DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING (EC2029)

UNIT – I DIGITAL IMAGE FUNDAMENTALS

PART-A
1. Define Image?
An image may be defined as two dimensional light intensity function f(x, y) where x and y denote
spatial co-ordinate and the amplitude or value of f at any point (x, y) is called intensity or grayscale
or brightness of the image at that point.
2. What is Dynamic Range?
The range of values spanned by the gray scale is called dynamic range of an image. Image will have
high contrast, if the dynamic range is high and image will have dull washed out gray look if the
dynamic range is low.
3. Define Brightness? (Dec’12)
Brightness of an object is the perceived luminance of the surround. Two objects with different
surroundings would have identical luminance but different brightness.
4. Define Contrast(Dec’12)
It is defined as the difference in intensity between the highest and lowest intensity levels in an
image
5. What do you mean by Gray level?
Gray level refers to a scalar measure of intensity that ranges from black to grays and finally to white.
6. What do you meant by Color model?
A Color model is a specification of 3D-coordinates system and a subspace within that system where
each color is represented by a single point.
7. List the hardware oriented color models?
1. RGB model 2. CMY model 3. YIQ model 4. HSI model
8. What is Hue & saturation?
Hue is a color attribute that describes a pure color where saturation gives a measure of the degree to
which a pure color is diluted by white light.
9. List the applications of color models?
1. RGB model--- used for color monitor & color video camera
2. CMY model---used for color printing 3. HIS model --- used for color image processing
4. YIQ model -- used for color picture transmission
10. Define Resolutions
Resolution is defined as the smallest number of discernible detail in an image. Spatial resolution is
the smallest discernible detail in an image and gray level resolution refers to the smallest discernible
change is gray level.
11. What is meant by pixel?
A digital image is composed of a finite number of elements each of which has a particular location or
value. These elements are referred to as pixels or image elements or picture elements or pels elements.
12. Define Digital image? What is gray scale image?
When x, y and the amplitude values of f all are finite discrete quantities, we call the image as digital
image.
13. What are the steps involved in DIP?
1. Image Acquisition 2. Preprocessing 3. Segmentation 4. Representation and Description 5.
Recognition and Interpretation
14. What is recognition and Interpretation?
Recognition means is a process that assigns a label to an object based on the information provided by
its descriptors. Interpretation means assigning meaning to a recognized object.
15. Specify the elements of DIP system
1. Image Acquisition 2. Storage 3. Processing 4. Display
16. Explain the categories of digital storage?
1. Short term storage for use during processing. 2. Online storage for relatively fast recall.
3. Archival storage for infrequent access.
17. What are the types of light receptors?
The two types of light receptors are Cones and Rods
18. Differentiate photopic and scotopic vision
 Photopic vision Scotopic vision
1. The human being can resolve the fine details Several rods are connected to one nerve
with these cones because each one is connected end. So it gives the overall picture of the
to its own nerve end. image.
2. This is also known as bright light vision. This is also known as thin light vision.

19. How cones and rods are distributed in retina?

In each eye, cones are in the range 6-7 million and rods are in the range 75-150 million.
20. Define subjective brightness and brightness adaptation(June’12)
Subjective brightness means intensity as preserved by the human visual system.
Brightness adaptation means the human visual system can operate only from scotopic to glare limit.
It cannot operate over the range simultaneously. It accomplishes this large variation by changes in
its overall intensity.
21. Define weber ratio
The ratio of increment of illumination to background of illumination is called as weber ratio.(ie) ∆i/i
If the ratio (∆i/i) is small, then small percentage of change in intensity is needed (ie) good brightness
adaptation. If the ratio (∆i/i) is large , then large percentage of change in intensity is needed
(ie) poor brightness adaptation.
22. What is simultaneous contrast? (Dec’12)
The region reserved brightness not depend on its intensity but also on its background. All centre
square have same intensity. However they appear to the eye to become darker as the background
becomes lighter.
23. What is meant by illumination and reflectance?
Illumination is the amount of source light incident on the scene. It is represented as i(x, y).
Reflectance is the amount of light reflected by the object in the scene. It is represented by r(x, y).
24. Define sampling and quantization
Sampling means digitizing the co-ordinate value (x, y). Quantization means digitizing the amplitude
value.
25. Find the number of bits required to store a 256 X 256 image with 32 gray levels
32 gray levels = 25
No of bits for one gray level = 5; 256 * 256 * 5 = 327680 bits.
26. Write the expression to find the number of bits to store a digital image?
The number of bits required to store a digital image is
b=M X N X k where k is number bits required to represent one pixel
When M=N, this equation becomes b=N2k
27. What do you meant by Zooming of digital images?
Zooming may be viewed as over sampling. It involves the creation of new pixel locations and the
assignment of gray levels to those new locations.
28. What do you meant by shrinking of digital images?
Shrinking may be viewed as under sampling. To shrink an image by one half, we delete every row
and column. To reduce possible aliasing effect, it is a good idea to blue an image slightly before
shrinking it.
29. What is the need for transform?
1. Certain mathematical operations can easily be implemented in frequency domain.
2. Transforms are very useful in gaining valuable insight into concepts such as sampling
3. Image transforms help to design faster algorithms
4. Transforms result in energy compaction over few co-efficients
30. Define the term Luminance
Luminance measured in lumens (lm), gives a measure of the amount of energy an observer perceiver
from a light source.
31. What is Image Transform?
An image can be expanded in terms of a discrete set of basis arrays called basis images. These
basis images can be generated by unitary matrices. Alternatively, a given NxN image can be
viewed as an N^2x1 vectors. An image transform provides a set of coordinates or basis vectors
for vector space.
32. What are the applications of transform?
1) To reduce band width 2) To reduce redundancy 3) To extract feature.
33. Give the Conditions for perfect transform
1. Transpose of matrix = Inverse of a matrix. 2. Orthoganality.
34. What are the properties of unitary transform? (Dec’13)
1) Determinant and the Eigen values of a unitary matrix have unity magnitude
2) The entropy of a random vector is preserved under a unitary Transformation
3) Since the entropy is a measure of average information, this means information is preserved
under a unitary transformation.
35. Define fourier transform pair
The fourier transform of f(x) denoted by F(u) is defined by

The inverse fourier transform of f(x) is defined by

The equations (1) and (2) are known as fourier transform pair.
36. Specify the properties of 2D fourier transform.
The properties are
1. Separability 2. Translation 3. Periodicity and conjugate symmetry 4. Rotation
5. Distributivity and scaling 6. Average value 7. Laplacian 8. Convolution correlation 9.
Sampling
37. Explain separability property in 2D fourier transform
The advantage of separable property is that F(u, v) and f(x, y) can be obtained by
successive application of 1D fourier transform or its inverse.
43.
38. Give the Properties of one-dimensional DFT
1. The DFT and unitary DFT matrices are symmetric.
2. The extensions of the DFT and unitary DFT of a sequence and their inverse
transforms are periodic with period N.
3. The DFT or unitary DFT of a real sequence is conjugate symmetric about N/2.
39. Give the Properties of two-dimensional DFT
1. Symmetric 2. Periodic extensions 3. Sampled Fourier transform 4. Conjugate symmetry.
40. Define circulant matrix?
A square matrix, in which each row is a circular shift of the preceding row and the first row is a
circular shift of the last row, is called circulant matrix.
41. Give the equation for singular value decomposition of an image
U – Orthogonal matrix
V – Orthogonal matrix and its columns form an orthonormal set
This equation is called as singular value decomposition of an image.
42. Write the properties of Singular value Decomposition(SVD)?
1. The SVD transform varies drastically from image to image.
2. The SVD transform gives best energy packing efficiency for any given image.
3. The SVD transform is useful in the design of filters finding least square,minimum solution of
linear equation and finding rank of large matrices.
43. Why KL transform is called optimal transform? (Dec’12)
It has high information packing capabilities over few co-efficients and known as a
dimensionality reduction technique. Multispectral images exhibit a larger correlation and hence
the KL transform is often used.
44. Why DCT is preferred for image compression?
Since DCT has high energy packing capabilities, it is preferred for image compression.
45. What are the properties of DCT?
1. DCT is real and symmetric 2. DCT has very high energy compaction over few coefficients
3. DCT is separable
46. What is monochrome image and gray image?(Dec’13)
Monochrome image is an single colour image with neutral background. Gray image is an image
with black and white levels which has gray levels in between black and white. 8-bit gray image
has 256 gray levels.
 PART-B
1. Explain the steps involved in digital image processing.
(or)
Explain various functional block of digital image processing
1. Image acquisition 2. Image filtering and enhancement 3. Image restoration 4. Color image
processing 5. Wavelets and multiresolution processing 6. Compression 7. Morphological
processing 8. Segmentation 9. Representation and description 10. Object recognition

2. Describe the elements of visual perception.

1. Structure of the human eye 2. Image formation in the eye 3. Brightness adaptation and
discrimination

3. Describe image formation in the eye with brightness adaptation and

discrimination
1. Subjective brightness 2. Brightness adaptation 3. Weber ratio 4. Mach bands 5. Simutaneous
contrast

4. Write short notes on sampling and quantization.

Digitizing the coordinate values is called sampling. Digitizing the amplitude values is called
quantization

6. Explain the basic relationships between pixels? (Dec’12)

1. Neighbors of a pixel 2. Adjacency, Connectivity, Regions and boundaries 3. Distance measures
7. Explain the properties of 2D Fourier Transform.
1. Translation and rotation 2. Periodicity 3. Symmetry properties 4. Convolution property
11. Explain K-L transform in detail.

1. Decorrelation 2. Distribution of variances

12. What are the different transforms used in DIP? Explain the most advantageous one in detail.
(Dec’12)
1.DFT 2. DCT 3. KL Transform 4. SVD Transform. KL Transform can be explained for its optimality
13. Describe in detail about the elements of digital image processing system (Dec’12)
1. Image sensors 2. Specialized image processing hardware 3. Image processing software 4. Computer
5. Mass storage 6. Image displays 7. Hardcopy
14. Explain singular value decomposition and specify its properties.

PROPERTIES:
1. Once 𝜙m for m=1,…r is known Eigen vectors 𝜓m can be determined.
They are orthonormal.
2. It is not a unitary transform
3. The least squares error between U and any partial sum is minimized for any k that is when
Compliment(𝑈𝑘) =Uk
Advantages:
Energy packing efficiency
Used to find inverse of singular matrices
Used for analyzing various image processing problems
Drawbacks:
SVD varies drastically from image to image.
No fast transform substitute available
High computational effort is required
Applications:
In image compression
Face recognition
Watermarking
Texture classification
UNIT II IMAGE ENHANCEMENT
PART-A
1. Specify the objective of image enhancement technique.
The objective of enhancement technique is to process an image so that the result is more suitable
than the original image for a particular application.
2. Explain the 2 categories of image enhancement. (Dec’12)
i) Spatial domain refers to image plane itself & approaches in this category are based on
direct manipulation of picture image.
ii) Frequency domain methods based on modifying the image by fourier transform.
3. What is contrast stretching? (Dec’13)
Contrast stretching reduces an image of higher contrast than the original by darkening the levels
below m and brightening the levels above m in the image.
4. What is grey level slicing?
Highlighting a specific range of grey levels in an image often is desired. Applications include
enhancing features such as masses of water in satellite imagery and enhancing flaws in x-ray images.
5. Define image subtraction.
The difference between 2 images f(x,y) and h(x,y) expressed as g(x,y)=f(x,y)-h(x,y) is obtained by
computing the difference between all pairs of corresponding pixels from f and h.
6. What is the purpose of image averaging?
An important application of image averaging is in the field of astronomy, where imaging with very
low light levels is routine, causing sensor noise frequently to render single images virtually useless
for analysis.
7. What is meant by masking?
Mask is the small 2-D array in which the values of mask co-efficient determines the nature of
process.
The enhancement technique based on this type of approach is referred to as mask processing.
8. Define histogram.
The histogram of a digital image with gray levels in the range [0, L-1] is a discrete function h(rk)=nk.
rk-kth gray level; nk-number of pixels in the image having gray level rk.
9. What is meant by histogram equalization? (June’12)
; where k=0,1,2,…,L-1
This transformation is called histogram equalization.
10. Define Derivative filter

For a function f (x, y), the gradient ∆f at co-ordinate (x, y) is defined as the vector

; mag (∆f) = {[(∂f/∂x) 2 +(∂f/∂y) 2 ]} 1/2

11. What is a Median filter? (Dec’13)
The median filter replaces the value of a pixel by the median of the gray levels in the neighborhood
of that pixel.

12. Give the mask used for high boost filtering.

0 -1 0 -1 -1 -1

-1 A+4 -1 -1 A+8 -1

0 -1 0 -1 -1 -1

13. Explain spatial filtering

Spatial filtering is the process of moving the filter mask from point to point in an image. For linear
spatial filter, the response is given by a sum of products of the filter coefficients, and the
corresponding image pixels in the area spanned by the filter mask.
14 What is maximum filter and minimum filter?
th th
The 100 percentile is maximum filter is used in finding brightest points in an image. The 0
percentile filter is minimum filter used for finding darkest points in an image.
15. Write the application of sharpening filters
1. Electronic printing and medical imaging to industrial application
2. Autonomous target detection in smart weapons.
16. Name the different types of derivative filters
1. Perwitt operators 2. Roberts cross gradient operators 3. Sobel operators
17. What are the types of noise models?
1. Guassian noise 2. Rayleigh noise 3. Erlang noise 4. Exponential noise 5. Uniform noise
6. Impulse noise
18. Give the relation for guassian noise
Guassian noise:
The PDF guassian random variable Z is given by
P(Z)=e-(Z-µ) /2σ /√2πσ
2 2

Z->Gray level value;σ->standard deviation;σ2->varianze of Z;µ->mean of the graylevel value Z

19. Give the relation for rayleigh noise
Rayleigh noise:
The PDF is
-(z—a)2/b
P(Z)= 2(z-a)e /b for Z>=a
0 for Z<a
2
Mean µ=a+√πb/4; Standard deviation σ =b(4-π)/4
20. Give the relation for Gamma noise
Gamma noise:
The PDF is
P(Z)=ab zb-1 ae-az/(b-1) for Z>=0
0 for Z<0
2 2
Mean µ=b/a; Standard deviation σ =b/a
21. Give the relation for Exponential noise
Exponential noise
The PDF is
-az
P(Z)= ae Z>=0
0 Z<0
Mean µ=1/a; Standard deviation σ2=1/a2
22. Give the relation for Uniform noise
Uniform noise:
The PDF is
P(Z)=1/(b-a) if a<=Z<=b
0 otherwise
mean µ=a+b/2 ; Standard deviation σ2=(b-a)2/12
23. Give the relation for Impulse noise
Impulse noise:
The PDF is
P(Z) =Pa for z=a
Pb for z=b
0 Otherwise

PART-B
1. Explain the types of gray level transformation used for image enhancement.
Basic intensity transformation functions
(i) Image negatives (ii) Log transformations (iii) Power law transformations
Piecewise-Linear transformation
(i) Contrast stretching (ii) Intensity level slicing (iii) Bit plane slicing
2. What is histogram? Explain histogram equalization and matching (Dec’12)
The histogram of a digital image with gray levels in the range [0, L-1] is a discrete function
h(rk)=nk. rk-kth gray level; nk-number of pixels in the image having gray level rk.
The method used to generate a processed image that has a specified histogram is called histogram
matching or histogram specification
3.Discuss the image smoothing filter with its model in the spatial domain.
Averaging filter and low pass filter
Weighted averaging filter
Blurring effect
4. What are image sharpening filters? Explain the various types of it.
Foundation
Second derivative for image sharpening-Laplacian
Unsharp masking and high boost filtering
First derivative - Gradient
5. Explain spatial filtering in image enhancement.
 Fundamentals of spatial filtering
Smoothing spatial filters
6. Explain image enhancement in the frequency domain.
Low pass filters
Butter low pass filters
Gaussian low pass filters
Image sharpening using frequency domain filters
7. Explain Homomorphic filtering in detail. (Dec’12)
Homomorphic filtering is used to improve the appearance of an image by simultaneous intensity
range compression and contrast enhancement
8. Explain different noise models in image processing
Explain the following noise models with distributions
Gaussian white noise, Rayleigh noise, Erlong noise, Impulse noise, Uniform noise
9. Explain Geometric mean filter, Harmonic mean filter and Contraharmonic mean filter
(Dec’12)
Geometric mean filter
Each restored image is given by the product of the pixels in the subimage window, raised to the
power 1/mn.
Harmonic mean filter

This filter works well for salt noise, but fails for pepper noise
Contraharmonic mean filter

This filter is well suited for reducing or virtually eliminating the effects of salt and pepper noise.

UNIT III IMAGE RESTORATION

PART-A
1. What is meant by Image Restoration?
Restoration attempts to reconstruct or recover an image that has been degraded by using a clear
knowledge of the degrading phenomenon.
2. What are the two properties in Linear Operator?
1. Additivity 2. Homogenity
3. Explain additivity property in Linear Operator
H[f1(x,y)+f2(x,y)]=H[f1(x,y)]+H[f2(x,y)]
The additive property says that if H is the linear operator,the response to a sum of two is equal to the
sum of the two responses.
4. How a degradation process is modeled?
η(x,y)

f(x,y) H g(x,y)

A system operator H, which together with an additive white noise term η(x,y) operates on an input
image f(x,y) to produce a degraded image g(x,y).
5. Explain homogenity property in Linear Operator
H[k1f1(x,y)]=k1 H[f1(x,y)]
The homogeneity property says that,the response to a constant multiple of any input is equal to the
response to that input multiplied by the same constant.
6. Give the relation for degradation model for continuous function
+ n(x,y)
7. What is fredholm integral of first kind?
which is called the superposition or convolution or fredholm integral of first kind. It states
that if the response of H to an impulse is known, the response to any input f(α,β) can be
calculated by means of fredholm integral.
8. What is concept algebraic approach?
The concept of algebraic approach is to estimate the original image which minimizes a predefined
criterion of performances.
9. What are the two methods of algebraic approach?
1. Unconstraint restoration approach 2. Constraint restoration approach
10. Define Gray-level interpolation
Gray-level interpolation deals with the assignment of gray levels to pixels in the spatially
transformed image
11. What is meant by Noise probability density function?
The spatial noise descriptor is the statistical behavior of gray level values in the noise component of
the model.
12. What is geometric transformation? (June’12)
Transformation is used to alter the co-ordinate description of image.
The basic geometric transformations are 1. Image translation 2. Scaling 3. Image rotation
13. What is image translation and scaling?
Image translation means reposition the image from one co-ordinate location to another along straight
line path. Scaling is used to alter the size of the object or image (ie) a co-ordinate system is scaled by
a factor.
14. Why the restoration is called as unconstrained restoration?
In the absence of any knowledge about the noise ‘n’, a meaningful criterion function is to
seek an such that H approximates of in a least square sense by assuming the noise term is as
small as possible. Where H = system operator. = estimated input image. g = degraded image.
15. Which is the most frequent method to overcome the difficulty to formulate the spatial
relocation of pixels?
The point is the most frequent method, which are subsets of pixels whose location in the input
(distorted) and output (corrected) imaged is known precisely.
16. What are the three methods of estimating the degradation function?
1. Observation 2. Experimentation 3. Mathematical modeling.
The simplest approach to restoration is direct inverse filtering, an estimate F^(u,v) of the
transform of the original image simply by dividing the transform of the degraded image G^(u,v)
by the degradation function.
17. What is pseudo inverse filter? (Dec’13)
It is the stabilized version of the inverse filter.For a linear shift invariant system with frequency
response H(u,v) the pseudo inverse filter is defined as
H-(u,v)=1/(H(u,v) H#0
0 H=0
18. What is meant by least mean square filter or wiener filter? (Dec’12)
The limitation of inverse and pseudo inverse filter is very sensitive noise. The wiener filtering is a
method of restoring images in the presence of blur as well as noise.
19. What is meant by blind image restoration?
An information about the degradation must be extracted from the observed image either explicitly or
implicitly.This task is called as blind image restoration.
20. What are the two approaches for blind image restoration?
1. Direct measurement 2. Indirect estimation
21. What is meant by Direct measurement?
In direct measurement the blur impulse response and noise levels are first estimated from an
observed image where this parameter are utilized in the restoration.
22. What is blur impulse response and noise levels?
Blur impulse response: This parameter is measured by isolating an image of a suspected object
within a picture.
Noise levels: The noise of an observed image can be estimated by measuring the image covariance
 over a region of constant background luminence.
23. What is meant by indirect estimation?
Indirect estimation method employ temporal or spatial averaging to either obtain a restoration or to
obtain key elements of an image restoration algorithm.
24. Give the difference between Enhancement and Restoration
Enhancement technique is based primarily on the pleasing aspects it might present to the viewer. For
example: Contrast Stretching. Where as Removal of image blur by applying a deblurrings function is
considered a restoration technique.
25. What do you mean by Point processing?
Image enhancement at any Point in an image depends only on the gray level at that point is often
referred to as Point processing.
26. What is Image Negatives?
The negative of an image with gray levels in the range [0, L-1] is obtained by using the negative
transformation, which is given by the expression.
s = L-1-r Where s is output pixel r is input pixel
27. Give the formula for negative and log transformation.
Negative: S=L-1-r; Log: S = c log(1+r) Where c-constant and ≥0
28. What is meant by bit plane slicing? (Dec’13)
Instead of highlighting gray level ranges, highlighting the contribution made to total image
appearance by specific bits might be desired. Suppose that each pixel in an image is represented by 8
bits. Imagine that the image is composed of eight 1-bit planes, ranging from bit plane 0 for LSB to
bit plane-7 for MSB.

PART-B
1. Explain unconstrained restoration and constrained restoration problem in image restoration.
Constrained restoration
Unconstrained restoration
2. What is the use of wiener filter or least mean square filter in image restoration. Explain.
(Dec’12)

3. What is meant by Inverse filtering? Explain. (Dec’12)

G(u,v)=Degraded image H(u,v)=Degradation function

4. Explain image degradation model /restoration process in detail.

f(x,y) Degradation g(x,y) Restoration

function H(u,v) filter
Noise n(x,y)
5. What are the two approaches for blind image restoration? Explain in detail.
Image restoration based on (i) observation (ii) experimentation (iii) mathematical modeling
6. Explain geometric transformation and spatial transformation in detail.
Geometric transformation consists of two basic operations
(i) a spatial transformation of coordinates and intensity interpolation
(ii) forward mapping and inverse mapping
7. What is gray level interpolation? Explain the schemes involved in it. (Dec’12)
Nearest neighbor interpolation (ii)Bilinear interpolation (iii)Bicubic interpolation
8. Explain the causes for image degradation. (Dec’13)
(i) Noise models (ii) Atmospheric Turbulence
UNIT IV IMAGE SEGMENTATION
PART-A
1. What is segmentation?
Segmentation subdivides on image in to its constitute regions or objects. The level to which the
subdivides is carried depends on the problem being solved .That is segmentation should when the
 objects of interest in application have been isolated.
2. Write the applications of segmentation. (Dec’13)
* Detection of isolated points. * Detection of lines and edges in an image.
3. What are the three types of discontinuity in digital image?
Points, lines and edges.
4. How the derivatives are obtained in edge detection during formulation?
The first derivative at any point in an image is obtained by using the magnitude of the gradient
at that point. Similarly the second derivatives are obtained by using the laplacian.
5. Write about linking edge points.
The approach for linking edge points is to analyze the characteristics of pixels in a small
neighborhood (3x3 or 5x5) about every point (x,y)in an image that has undergone edge detection.
All points that are similar are linked, forming a boundary of pixels that share some common
properties.
6. What are the two properties used for establishing similarity of edge pixels?
(1) The strength of the response of the gradient operator used to produce the edge pixel. (2)
The direction of the gradient.
7. What is edge? (Dec’13)
An edge isa set of connected pixels that lie on the boundary between two regions edges are more
closely modeled as having a ramplike profile. The slope of the ramp is inversely proportional to the
degree of blurring in the edge.
8. Give the properties of the second derivative around an edge
 The sign of the second derivative can be used to determine whether an edge pixel lies on the
dark or light side of an edge.
 It produces two values for every edge in an image.
 An imaginary straightline joining the extreme positive and negative values of the second
derivative would cross zero near the midpoint of the edge.
9. Define Gradient Operator
First order derivatives of a digital image are based on various approximation of the 2-D gradient.
The gradient of an image f(x,y) at location(x,y) is defined as the vector
Magnitude of the vector is ∆f=mag( ∆f )=[Gx2+ Gy2]1/2
10. What is meant by object point and background point?
To execute the objects from the background is to select a threshold T that separate these modes.
Then any point (x,y) for which f(x,y)>T is called an object point. Otherwise the point is called
background point.
11. What is global threshold?
When Threshold T depends only on f(x,y) then the threshold is called global.
12. Define region growing
Region growing is a procedure that groups pixels or subregions in to layer regions based on
predefined criteria. The basic approach is to start with a set of seed points and from there grow
regions by appending to each seed these neighbouring pixels that have properties similar to the seed.
13. Specify the steps involved in splitting and merging
Split into 4 disjoint quadrants any region Ri for which P(Ri)=FALSE. Merge any adjacent regions Rj
and Rk for which P(RjURk)=TRUE. Stop when no further merging or splitting is positive.
14. What is Local threshold?
If Threshold T depends both on f(x,y) and p(x,y) is called local.
15. What is dynamic or adaptive threshold?
If Threshold T depends on the spatial coordinates x and y the threshold is called dynamic or adaptive
where f(x,y) is the original image.

PART-B
1. What is image segmentation? Explain in detail.
1. Basic fundamentals 2. Point detection 3. Line detection 4. Edge detection
2. Explain Edge Detection in details?
1. Edge models 2. Basic edge detection 3. Image gradient and its properties 4. Gradient operators
5. Combining gradient with thresholidng
3. Define Thresholding and explain the various methods of thresholding in detail?
1. The basics of intensity of thresholding 2. The role of noise in image thresholding 3. The role of
 illuminace and reflectance 4. Basic global thresholding 5. Optimum global thresholing
4. Discuss about region based image segmentation techniques. Compare threshold region based
techniques.
1. Region growing 2.Region splitting and merging
5. Define and explain the various representation approaches?
1. Boundary (Border following) 2. Chain codes 3. Polygonal approximations using minimum-
perimeter polygons
6. Explain Boundary descriptors.
1. Simple descriptors 2. Shape numbers 3. Fourier descriptors 4. Statistical
moments
7. Explain regional descriptors
1. Simple descriptors 2. Topological descriptors 3. Texture 4. Statistical approaches
8. How is line detected? Explain through the operators
Laplacian detector Horizontal, vertical and diagonal operators
9. Explain global processing using Hough transform (Dec’12)
Global properties-parameter space-accumulator cells
Steps in Hough transform
1. Obtain a binary edge image using any edge detection techniques
2. Specify subdivisions in the rho-theta plane
3. Examine the counts of the accumulator cells for high pixel concentration
4. Examine the relationship between pixels in a chosen cell
10. What do you understand by dilation and erosion in morphological operation? Explain in
detail
(Dec’12)
The basic effect of dilation on a binary image is that it gradually increases the boundaries of the
region, while the small holes present in the image become smaller
The objective of erosion operator is to make an object smaller by removing its outer layers of
pixles. If a black pixel has a white neighbor, then all the pixels are made white
10. Elaborate the process of dam construction along with the watershed segmentation
algorithm(Dec’12)
Catchment basin – single connected component –dilation -flooding

UNIT V IMAGE COMPRESSION

PART-A
1. What is image compression?
Image compression refers to the process of redundancy amount of data required to represent the given
quantity of information for digital image. The basis of reduction process is removal of redundant data.
2. What is Data Compression?
Data compression requires the identification and extraction of source redundancy. In other words,
data compression seeks to reduce the number of bits used to store or transmit information.
3. What are two main types of Data compression?
1. Lossless compression can recover the exact original data after compression. It is used mainly
for compressing database records, spreadsheets or word processing files, where exact
replication of the original is essential.
2. Lossy compression will result in a certain loss of accuracy in exchange for a substantial
increase in compression. Lossy compression is more effective when used to compress graphic
images and digitised voice where losses outside visual or aural perception can be tolerated.
4. What is the need for Compression?
In terms of storage, the capacity of a storage device can be effectively increased with methods that
compress a body of data on its way to a storage device and decompress it when it is retrieved.
1. In terms of communications, the bandwidth of a digital communication link can be
effectively increased by compressing data at the sending end and decompressing data at the
receiving end.
2. At any given time, the ability of the Internet to transfer data is fixed. Thus, if data can
effectively be compressed wherever possible, significant improvements of data
throughput can be achieved. Many files can be combined into one compressed document
making sending easier.
5. What are different Compression Methods?
Run Length Encoding (RLE) Arithmetic coding Huffman coding and Transform coding
6. Define is coding redundancy
If the gray level of an image is coded in a way that uses more code words than necessary to
represent each gray level, then the resulting image is said to contain coding redundancy.
7. Define interpixel redundancy
The value of any given pixel can be predicted from the values of its neighbors.The information
carried by is small. Therefore the visual contribution of a single pixel to an image is redundant.
Otherwise called as spatial redundant geometric redundant or interpixel redundant. Eg: Run length
coding
8. What is run length coding?
Run-length Encoding, or RLE is a technique used to reduce the size of a repeating string of
characters. This repeating string is called a run; typically RLE encodes a run of symbols into two
bytes, a count and a symbol. RLE can compress any type of data regardless of its information
content, but the content of data to be compressed affects the compression ratio. Compression is
normally measured with the compression ratio:
9. Define compression ratio. (June’12)
Compression Ratio = original size / compressed size: 1
10. Define psycho visual redundancy
In normal visual processing certain information has less importance than other information. So this
information is said to be psycho visual redundant.
11. Define encoder
Source encoder is responsible for removing the coding and interpixel redundancy and psycho visual
redundancy. There are two components A) Source Encoder B) Channel Encoder
12. Define source encoder
Source encoder performs three operations
1) Mapper -this transforms the input data into non-visual format. It reduces the interpixel
redundancy.
2) Quantizer - It reduces the psycho visual redundancy of the input images .This step is omitted if
the system is error free.
3) Symbol encoder- This reduces the coding redundancy .This is the final stage of encoding process.
13. Define channel encoder
The channel encoder reduces reduces the impact of the channel noise by inserting redundant bits into
the source encoded data. Eg: Hamming code
14. What are the types of decoder?
Source decoder- has two components a) Symbol decoder- This performs inverse operation of symbol
encoder. b) Inverse mapping- This performs inverse operation of mapper. Channel decoder-this is
omitted if the system is error free.
15. What are the operations performed by error free compression?
1) Devising an alternative representation of the image in which its interpixel redundant are reduced.
2) Coding the representation to eliminate coding redundancy
16. What is Variable Length Coding?
Variable Length Coding is the simplest approach to error free compression. It reduces only the
coding redundancy. It assigns the shortest possible codeword to the most probable gray levels.
17. Define Huffman coding and mention its limitation (June’12 & (Dec’13))
1. Huffman coding is a popular technique for removing coding redundancy.
2. When coding the symbols of an information source the Huffman code yields the smallest
possible number of code words, code symbols per source symbol.
Limitation: For equi probable symbols, Huffman coding produces variable code words.
18. Define Block code
Each source symbol is mapped into fixed sequence of code symbols or code words. So it is called as
block code.
19. Define instantaneous code
A code word that is not a prefix of any other code word is called instantaneous or prefix codeword.
20. Define uniquely decodable code
A code word that is not a combination of any other codeword is said to be uniquely decodable code.
21. Define B2 code
Each code word is made up of continuation bit c and information bit which are
binary numbers. This is called B2 code or B code. This is called B2 code because two
information bits are used for continuation bits
22. Define the procedure for Huffman shift coding (Dec’12)
List all the source symbols along with its probabilities in descending order. Divide the total number
of symbols into block of equal size. Sum the probabilities of all the source symbols outside the
reference block. Now apply the procedure for reference block, including the prefix source symbol.
The code words for the remaining symbols can be constructed by means of one or more prefix code
followed by the reference block as in the case of binary shift code.
23. Define arithmetic coding
In arithmetic coding one to one corresponds between source symbols and code word doesn’t exist
where as the single arithmetic code word assigned for a sequence of source symbols. A code word
defines an interval of number between 0 and 1.
24. What is bit plane Decomposition? (Dec’13)
An effective technique for reducing an image’s interpixel redundancies is to process the image’s bit
plane individually. This technique is based on the concept of decomposing multilevel images into a
series of binary images and compressing each binary image via one of several well-known binary
compression methods.
25. Draw the block diagram of transform coding system

Input Image Wavelet Quantizer Symbol Compressed

Transform Encoder Image
Compressed Inverse Wavelet Decompressed Symbol
Image Transform Image Decoder
26. How effectiveness of quantization can be improved?
1. Introducing an enlarged quantization interval around zero, called a dead zero.
2. Adapting the size of the quantization intervals from scale to scale. In either case, the selected
quantization intervals must be transmitted to the decoder with the encoded image bit stream.
27. What are the coding systems in JPEG? (Dec’12)
1. A lossy baseline coding system, which is based on the DCT and is adequate for most
compression application. 2. An extended coding system for greater compression, higher precision
or progressive reconstruction applications. 3. A lossless independent coding system for reversible
compression.
28. What is JPEG?
The acronym is expanded as "Joint Photographic Expert Group". It is an international standard in
1992. It perfectly Works with color and grayscale images, Many applications e.g., satellite,
medical,...
29. What are the basic steps in JPEG?
The Major Steps in JPEG Coding involve:
1. DCT (Discrete Cosine Transformation) 2. Quantization 3. Zigzag Scan
4. DPCM on DC component 5. RLE on AC Components 6. Entropy Coding
30. What is MPEG?
The acronym is expanded as "Moving Picture Expert Group". It is an international standard in 1992.
It perfectly Works with video and also used in teleconferencing
31. Define I-frame
I-frame is Intraframe or Independent frame. An I-frame is compressed independently of all frames. It
resembles a JPEG encoded image. It is the reference point for the motion estimation needed to
generate subsequent P and P-frame.
32. Define P-frame
P-frame is called predictive frame. A P-frame is the compressed difference between the current
frame and a prediction of it based on the previous I or P-frame
33. Define B-frame
B-frame is the bidirectional frame. A B-frame is the compressed difference between the current
frame and a prediction of it based on the previous I or P-frame or next P-frame. Accordingly the
decoder must have access to both past and future reference frames.

PART - B
1. What is data redundancy? Explain three basic data redundancy?
 Irrelevant and repeated information is said to be redundancy. Relative redundancy
is given by R=1-1/C
Three basic data redundancies are coding redundancy, spatial redundancy or interpixel
redundancy and psycho visual redundancy
2. What is image compression? Explain variable length coding compression schemes.
Reducing the amount of Irrelevant and repeated information is called image compression.
Explain Shanon fano coding, Huffman coding and Golomb coding techniques with examples
3. Explain about Image compression model?

f(x,y) Mapper Quantizer Symbol Symbol Inverse

Coder Decoder Mapper

Encoder Decoder
4. Explain about Error free Compression?
Lossless predictive coding has encoder and decoder and predictor. This predictor generates the
anticipated value of each sample based on a specified number of past samples
5. Explain about Lossy compression?
Lossless predictive coding has encoder, decoder, quantizer and predictor. Delta modulation is
one such lossy compression
6. Explain the schematics of image compression standard JPEG.
JPEG defines three different coding systems (i) a lossy baseline coding system which is based
on the DCT and is adequate for most compression applications (2) an extended coding system
for greater compression, higher precision or progressive reconstruction applications (3) a
lossless independent coding system must include support for the baseline system.
7. Explain how compression is achieved in transform coding and explain about
DCT

Input Image Wavelet Quantizer Symbol Compressed

Transform Encoder Image

Compressed Inverse Wavelet Decompressed Symbol

Image Transform Image Decoder
8. Explain arithmetic coding
Arithmetic coding generates nonblack codes. In this coding, an entire sequence of source
symbols is assigned a single arithmetic code word.
9. Discuss about MPEG standard and compare with JPEG(Dec’12)
The acronym is expanded as "Moving Picture Expert Group". It is an international standard in
1992. It perfectly Works with video and also used in teleconferencing
10. Draw and explain the block diagram of MPEG encoder(Dec’12)
Macroblock formation, Frame formation, frame encoding, Motion estimation, Audio
compression and quantization and frame construction