birds with lice infection and gumboro disease should be culled.

The farmer should treat external parasites and prevent diseases in the flock through vaccination.

STRESS IN BIRDS;

This is the response of birds to a situation that troubles it

Causes of stress in birds;

Change of feeds i.e. from layers mash to growers mash

Change of feeding routine

Starving birds or inadequate feeding

Vaccination of birds leading to pain

Debeaking birds

High temperatures in the poultry house

Presence of parasites on the birds

Overcrowding in poultry house

Change of the environment around the birds i.e. moving birds to a new place

Noise of predators around the poultry house

Effects of stress

Reduce egg production in birds

Reduce bird appetite

May cause disease in birds

can reduce growth rate in young birds

Question; explain how a farmer may control stress in birds

Characteristics of a good laying bird:

Good layer Bad layer

Comb / wattle They are large, red in They are dry pale and scaly
colour and full

Eyes They are keen and They are sunken and dull
sparkling

Beak It is short and colourless in Beak is long and yellow

 most cases

Distance between 3 -4 fingers can fit in the It narrow allowing between

thepelvic bone space 1 -2 fingers

Skin Its smooth and warm Hard and dry

Cloaca / vent It is oval, large and moist It is round small and dry

Weight Normal in accordance with Too heavy because of too

breed much fat and light due to
illness

Belly Normal size, soft and To big or too small

smooth

SELECTION OF HATCHABLE EGGS

1. Eggs selected should be fertilized therefore to ensure this a hen should stay with a cock
for Atleast a week before laying at a ratio of 1 cock -12 hens.

2. Eggs of uniform size and shape should be selected for uniform distribution of heat
during incubation.

3. Ensure that you select clean eggs.

4. Ensure that eggs selected have thick shells with no cracks to prevent breakage during
turning and attack by microbes.

5. Eggs with abnormalities like meat and blood spots should not be selected.

6. Hands handling those eggs should be clean to avoid transmission of diseases.

7. Eggs should be from healthy birds [i.e. not from infected birds with coccidiosis, bacillary
white diarrhea] which can easily be transmitted.

INCUBATION OF EGGS

This is the embryonic development of fertilized egg into a chick. The period
Varies between different birds.

METHODS OF INCUBATION

There are two main methods of incubating eggs i.e.

Natural incubation

Artificial incubation

Natural incubation

This is where a broody hen seats on a clutch of eggs to provide conditions suitable for hatching
to occur. Like humidity optimum temperature and adequate

air supply.

In order to achieve the above conditions the hen does the following:-

1. It changes / turns her eggs using its beak so that all the sides of the egg get the same
temperature.

2. The hen moves out quite often to allow the eggs cool down when the temperature rises
and also to allow air circulate around the eggs.

3. The hen may sunbath and may get its chest wet so that when it goes back it can give
the required humidity to the eggs.

Improvement of natural incubation

1. Make a good nest for the hen to guard against egg breaking.

2. Place the nest in a quiet corner at ground level for easy reach.

3. Provide plenty of clean water and enough food so that the hen does not spend much
time looking for them

4. Protect the hen from parasites like mites and vermin by dusting the nest with doom or
any other pesticides.

5. Dump the nest daily during drought to provide the required humidity.
6. Ensure that the hen is with the cock during and before laying time to ensure that the
eggs laid are fertilized.

7. Remove oversized and undersized eggs or these with abnormalities before the hen
starts incubating.

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION

Under the modern machine called an incubator is used in the incubation of eggs.

Factors essential for incubation and proper hatching of eggs:

1. Temperature:

This has to be effectively controlled between 32.20C – 37.20C. Higher

temperatures can cause death of embryos especially from the 19 th day of

incubation onwards.

Chicks hatched from high temperatures are smaller, lack alertness, have crooked

toes, and necks. While low temperatures cause late and poor hatchability of eggs.

2. Humidity:

Chicken eggs require humidity of 60% during the 1st 18 days then 70% later.

Low humidity causes excessive loss of moisture from eggs resulting into small

and hard chicks. High humidity may result into large chicks and may delay

hatching.

3. Air supply

21% oxygen is required in the incubator to allow adequate gas exchange between the embryo
and out side
4. Turning of eggs.

Eggs should be turned for the first 18 days of incubation once every 3hrs. After

18 days there must be no turning. This prevents embryos from sticking to one side

5 Egg must not have any defects like cracks and double yolks since such may not hatch

6 Providing a good nesting place to avoid breakage of eggs

7 Ensuring that the place of incubation is free from pests and vermin

8 Providing a balanced diet for the broody hen in natural incubation

MANAGEMENT IN A HATCHERY

Hatchery sanitation is required to prevent infection in younger chicks. Diseases

that can affect chicks in mismanagement hatcheries are new castle, Coccidiosis and other
respiratory diseases. It’s advisable to do the following:-

i. Clean and fumigate the incubator / hatchery before setting in eggs.

ii. Select clean eggs and fumigate them before incubation.

iii. The hatchery should be located far away from any nearby poultry farm.

iv. Have the incubator in a separate from where you meet people.

v. Do not allow visitors in the hatchery except the hatchery attendant.

vi. Vaccinate chicks against new castle immediately after hatching.

SEXING OF CHICKS

Sexing is the grouping of chicks according to their sex.

Methods of sexing

1. Vent method

This is based on observation of the vent where the make chicks have three

Protuberances ( round part that sticks out ) from the vent while the female have only two.

2. Chick – sexing machine.

The machine uses magnifying lenses to see through the vent of the chicks in

order to determine their sex by observing the internal reproduction systems.

3. Auto-sexing method.

This takes advantage of the sex linked genes that depict the external traits of the

offspring according to sex. E.g. the cross between a light Sussex hen [white] and a brown
Rhode Island cock will produce brown females and white males in F1 generation.

BROODING

It’s the prevision of warmth for growing chicks. A broader is a structure where

chicks are reared from day old up to 6 or 8 weeks of age.

Types of brooders.

1. Warm floor brooder

2. Infrared brooder.

3. Tier brooder

4. Hot-room brooding.

5. Cold-room brooding.
PREPARATION TO RECEIVE DAY OLD CHICKS

a. A week before arrival.

1. Clean and disinfect the house thoroughly

2. Install all necessary equipments after cleaning has been done e.g. water troughs, food,
litter etc.

3. Prepare the disinfected bath at the entrance

4. Keep rats, mice and other pests out of the house by sealing off all entrances.

5. The brooder house should be made wild bird proof to reduce spread of diseases.

6. Reduce air flow into the house by placing curtains or mats in the windows.

7. The house should be locked to keep out any intruder.

24 hours before arrival of chicks.

1. Ensure that the temperatures are not below 280C by providing a heat source.

2. Set up a brood guard around the heat source to protect chicks from the heat source.

3. Hung a thermometer in each brooder guard to monitor the temperatures of the heat
source.

4. Check all bulbs to ensure that they are in good order to provide light intensity of about
4W/M2 of floor area.

5. The bulbs should be hanged atleast 2m high so that they can give enough light over a
wide area.

6. Put / lay down mold free litter to a minimum depth of 5cm and cover it with paper.

7. Put clean feeders around the brooder guard like spokes of a wheel.
8. Provide 2 – 3 drinkers for every hundred chicks depending on the type.

9. The bird population per brooder preferably shouldn’t exceed 200 as management
becomes very difficult.

Arrival of chicks up to 1st week.

Observe strict sanitation during the un loading of the chicks.

Chicks should be removed from boxes as promptly as possible to reduce mortality.

Put filled drinkers in space so that the chicks can start drinking water mixed with glucose.

Chicks should be given good quality starter mash ration.

The temperatures of the brooder should be maintained between 33-34 0C.

Seal off all cavities around the brooder and corners to prevent chicks from crowding there.

Clean water should be provided continuously through out the day and night.

Provide grit [chick size] from 2nd day onwards to help in digestion.

Relative humidity in the brooder should range from 60 – 80%

Gradually expand the brooder area as the chicks grow.

Room temperatures should be maintained at 320C within the 1st week.

Check whether there are chicks soiled with feaces on the vent area and remove such to prevent
constipation.

Dead chicks should be removed as soon as the possible to control vices and spread diseases.

Paper covering the litter should be removed as soon as chicks learn to identify the feeds.

Second week

1. Room temperatures should be gradually reduced to about 30 0C as chicks develop

feathers.

2. Remove the brooder guards completely.

3. Start ventilation at a low rate when atmospheric conditions are favourable.

4. Put in additional feeders and locate them far away from the heat source.

5. If mortality is higher than normal, a specialist should be called in for advice.

6. The mats in the windows should be removed gradually and the farmer should be aware
of dust storms, strong winds and cold.

3rd week

1. The room temperature should be lowered to about 280C or even lower than this up to
250C.

2. Changing to automatic feeders and drinkers must be done gradually.

3. Reduce light intensity to about 2.8W m2 of floor area.

4. Provide plenty of clean fresh drinking water for the birds.

5. All birds with deformities / abnormalities should be culled at this level.

6. Ensure that there is no left over food in the troughs over night.

4th week

1. Light intensity should be reduced to 2W/M2 of floor area and should be followed strictly.

2. Weight of the birds should be taken in order to determine the growth rate.

3. Make a change from starter marsh to growers mash gradually.

4. Adopt an established feeding programme and stick to it for economic purposes.

5. Should cannibalism occur, try to stop it by debeaking the birds.

5 – 10 weeks

1. The stoking rate of the poultry house should be 9 – 12 birds per metre squared of floor
space depending on the housing system.

2. Switch over from chick size grit to grower size.

3. Select the breeder birds for meat production.

4. Ensure that the feeding space per bird is 10cm and the drinking space is 2cm per bird.

5. Debeaking should be done for birds kept in cages.

6. Compare the bird’s weight record with standard body weight for the same age.

Qualities of a good breeding stock

1. Should be free from defects like lameness etc.

2. It should be of good colour.

3. It should be able to mature sexually early.

4. It should have a high laying rate.

5. It should not have pauses in egg laying.

6. It should be non broodiness.

7. It should produce eggs with no abnormalities.

8. It should be able to lay eggs for along period of time.

9. Should be able to produce good quality chicks.

10. Should have a good body size incase broilers

11. Should have a rapid growth rate.

12. Eggs produced should have high hatchability.

13. It should produce chicks with low mortality

14. It should be early feathering to reduce the chances of cannibalism.

Factors to consider when planning a vaccination programme for birds.

1. Age of the bird

Some vaccines are administered to day old chicks e.g. new cattle diseases or
After a week.

2. Genetic resistance of the flock.

If a flock is resistant to a certain disease naturally then vaccination may not be

needed.

3. Health status of the bird.

Vaccines should be administered to healthy birds not sick ones since it may not

serve the purpose.

4. Feeding and management practices followed.

5. Methods of administration of the vaccine.

6. Methods of storage and available facilities.

Precautions to take during vaccination of birds.

1. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions regarding the use of vaccines.

2. Avoid exposing vaccines to high temperatures during transit.

3. Store vaccines in a deep freezer before use.

4. Do not vaccinate birds when they are under stress.

5. Do not mix two vaccines together while administering

6. Use distilled water incase you want to reconstitute the vaccine.

7. Anti stress medicine like antibiotics and vitamins should be given to birds before
vaccination.

8. All birds in the poultry house should be vaccinated at one time.

9. Vaccination should be carried out in the cool hours of the day.

10. The equipment to be used in the vaccination process should be disinfected.

PIG PRODUCTION

Terms used

1. Sow; This is a female pig, which has already farrowed

2. Boar; It’s a male mature pig.

3. Gilt; A young female pig, which has not yet farrowed.

4. Piglet.; The young of a pig [newly born pigs]

5. Farrowing; The act of giving birth in pigs.

6. Runt; The last born among piglets.

7. Farrowing pen; This is a special place where pigs farrow from

8. Pigsty; This is a house where pigs stay

9. Pork; Fresh meat from pigs.

Bacon; This is meat taken from sides and back of the pig and cured in the factory.

SYSTEMS OF PIG REARING

Intensive system; this is where the pigs are confined in houses through out their life

Semi-intensive system; this is where the pigs are confined in houses at most period of the
day and allowed out for a short time

Extensive system; pigs are allowed roam the place in search for water and feeds

Question; explain the merits and demerits of each system

Advantages of rearing pigs.

1. Pigs require a small area since they can be confined under the intensive system of
management and do not require a large area of grazing as ruminants do.

2. Little initial capital is required as compared to dairying and fish farming.

3. They consume most of the food remains reducing wastage of feeds on the farm and
lowering feed costs.

4. Pigs grow very fast which enables the farmer to get income in a short time when sold.

5 It is adapted to specialized and diversified farming system

6. They produce high quality manure which can be used in the gardens.

7. Pig rearing creates extra employment for the family and the population especially in
places with established pig industries.

8. Pigs produce hard fat that can be used in the manufacture of soap.
9. Pork is easily marketable

10. Pigs are highly prolific which increases profits faster

Factors to consider before starting a pig enterprise.

1. Type of breed.

The breed chosen should be the one needed in the market and one adopted with

the environment

2. Food supply

A constant supply of feeds is necessary since pigs quickly respond to inadequate

feeding.

3. Capital

This is needed for purchasing the breeding stock, constructing pig houses,

buying feeds etc.

4. Labour.

Skilled Labour is required for proper carrying out of management practices like

feeding pregnancy diagnosis and gilt, removing chick.

5. Housing

Good housing improves pig production hence it should be put into consideration.
6. Transport facilities

There must be reliable transport in the area from breeding centres to the market

7. Market.

There must be ready market for the animals and their product to reduce losses.

8. Economy of production

Large scale production requires high initial capital therefore a farmer must be

ready to meet it.

9. Pest and diseases.

The history of pests and diseases in a particular place should be considered

since some diseases like swine fever can cause a lot of losses.

Problems facing the pig industry.

1. Diseases

A serious disease like swine fever / hog cholera has caused serious losses to

farmers in the pig industry.

2. Pigs are non ruminant hence complete with man for the little food available.

3. Social beliefs.

A number of societies in Uganda look down at a pig as a an unclean animal

therefore they cannot rare or eat products from the animal.

4. Pigs have a vice of uprooting plants and destroying farm structures which makes their
raring expensive.

5. Pig production requires a special kind of fence which may be expensive for most farmers.

6. Inadequate organized market.

Most of the pork / pig butchers are located in restricted places which makes

marketing difficult.

7. Poor breeds of pigs.

Most of the breeds being kept are of poor quality and hence they are of low

production.

8. Poor management

Most of the farmers have little knowledge about pig management.

This reduces growth rates hence a low level of production.

PIG BREEDS IN UGANDA

1. Large black

2. Large white / Yorkshire

3. Land race

4. Saddle back.

SELECTION OF BREEDING PIGS.

1. Boars

It should be vigorous and healthy

It should have well developed feet

It should be free from defects that can be transmitted to off springs.

Should have a long, deep and strong body.

It should be easy to handle i.e. should have good temperament.

They should be able to weigh about 100kg at six months of age.

The appearance and condition of the pig /boar should confirm the breed type.

It should be able to mature sexually early.

It should be able to produce large quantities of viable sperm

Qualities of good gilt

Should have well developed feet to enable her feed the litter even when standing.

It should have god mothering quality i.e. a low temperament.

It should be healthy and having a vigorous build

The appearance should be in conformity with the breed

It should have atleast 12 functional teats to enable her raise a large number of litter.

It should be able to farrow without any problem

Should have a high ability to utilize feeds efficiently.

Should be able to produce atleast 8 piglets per farrow

Should produce piglets with a high growth rate.

CARE FOR A PREGNANT PIG.

Feeding

The saw of gilt should be given a feeds/ sow and weaner meal which is 2% of its weight per
day.
Individual feeding troughs should be encouraged to reduce competition between the pregnant
animals.

In the 1st month of pregnancy give about 2.4 – 3.5 kg of sow and weaner meal per day.

Do not over feed the animal during pregnancy to avoid over feeding and stocking of the udder
which causes mastitis.

During the second and 3rd month sow and weaner feeds should be reduced to about 1.5 per
saw per day.

Bulky feeds like sweet potatoes and cassava should be given to make a balanced diet and
improve digestion.

Clean fresh water must be made available at all times which can be mixed with feeds or given
after eating.

The pregnant animal should be dewormed before farrowing to control internal worms e.g. tape
worm.

Minerals and vitamins should be given in correct amounts e.g some vitamins which are
important in embryo development.

A sow should be taken in a clean farrowing pen two weeks to farrowing.

Supply 10-15kgs of dry grass to the farrowing pen which can be used by a pregnant animal
uses a nest.

Administer an iron injection to the pregnant animal to control anemia in the piglets about to be
born.

The gilt also should be washed especially the udder with clean water and soap a few minutes to
farrowing to remove dirt and worm eggs.

SIGNS OF FARROWING:

The sow/ gilt becomes restless

Presence of milk with in teats 12 – 24 hrs before farrowing

Enlarged teats of the gilt or sow.

The vulva becomes swollen and enlarged.

Muscles on either side of the tail slacken

The sow prepares a nest from the dry grass.

Arching of the sow’s back.

Preparation for farrowing

Clean and disinfect the farrowing pen

Wash and disinfect the pregnant animal

Treat the animal against internal parasites

Move the animal to the farrowing pen

Secure the animals feed a day before farrowing

Provide heat in the farrowing creep area

Provide clean beddings

MANAGEMENT OF PIGLETS FROM BIRTH TO WEANING

1. Feeding

Piglets should be left with the mother to ensure that they take colostrum which is important to
their bodies.

They should be provided with feeds rich in proteins and carbohydrates [creep feed] in a special
place only accessible by piglets [creep]

Clean water should be provided to the piglets at all times.

2. Control of piglets anaemia.

Piglets should be given an ion injection or anthill soil rich in ion.

3. Identification

Two main methods are used in the identification i.e. ear notching and ear tattooing.

4. Teeth clipping/ removal of cheek teeth.

The sharp canines should be removed since they become dangerous at a later stage to the
managers

5. Deworming

The piglets are more prone to internal worms like liver-fluke, tape warms and

round worms. They should be dewormed early to ensure fast growth.

6. Castration

The male piglets that are not going to participate in breeding should be castrated

at about 2 weeks of age

7. Vaccination

The piglets can be vaccinated against killer diseases like foot and mouth etc.

8. Weaning

The piglets are weaned at about six weeks after delivery and thereafter they

should be fed normally on concentrate feeds

Management of gilts from weaning to farrowing

 Feed the gilt on Atleast 3kg of sow and weaner meal every day

 Provide clean water without any restriction

  Vaccinate the gilts against killer disease regularly

 Control external parasites like lice by spraying or washing using pesticides

 Sick gilts should be treated immediately o avoid loss

 The gilt should be mated at about 12 month after attaining 45 kg.

 Flush the animal 3-4 weeks before mating to increase rate of ovulation and successful
fertilization

 Keep the pen clean to reduce disease out breaks by regular washing

 Once ready, the gilt should be taken to the boar and left there for 12 hours

 Observe the gilt to ensure that it has conceived if not, take it back for service

 Steaming up should be done 1 month to farrowing

 Wash the gilt prior to calving to remove worm eggs from the teats

METHODS OF FEEDING PIGS.

Ad-lib

This is where pigs are allowed to eat as much as they want since feeds are

always available.

Semi adlib feeding

This involves feeding pigs 3 times a day by hand as much as each would eat in 20 –

30 minutes

Restricted feeding

Pigs are fed once or twice a day.

SYSTEMS OF FEEDING PIGS.

1. Automatic feeders
This is where feeds are provided to pigs in their stores by a computerized system

2. Trough feeding

Here feeds are given in troughs.

3. On floor feeding

Here feeds are poured on the floor more especially the dry feeds for pigs to eat.

ADVANTAGES OF FEEDING PASTURES TO PIGS.

1. Improve functioning of the digestive system

2. They are the cheapest source of animal feeds

3. They are a good source of minerals and vitamins for grazing animals

4. They easily satisfy the animal’s appetite since they are abundant and taken in large
quantities.

5. They protect and restore fertility in the soil.

 ANIMAL NUTRITION.

Nutrition is a process by which living things receive food necessary for them

to grow and be healthy.

A nutrient is a substance that is needed to keep a living thing alive and help it

Grow

Terms used in animal nutrition.

Ration. This is the amount of food needed by an animal in a day.

Balanced ration This is a ration that contains nutrients needed for both maintenance and
production

Maintenance ration This is the amount of food required by an animal to keep it healthy and
alive in good health without gain or loss of weight.

Production ration. This is the food required by an animal over and above maintenance ration
for additional output / performance e.g. milk production, egg production, fattening, growth etc.

Digestibility. This is the measure of that proportion of food eaten by an animal less that lost
through feaces or the proportion of food absorbed in the body less that lost in feaces.

Digestible crude protein This is the measure of N2 in the feed consumed and retained in the
body of the animal after subtracting that lost through feaces, urine and gasses.

Starch equivalent. This is the amount of pure starch which has the same energy as a 100 kg
of a particular feed

Total digestible nutrient. This is the sum total of all digestible nutrients in a feed.

Crude protein The rough measure of the amounts of protein in a feed expressed as a
percentage of dry matter or this is the product obtained between total nitrogen in a feed and a
factor of 6.25 i.e. total nitrogen x 6.25
Roughage. These are feeds that have high fibre content, low energy and protein usually
constituting the main diet for ruminants e.g. green fodder, hay, e.t.c.

Concentrates These are feeds with a high protein and carbohydrates, low fibre, and are highly
digestible e.g. ground nut cake, fish meal, molasses, cotton seed cake etc.

Protein supplements. These are feeds with a high protein content of over 30% e.g. fish meal
cotton seed cake, Soya beans, etc.

Basal feed. These are feed with a high content of carbohydrates that can provide energy e.g.
maize bran, rice bran, mainly cereals and wheat bran.

Bulk feeds. These are feeds that contain a limited amount of nutrients in a given weight and
usually have a high fibre content e.g. forages / roughages.

Minerals. These are food stuffs found in small amounts in all feed stuffs consumed by the
animals and are able to supply irons like calcium, phosphorous, sodium etc.

Examples of animal mineral sources are oyster shells, bone meal, and mineral lick.

Biological efficiency; it is the measure of the amount of out put per feed eaten by an animal.
In lactating animals it can be amount of milk give per kg dairy meal consumed

Economic efficiency; it is the measure of the cost of animal products to that of inputs like
feeds e.g.

Output X price

Feeds taken X price

Gross energy efficiency; energy output of an animal per energy intake i.e.

Energy output in products

Energy taken in feeds

Net energy efficiency; the measure of real energy output in products fro feeds eaten i.e.

Energy out put in product

Energy taken in – maintenance energy cost

Determining feed digestibility

In practice, digestibility is determined for dry matter, proteins, fats and crude fibre. Digestibility
is just a proportional of food absorbed in the body less feacal nutrient. Therefore

Digestibility = Nutrient intake (NI) - Nutrient in feaces (NF) x 100%

Nutrient Intake (NI)

= NI – NF x 100%

NI

Example

A fattening animal was given a feed containing 500g of proteins and later 150g of the same
protein was found in the feaces.

Calculate the digestibility of such a feed.

Digestibility = NI – NF x 100

NI

= 500 – 150 x 100

500

= 350 70

5 1

= 70%

Methods of determining feed digestibility

1. Conventional total collection

This involves giving an animal a constant daily feed intake and recording amount taken and
feacal output.

2. Indicator method

In this method an inert substance is mixed with feeds and used as an indicator in determining
the digestibility of a particular feed.

Characteristics of a good indicator

It should be harmless to the animal

It should not be digested by the animal

It should be harmless to rumen microbes

It should readily mix with feeds.

It should be able to pass through the alimentary canal uniformly.

The indicators are of two types i.e. external indicators which are not part of the feed e.g.
chromic oxide ad internal indicators which are part of the feed e.g. chromogens, ash etc.

Factors affecting feed digestibility

1. Difference between species.

Ruminants are more efficient in utilizing feeds than non ruminants due to their long digestive
system hence will digest most of the feed taken.

2. Age of the animal

Very old and young animals have insufficient digestive systems hence show low digestibility of
feeds.

3. Individual differences
Animals of the same species have shown differences in their digestibility of the same kind of
feed as much as 25%.

4. Exercise

A light exercise improves digestibility of a feed while heavy exercises depress it.

5. Addition of molasses to animal feeds

These will improve digestibility of feeds since they contain highly digestible carbohydrates.

6. Type of feed.

Proteins and carbohydrates are more digestible as compared to other types of feeds.

7. Associated effect of other feeds.

Increased intake of proteins will improve digestibility of fibre.

8. Time

The whole process of digestion needs time for it to be complete hence its important to allow
enough time for digestion to take place.

9. Presence of anti metabolites.

Some feeds may contain anti metabolites e.g. trypsin inhibitor in raw Soya beans.

10. Health of the animal

Sick animals will have a low digestibility of feeds due to the abnormal physiology.
RATION FORMULATION

In making any ration, the following considerations should be made:-

i. The cost of the feed

Expensive feed stuff should always be limited in this ration since they may be uneconomical.

ii. Availability of feeds.

The feeds that make up the ration should be readily available in the environment to reduce
transport costs.

iii. The nutrient requirements of animals in consideration.

If the animals under consideration need a lot of proteins the ration should answer their
nutrient requirements.

iv. The palatability of the feeds used.

Feeds that are used in ration formulation must be highly palatable for animals to gain from it.

v. The skills of a farmer.

The person formulating the ration should be highly skilled to produce what is required by the
animal.

vi. The nature of the final product.

The ration made should be in a state that can be utilized by the animal.

vii. The age of the animals.

Animals at different ages require rations in different forms in a particular nutrient.

FORMULATIONS:

Proteins are the main criterion in determining the proportions of the ration components since
they are more expensive and can’t be replaced as carbohydrates.

The main method used in the person’s square.

Examples

1. A dairy farmer wants to formulate a ration containing 16% of crude protein. Using
maize bran which is 8% crude protein and fish meal which is 40% crude protein into 5 bags
each weighing 100kgs. Show the quantity of maize bran and fish meal used.

Maize bran 8% C.P

Amount of maize bran needed in 500 kg (5 bags of 100kg@)

Maize bran24 x 500kgs = 375kgs

32

Amount of fish meal needed in 500kg

Fish meal 08 x 500kgs = 125kgs

32

2. A poultry farmer wants to make a ration of 18% crude protein using maize bran which is
15% crude protein, rice bran which is 20% crude protein, cotton seed cake 30% crude protein
and ground nut cake 38% to make 500kgs of Feed. Maize bran and rice bran are mixed in a
ratio of 2:1 and ground nut cake mixed with cotton seed cake in a ratio of 2:1

1. Basal feeds

Maize bran 15% C.P x 2 = 30

Rice bran 20% C.P x 1 = 20

TOTAL 3 50

50 = 16.6%

2. Protein supplements

Ground nut Seed cake 30% 2 = 60

Cotton seed cake 38% 1 = 38

TOTAL 3 98

98 = 32.6%

3
Basal feeds needed = 14.6 x 500 kg = 456.25kgs

16

Protein supplement = 1.4 x 500 kg = 43.75kgs

16

Amount of maize bran needed

2/3 X456.25= 304.2 Kg

Amount of rice bran needed

456.25 – 304.2= 152.05kg

Amount of G.nut cake needed

2/3 X 43.75= 29.2 Kg

Amount of Cotton seed cake needed

43.75 - 29.2 = 14.55 Kg

3. Using the following data.

Maize bran 15% C.P

Elephant grass 12% C.P

Soya bean meal 38% C.P

Fish meal 40% C.P

Formulate a ration which is 16% c.p with an allowance of 2% minerals.

N.B Minerals do not contain any protein hence cannot contribute to 16% C.P of the feed being
formulated

100 – 2 = 98

Therefore 16 x 100

98 = 16.3% c.p of the final ration

Basal feeds
Maize bran 15% c.p 1 15 39

Elephant grass 12% c.p 2 24 3 = 13%

3 39

Protein Supplement

Soya bean meal 38% c.p 2 76

Fish meal 40% c.p 1 40

3 116

116 = 38.6%

Total = 25.6

Basal feeds needed = 22.3 x 98 = 85.40%

25.6
Protein supplement = 3.3 x 98 = 12.6%

25.6

Minerals 02%

Given the following

Wheat bran 22%C.P, cotton seed cake 35% C.P, Soya meal 38%C.P, fish meal 40% C.P

Make a ration of 18% C.P. giving an allowance of 3% minerals. Mix fish meal, Soya meal and
cotton seed cake in a ratio of 3:2:1

100 – 3 = 97

18 x 100 = 18.5%

97

Basal feeds

Wheat bran 22%

Protein supplement

Cotton seed cake 35% 1 35

Soya meal 38% 2 76

Fish meal 40% 3 120

6 231

231 = 38.5%
 6

TOTAL

Basal feeds needed 20 x 97 = 82.55 %

23.5

Protein supplements 3.5 x 97 = 14.44 %

23.5

Mineral 03%

MAJOR CLASSES OF FEEDS

There are 8 major classes of animal feeds according to Harris and Crampton. These include:-

Roughages and dry forage e.g. hay.

Pastures – These include range plants, grasses or legumes fed green.

Silage – This is fermented fresh grass.

Basal feeds or energy feeds – maize bran, rice bran, maze grains etc.

Protein supplement e.g. fish meal, blood meal, cotton seed cake, g/nut cake, sunflower, Soya
bean meal etc.

Minerals – These are a good source of minerals like ca, phosphorous, cobalt, mg, zn, etc copper
etc.

Vitamins e.g. A, B, C and B-complex

Additives: These are added to feeds to meet various requirement e.g. hormones that
stimulate growth, antibodies to control disease, drugs to control disease, antibiotics to kill
pathogens, heat synchronizing hormones, anti-oxidants to control oxidation of oils in
feeds and flavourings to improve feed flavour.

MINERALS

Importance of minerals in Animal production.

They are responsible for tissue irritability e.g. calcium and magnesium.

Some are important for the physical and chemical reactions in the body e.g magnesium that
activates enzymes.

They are important in the clotting of blood e.g. calcium.

They play a structural role more especially in the skeleton e.g. calcium and phosphorous.

They maintain the osmotic pressure of blood and lymph fluid at the cell membrane e.g.
potassium.

Some are important in the reproductive system e.g. Manganese which increases sex libido.

Some are important in the capture and harvesting of energy in the body e.g. phosphorous
which is used in the combustion of Adenine diphosphate (ADP)
WATER

About 80 % of the animal’s body is water. Water performs a number of functions in the bodies
of animals like;

Being part of body fluids like blood, semen, and vaginal fluids

Gives support to body tissues

Regulates body temperatures through evaporation to reduce heat

Acts as a solvent for many solutes in the bodies of animals

Acts as media for many body reactions

Can be used in hydrolysis reactions of the body

It’s a medium of transportation of body nutrients

Sources of water for the animal’s body

Food eaten by the animal

Water taken in directly

Metabolic water resulting from chemical reactions

Water stored in various forms in the animal’s tissue

Factors that determine the level of water intake by livestock

Amount of feed eaten; animals eating a lot of feeds with less water will drink more water as
compared to those eating less of such a feed.

Water quality; animals will take more of fresh water as compared to salty stinking water

Availability of water; animals drink more water once readily available at all times

Increased environmental temperature; this increases water intake as animals lose more
water by evaporation

Animal health; sick animals may take less water than expected
Level of animal production; high milk yielders take a lot of water to compensate for that lost
through milk secretion

Type of animals; cattle will take more water than goats due to their size

Age of animals; young animals will take less water as compared to mature animals

Water temperatures; animals will take less of cold water as compared with warm water

N.B

Some of the minerals do not function independently but in combination with others e.g. the anti
rickets triangle which is made up of ca, p and vitamin D.

Classification of minerals.

Minerals are classified into two major groups i.e. micro and macro elements.

The macro minerals are; ca, k, p, Na, Cl, S, Mg, etc. The micro elements are Fe, Zn, Cu, I, Co,
Mn, Mo, etc.

1. Iron
This is responsible for the synthesis of haemoglobin and the red blood cells.

It’s also a co-enzyme in the cytochrome system. Iron is stored in the liver and spleen of animals.

Deficiency symptoms

It leads to anaemia, however anaemia may be hereditary and also lack of Cu, Co, and proteins
can cause anaemia.

Parasitic attack can cause anaemia due to bleeding in the guts

Iron deficiency mainly occurs in young mammals because milk is a poor source of iron and also
animals kept on concrete since they have no access to soil which a good source.

2. Copper

This is essential in the synthesis of haemoglobin and also as an enzyme activator. It occurs in
pigments of hair and its deficiency leads to anaemia and depigementation of hair.

3. Iodine.

This is a constituent of thyroxin responsible for regulation of metabolism in the body. Its
deficiency leads to Goiter or enlargement of the thyroid gland.

In pigs iodine deficiency causes giving birth to piglets without hair.

N.B

Cabbage and Soya beans contain substances which prevent the secretion of thyroxin.

4. Manganese

This is an activator of most enzymes and its deficiency leads to reduced reproductive
processes like spermatogenesis, reduced sex libido, and star gazing in chicks i.e.
(chicks die with their heads facing upwards)

calcium

Strengthens bones
Helps in blood clotting

Important in nerve transmission

Deficiency

Weakened bones

Low milk production in lactating animals

Milk fever in lactating animals

Slow growth

Lameness

phosphorous

Strengthens bones

Improves growth

Improves fertility

Deficiency

Poor growth

Reduced appetite

Poor milk yields

Low fertility

7. Potassium

Maintains concentration of body fluids

Helps in nerve transmission

Deficiency

Slow growth
General weakness

Nervous disorders

8. Salt (Sodium chloride) Na+ and Cl-

Used in nerve transmission

Deficiency

Reduced appetite

Loss of weight

Reduced milk yield

Death after prolonged deficiency

NUTRITIONAL AND METABOLIC DISORDERS IN LIVESTOCK

Nutrition deficiency disease may be caused by:-

i. Giving the animals too little feeds

ii. Having a diet that is low in one or more nutrients.

iii. Imbalance of nutrients provided to the animals.

1. Milk fever

2. Grass tetany
This is also called grass stagers/ hypomaganesaemia. It affects cattle and sheep mainly and it’s
caused by magnesium deficiency.

Symptoms:

Animal becomes nervous

There is twitching of the muscles more especially those around the head and the neck.

The head of the animal is lifted high

There is accelerated respiration

There is increase in body temperature and gashing of the teeth.

Abundant salivation which is followed by death.

It occurs during the 1st week of the pasture season.

Control

Animals should be given mineral lick which contains magnesium sulphates, calcium and
phosphorous.

3. Bloat

This is the distention of the rumen which may occur in all ruminants due to excessive gases
produced by fermentation of feed stuffs.

Causes:

Feeding of animals on young succulent grass with high protein content.

Rumen microbes interfering with normal release of gases

Some animals are more susceptible to bloat than others naturally.

Some plants contain compounds which tend to form lather (foam) once eaten by animals.

Feeding animals on feeds that are known to cause bloat.

Symptoms:

Extension of the rumen

Difficulty in breathing

Loss of appetite / animal stops to eat

Death of the animal

Animal lies down and sticks its legs out.

Treatment:

Affected animal should be treated using a trocar and cannula which is used in piercing the
rumen to release the gases.

The animal should be given mineral oil orally to open up the system so as to allow gases out.

Use of the broom stick method where a small piece of stick is laid across the mouth of the
animal to keep it open and allow gaseous out.

Control / Prevention

Feed animals in good quality forage

Provide anti bloat drugs to animals

4. Ketosis (acetonemia / pregnancy toxaemia)

A disorder of animals caused by high production exceeding feeding capacity. Occurs in high
milk yielders during the first month of lactation.
Symptoms

Low blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia)

Rapid loss of body weight / emaciation

Nervousness may develop in the animal

Drop in milk yield for lactating animals

Apparent blindness

Walking in circles.

Cause

Inadequate feeding for yields

Unsuitable feeds / inadequate roughage

Malfunctioning of the liver leading to increased keto acids in blood.

Preventions

Adequate and proper feeding of lactating animals

Animals should have enough green pastures.

Animal should be exercised

For treatment, call a vet.

ANIMAL HEALTH

Health is a situation in which all body organs and systems are normal and functioning normally
or it’s a state of well being where by all the vital processes of life related activities are
functioning satisfactorily.
Disease is any deviation from normal health or it’s a structural disorder and
physiological abnormality which is harmful to the animal.

Signs of good health in animals

1. The skin of the animal is clean, smooth and shinny

2. The animal is alert and easily responds to stimuli like touch.

3. The animal has a normal appetite i.e. feeds greedily leaving no food in the trough.

4. Body temperatures should be normal i.e. 38.60 in cattle, 39.10C in goats, 39.2 in pigs
and 38.9 in sheep.

5. The dung should be soft, neither excessively hard nor watery.

6. The urine should be clear pale yellow with no blood stains or bad smell.

7. The mucus membrane in the nose, mouth, eyes, and reproductive tract should be moist
and pink in colour.

8. Animal production, in terms of eggs, meat and milk should be normal and consistent
with the stage of production.

9. Lameness or abnormal movement is an indicator of disease.

10. Continuous coughing and sneezing is an indication of disease.

Causes of ill health in animals

1. Heredity;

Some diseases are transmitted through genes e.g. curved limbs in cattle.

2. Microorganisms;

These invade the body’s animals and cause various diseases e.g. T.B. East coast fever, New
castle, etc

3. Mechanical injuries
These can be caused by sharp objects and sometimes rough handling of the animal like beating.

4. Nutritional imbalances

Lack of certain nutrients in the animal’s diet may cause disease e.g. lack of iron, causes
anaemia.

5. Poisoning

Some pastures contain chemicals which can poison the animals e.g. hydrocyanic acid (HCN)
found in cassava blocks respiration once taken in large amounts.

6. Starvation

Under fed animals in relation to their production are likely to suffer from a disease like Ketosis
more especially lactating animals.

7. Exposure to extreme conditions of the environment like high temperature or very low
temperatures can cause stress.

Factors that expose animals to disease (Predispose)

Age; Young animals have un developed immunity while the old ones have a worn out immune
system which exposes both more to disease easily.

Climate; Very cold weather and humid conditions would expose the animals to respiratory
infections like pneumonia.

Pollution; Air and water pollution exposes the animals to many infections and may also cause
poisoning.

Hereditary; Inheritance of large and pendulous udders in dairy animals predisposes such
animals to disease like mastitis.

Breed; exotic breeds of cattle are more prone to tick borne diseases than indigenous cattle
Communal grazing; this brings herds of cattle together with those that are diseased hence
predisposing the health animals

Mechanical injuries; these may act as entry points for the pathogens

Poor hygiene; this encourages pathogens to contaminate feeds and water hence easy spread
of disease

Improper disposal of dead animals; animals that have died due to disease once disposed
poorly may lead to easy disease outbreaks

Classification of disease

1. Infectious disease

This is a disease caused by living organisms like bacteria, protozoa, fungi and virus.

2. Non-infectious disease

This is a disease caused by something else other than living organisms’ e.g. blot, milk fever,
goiter, grass tetany, e.t.c.

3. Contagious disease

This is a disease transmitted by contact between infected animals and healthy ones e.g
brucellosis.

4. Communicable disease

This is a disease that is transmitted from one animal to the other by both direct and indirect
contact e.g. T.B, foot and mouth disease.

5. Notifiable or reportable disease

This is a very contagious disease, which spreads fast in herds or flocks and usually affects
humans e.g. tuberculosis and anthrax.

Spread of disease on the farm / disease outbreak

1. Introduction of sick animals to the farm, which can transmit disease to the healthy ones
by contact.

2. Introduction of healthy animals that are carriers of certain diseases.

3. Diseases can also spread through contaminated water and feeds.

4. Vectors like tsetse flies and ticks can also transmit disease.

5. Wild birds and rodents may carry disease to the domestic animals through
contaminating feeds and water.

6. Contaminated equipment like vaccination equipment, drenching guns, insemination

syringe may spread disease.

7. Shoes and clothing of any one who moves from flock to flock or in animal quarters can
spread disease.

8. Airborne organisms like bacteria spores may be spread through air and cause disease.

9. Soil can Harbour resting stages for anthrax spores which can survive for up to 40 years.

10. Diseases can also be spread through infected animal products like eggs in birds can
spread new castle to chicks

11. Improper disposal of dead animals that have died due to a certain disease.

12. Dung or excreta incase of cows and other young stock can also spread disease.

Control of disease

1. Farmers should make sure animal quarters are clean to keep off pathogens.
2. There should be adequate ventilation in the houses to control respiratory infections like
pneumonia.

3. Ensure adequate spaces for each animal hence discourage over crowding.

4. Animals to be bought should be selected from reliable source with less risk of disease.

5. Institute quarantine measures incase of a disease outbreak in an area.

6. Practicing rotation grazing in cattle in order to control vectors like ticks.

7. The farmer should follow vaccination programmes for livestock in order to control
disease.

8. Visitors to the farm should be restricted and those allowed in should be disinfected.

9. Sick animals should be isolated from the general herd or flock to reduce disease spread.

10. Dead animals should be properly disposed by either burning the carcass completely or
burying it 3m deep in the soil.

11. Animals with highly infectious disease should be culled by slaughtering and burning the
carcasses completely.

12. Newly bought in animals should be isolated from the general herd for Atleast 14 days to
ensure that they are healthy.

QN; Explain the Cause, symptoms, mode of transmission,

animal attacked and control of the following diseases.
a. Bacterial diseases

Contagious abortion or brucellosis.

Anthrax

Mastitis

Black quarter

Foot rat

Calf pneumonia

Fowl typhoid.

b. Viral diseases

Foot and Mouth Disease

Rinder Pest

New Castle

Swine Fever (Hog Cholera)

Fowl Pox

Rabies.

c. Protozoan diseases

Nagana (Trypanosomiasis)

Coccidiosis

Anaplasmosis

East coast fever

Red water

Heart water

PARASITES
This is an organism that derives benefit from another (host) while inflicting pain

on it.

Types of parasites

1. Obligate parasites

These live their entire life as parasites and cannot survive without a host e.g. the

tape worms.

2. Facultative parasite

These can live freely in the absence of a host and as a parasite in presence of

the host i.e. fleas.

3. Endo parasites

They live in the bodies of the host and get their nourishment from there e.g. Liver

Flukes, tapeworms, round worms, gape worms etc.

4. Ecto parasites / External

These live on the outer surface of the host and derive their nourishment from there e.g. ticks
pig lice, mites.

5. Ecto-endo parasites.

These live in the outer skin surface of the host e.g. jiggers and menge in pigs.

Economic importance of parasites.

1. They increase cost of production since money must be spent in trying to control parasites.

2. They make keeping of highly susceptible exotic stock very difficult e.g. ticks.

3. Some parasites are vectors of important diseases like East coast fever, Nagana red water etc

4. Some may suck a lot of blood from the animal leading to anaemia.

5. They can cause retarded growth in the host after extracting a lot of nutrients.

6. They reduce the quality of animal’s products like meat, hides and skins.

7. They can cause loss of weight / emaciation/ loss of condition in the animals.

8. Some can cause open wounds to the host which may give way to other pathogens.

9. They can cause irritation to the animal leading to low production

1. TICKS.

Classification of ticks

Kingdom : Animalia

Phylum : Arthropoda (jointed appendages)

Class : Arachinida. (4 pairs of legs) the body is divided into 2.

Order : Acarina

Super family : Oxodoidae.

Sub families 1: Oxodidae (hard ticks)

Sub families 2: Argasidae (soft ticks) mainly in chicken

Hard ticks.

These include the following;

Bont tick – ( Amblyommavariegatum)

Blue tick – ( Boophilusdecoloratus )

Brown ear tick ( Rhipicephalusappendiculatus)

Red legged tick (Rhipecephalusevertsi)

General life cycle of ticks.

1. After matting, the female sucks blood to full engorgement.

2. It later detaches off from the host and finds a suitable protected environment on the ground
where it lays the eggs.

3. Depending on temperature and humidity, the eggs would hatch into larvae at least after two
weeks.

4. The larva climbs on top of grass to try and find a host.

5. After finding a host, the larva feeds for 3-4 weeks then moults into a nymph.

6. The nymph feeds for 4-6 days before moulting into an adult.

NB:

The hard ticks are classified into three distinct types according to their life cycle i.e. one
host tick, 2 host tick and 3 host tick.

1 host tick.

This type of tick utilizes one host for all the three instars i.e. larva, nymph and adult lifecycle.

The larva feeds on a host until it moults into a nymph.

The nymph feeds on the same host until it moults into an adult.

The adults mate and take in blood up to full engorgement then drops off to the ground to lay
eggs.

After two weeks, the eggs hatch into larva and climb grass to wait for the host.

This is the shortest life cycle covering up to three weeks. An example of such is the blue tick
which transmits protozoa that causes Anaplasmosis

(Gall sickness).
2. Host tick.

In this life cycle, the larva feeds on a different host while the nymph and adult feed on the
same host or the larva and nymph feed on the same host while the adult on another.

Larva climbs to the host, feeds on blood and after engorgement drops down to moult into a
nymph.

The nymph feeds on the same host until it moults into an adult while still there e.g. red legged
tick that transmits Red water (Babesiosis).

3 Host tick.

In this life cycle each instar feeds on a different host and all the immature instars i.e. larva and
nymph moult on the ground.

It’s the longest life cycle taking a minimum of three months.

The larva climbs on the first host where they feed on blood up to full engorgement and later
drop to the ground.

While on the ground they moult into a nymph which climbs to another host.

The nymph feeds on blood up to full engorgement and drops to the ground where it moults into
an adult.

The adult climbs another host and the cycle continues e.g. brown ear tick and bont tick

Tick vector Agent Disease caused.

1 Brown ear tick Theileria parva East coast fever (E.C.F )

(Theileriosis)

Anaplasma marginale Anaplasmosis.

2 Blue tick Anaplasma marginale Anaplasmosis

 3 Bont tick Rickettisia ruminatium Heart water

Theileria mutans East coast fever

4 Red legged tick . Babesia bigemina Red water

Control of ticks:

1. Dipping and spraying animals with acaricide e.g. Dicatix, spona extra, and cooperthion. Order
of spraying: Back, Brisket, Belly, rear and head.

2. Hand dressing of the animals using pye grease (yellowish jelly) on the most important parts
like udder, ear, vulva, underneath the tail, in between the hooves, and around the horns.

3. Practicing rotational grazing in order to avoid areas infected with ticks.

4. Raising a perimeter fence around the farm to reduce entry of ticks into the farm

5. Old pastures in the farm should be burnt during the dry season to kill ticks.

6. A farmer can hand pick ticks from the animal more especially from small herds.

7. Pastures should be ploughed on a routine basis to burry eggs, larva and nymph.

LIVER FLUKE. (Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica)

This parasite is found in sheep, goats, cattle and occasionally in man.

Diagram of a liver fluke.

The liver fluke mainly attacks the liver and sometimes the spleen of domestic animals.

It’s an hermaphrodite though cross fertilization has also been observed.

The life cycle of a liver fluke

Eggs are laid in the liver and carried to the alimentary canal

Eggs come out with the feaces and are deposited in water

The eggs develop into larva called miracidium.

The miracidium swims in water to find the intermediate host which is the water snail ( Liminaea
trancatula)

While in the water snail, it moults into a sporocyst.

The sporocyst raptures to release a new type of larva called redia while in the snail.

The redia migrates into digestive gland of the snail where it grows and produces the cercaria.

The cercaria leaves the snail and enters water where it can swim until it’s taken by the animal
while drinking water.

The cercaria while in the body of the animal can develop into adult flukes and the cycle
continues.

Damage caused by the liver fluke in the liver and spleen.

1. It can make tunnels in the liver and spleen hindering their functions.

2. They can block the bile duct hence affecting digestion of fats in the animal.

3. It makes the liver unsuitable for human consumption.

4. It causes death of tissue in the liver and spleen.

Characteristics of animals having liver fluke (symptoms).

1. Swellings under the jaws.

2. Death of the animals without prior signs.

3. Emaciation / loss of weight / loss of condition.

4. The mucus membrane turns yellow.

5. Passing out of watery feaces / diarrhea.

6. General weakness of the animal.

7. Coughing and sneezing.

8. Reduction in milk production for lactating animals.

9. Reduced growth rate in young animals.

Control of liver fluke

1. Practice rotation grazing by keeping animals away from swamps more especially on rainy
seasons.

2. Remove the grass and any vegetation from water points where the cercaria can attach itself.

3. Animals should be given water from bore holes or fast moving water from rivers with no
snails.

4. Spray copper Sulphate in the grazing area to kill the water snail.
5. Pastures in swampy places should be burnt during the dry season to kill the snails.

6. Animals should never be grazed in flooded areas that are likely to have snails.

7. Swampy places should be drained so that excess water is removed to discouraged water
snails.

8. Routine deworming of the animals using drugs like levafas, endospec 10% every after two
months.

9. As a biological control, farmers can rare ducks which feed on the snails.

WORMS:

Livestock is attacked by internal worms, tape worm, gape worms. The most common are the
round worms and tapeworms which attack cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and man.

Signs and symptoms of internal worm attack in livestock

1. Rough hair coat/ standing hair.

2. Stunted growth in young animals.

3. Emaciation / loss of weight / loss of condition.

4. Diarrhea.

5. Loss of appetite.

6. Pot belly / extended belly.

7. Worms or segments of the worms or eggs can be seen in feaces.

8. Coughing by the animal which can be occasional.

Adaptations of gut worms to their mode of life.

1. Degeneration or loss of unwanted organs and structures like eyes, legs and ears.

2. They have penetrative devices for gaining entrance into the host and

attaching themselves in the gut walls so that they cannot be dislodged

3. Presence of sacking devices like in the tape worm which helps in sucking

nutrients.

4. Possession of hard cuticle which can resist the host’s digestive enzymes.

5. Production of large quantities of mucus against the host’s digestive enzymes.

6. They have more than one host which increases their chance of survival.

7. Production of a large number of eggs to increase their survival chances.

8. Possession of muscular pharynx in round worms for sucking nutrients from the host.

9. Most gut parasites are able to tolerate low levels of oxygen common in their environment.

10. Some are hermaphrodites like the tape warm which increases the chance of survival by
ensuring fertilization and reproduction.

11. A large surface area has been observed in the tape worm and liver flukes which increases
diffusion of oxygen and nutrients.

12. The eggs of most of these worms are covered by a thick cuticle which helps them to resist
harsh conditions of the environment before hatching.

Round worm Tape worm

Scolex absent Scolex present

Short in length and small Long and big

Round flat

No segments Segmented

No suckers Has suckers

Tapering ends Has no tapering end

Has no hooks Has hooks

Life cycle of a tape worm

Adult tape worm in the intestines of man lays fertilized eggs

Eggs are passed out with feaces

Eggs develop into oncosphere which are eaten by grazing pigs or cattle

Each oncosphere contains six hooked embryo called hexacanth

The wall surrounding the hexacanth is digested in the duodenum to release bladder worms

The bladder worms bore through the walls of the intestines and enter blood or lymphatic
system

They are taken to the voluntary muscles of the tongue and limbs

Badly cooked meat eaten by man the bladder worm is eaten

The bladder worm attaches it self on the walls of the intestines and develops into a tape worm

DIGESTION IN RUMINANTS

1. Mouth
Food is gathered here with the help of tongue and teeth, a process referred to as prehesion.

There is also chewing of food (mastication) and mixing it with saliva (salivation). Chewing of
the curd also takes place here.

N.B. The saliva of ruminant animals does not contain any enzyme, but its work is to lubricate
the bolus and facilitate passage through the oesophagus.

2. Oesophagus

This is a passage for the bolus from the mouth to the rumen

Rough materials that escaped thorough grinding during preliminary mastication pass back to
the mouth through oesophagus.

It allows gases to escape from the rumen to the out in the process of belching.

3. Rumen / pouch

It has a surface with projections like a towel

It acts as a store for food.

It refines the food particles.

It churns and mixes the food thoroughly with the rumen liquids.

Coarse food particles are directed to the mouth for further chewing.

Provides place for fermentation by microbes like bacteria, fungi and protozoa.

4. Reticulum

Its known to have a honey comb structure surface

Regulates passage of food from the rumen to the Omasum and from the rumen to aesophogus.

It allows fine food to enter the Omasum

It stores heavy materials like stone, stick, wire swallowed with food that why its referred to as
the hard wave stomach.

5. Omasum

It has a surface with flaps that resembles papers of a book.

Most water and organic acids are absorbed here.

Solid particles left in food are further ground by the muscular leaves of the Omasum.

The leaves form a pumping action that causes food into the abomasum.

6. Abomasum (true stomach)

It has a smooth surface

The walls secrete Hydrochloric acid and gastric juice .

Gastric juice contains enzymes rennin and pepsin which digests proteins.

Rennin curdles milk in young mammals.

7. Small intestines.

Digestion is completed here by the pancreatic enzymes like lipase, amylase, trypsin, maltase
and sucrase.

8. Large intestines

It is where the absorption of water takes place.

Conditions that favour rumen microbes.

1. The pH ranging between 6.2 – 6.7 which is maintained by saliva and continuous removal of
volatile fatty acids (ethanoic acid (acetic acid), propionic acid and butyric acid)

2. Low levels of oxygen since most of the microbes can respire anaerobically.
3. The temperature of about 390c in the rumen.

4. Enough moisture from water drunk, animal feeds and saliva.

5. Presence of macro minerals and some trace minerals in the rumen needed by microbes.

6. Regular removal of digested material so that fresh materials are in contact with the microbes.

7. Presence of readily fermentable carbohydrates like glucose, sugars and starch in feeds eaten.

8. Adequate supply of energy and nitrogen which enhances microbial activities

Importance of microbes in ruminant alimentary canal.

They enable ruminants to utilize fibrous material by hydrolyzing cellulose into monosaccharide.

They build up complete proteins from elementary nitrogen which can be used by the host
animal.

They can upgrade dietary protein to a standard needed by the host animal.

They can synthesize vitamins K, B, C and B complex for the host animal.

At death, they provide proteins to the host animal.

Factors affecting feed intake by the animal.

1. Environmental temperature; high environmental temperatures reduce feed intake while low
environmental temperature stimulate feed intake.

2. Palatability of the feed; feeds that are highly palatable would be consumed in large quantities
by the animals as compared with unpalatable feeds.

3. Blood components; a high quantity of glucose and volatile fatty acids in the blood of
ruminants will suppress feed intake.

4. High lignin content in feeds will suppress feed intake since it has a low digestibility.

5. Shift in hormonal balance; during pregnancy, feotal displacements of the rumen and
reticulum and changes in hormones will affect food intake.
6. The volume of the alimentary canal; when the alimentary canal is filled with feeds fast it will
cause distention in the reticulo- rumen restricting further feed intake.

7. Level of animal production; animals that produce a lot of milk will eat more feeds to
compensate the loss in milk.

8. Animal health; sick animals will take less feeds as compared with the health ones

9. Amount of feed provided; animals will always strive to eat all what is provided hence giving a
lot of feeds increases intake

Improving digestibility of feeds.

Selecting animals with high digestibility naturally.

Providing feeds with high nutrients value to animals.

Avoid excessive exposure of feeds to rain and sunshine in order to maintain their quality.

Avoid prolonged exposure of animals to harsh weather conditions by providing a shade.

Provide ample salt and plenty of fresh water for the animals.

Add molasses to feeds to improve digestibility.

chop pasture and crush feeds to increase surface area for enzymatic action

Carbohydrate digestion in ruminants

Ruminants do not have salivary amylase therefore the first enzymes to act on carbohydrates are
in the rumen

Enzymes in the rumen for carbohydrates are produced by the microbes

Microbial amylase and cellulase breaks down starch and cellulose respectively
The end products for carbohydrate digestion in the rumen are volatile fatty acids (VFAs-acetic/
ethanoic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid), methane and carbondioxide. Formic and
lactic acids are produced in small amounts.

The amount of acetic acid produced depends on the amount of fibre and starch in the diet. A
diet with high fibre results in production of more acetic acid while consumption of high starch
results into production of more propionic and butyric acids.

VFAs are absorbed and utilized for energy production rather than glucose used in non
ruminants

Acetic acid is the main source of energy in ruminants.

Nitrogen conservation mechanism in ruminants

Digestion of coarse fodder in ruminants depends on the activity of micro organisms in the
rumen.

The micro organisms require supply of energy and nitrogen for their growth and multiplication.
In return micro organisms brake down cellulose

Nitrogen is very important in ruminant digestion since it can be used by rumen microbes and in
the building up of ruminant protein. Therefore, it must be conserved

It is conserved in the following ways;

Ammonia absorbed from the rumen plus that arising from tissue metabolism is converted to
urea.

In non ruminants, urea would be lost in urine but in ruminants, it is recycled back to the rumen
through salivary secretion and across the rumen wall.

The recycled urea is utilized by the rumen microbes to build up proteins for the host animal.

The proportion of urea to nitrogen recycled depends on the quantity of nitrogen in the diet

Low dietary nitrogen causes more nitrogen from the liver being returned to the rumen to build
protein

The cycle ensures continuous source of nitrogen for rumen digestion.