INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

WATER SUPPLY AND TREATEMENT (CEng4181)

CHAPTER SEVEN (7)

Collection and Distribution of Water

By
Dr. Bahar Adem (PhD)
Assistant professor Dec 2024
 Chapter 7

7. Collection and Distribution of Water

Water supply & Treatment Dr. Bahar Adem

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 Outlines
Water Collection system (Intakes Structures ()

Pipes and appurtenant

Distribution System

Layout Distribution System

Design of Distribution System

6 Distribution (Service) Reservoirs

7 Construction and maintenance of Distribution Systems

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 Introduction
The WSS comprises the following major elements:
– Source (groundwater or surface water)
– Raw water collection structures (intake structure, transmission line)
– Treatment plant
– Distribution systems (pipes, pumps, reservoir, different appurtenances)

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 Introduction (Cont…)

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 Components of Urban Water Supply System

Service Reservoir
3. Water Distribution System (OverHead Tank)

Water Distribution Network (Pipe system)

Clear Water Pump

(at Pumping Station)

2. Water Treatment Plant

Storage Post Rapid mix
Filtration Clariflocculation Pre-treatment
Reservoir chlorination unit

Raw Water Surface Source: Screen Sump Well Low Lift Pumps
(River , lake , pond , etc)
Intake Structure
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1 Raw Water collection and conveyance
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 Intakes For Collecting Surface Waters
 An intake structure are architectural elements primarily comprising open gratings or
strainers that allow the passage of untreated water from rivers or canals..
 It's a structure designed to collect water from a source like a river, lake, or reservoir and
direct it into the water treatment plant or distribution system.
 Functions of Intake Structures:
• Water Collection: Collects water from the source.
• Water Filtration: Removes debris and impurities from the water.
• Flow Control: Regulates the flow of water into the water treatment plant.
• Sedimentation: Allows sediment to settle before the water enters the treatment
plant.
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 Type of Intakes structure

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 Type of Intakes structure (Cont…)
Based on the location of Intake structure it classified in to
I. Surface Intakes: These draw water from the surface of the water body. They are simple
to construct but are susceptible to pollution and debris.

II. Submerged Intakes: These draw water from below the surface of the water body,
reducing the risk of contamination. They are more complex to construct but provide
cleaner water.

III. Tower Intakes: These are elevated structures that allow water to be drawn from
different depths, depending on the water quality and flow conditions.

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 Type of Intakes structure (Cont.…)

 Depending on the source of water the intake works are classified

as follows.

a) River intake

b) Lake Intake

c) Reservoir intake

d) Canal intake
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 A) River intake
 A circular or rectangular sump well constructed with masonry work in the

bank of river.
 Screens are provided at the end of the pipe to eliminate suspended matters.

 The main suction pipe having strainer at the bottom is inserted into the sump

well and connected to the pumping unit which delivers water to the
treatment plant.

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 A) River intake (Cont.…)

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 A) River intake (Cont.…)

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 B) Lake Intake
 A submersible rectangular chamber constructed at the bed of the lake below

the low water level.

 The top cover of the chamber consists of several holes having gratings on it to

prevent the entry of debris, aquatic life, weeds etc to the chamber.
 A bell mouthed pipe is provided in the chamber which contain screen at the

top. It is connected to pumping unit through suction pipe to draws water from
the chamber and delivers to the treatment plant

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 Cont.…

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 B) Lake Intake (Cont…)

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 c) Reservoir Intake
 If a non perennial becomes the only source of water for a town, then the

weir or dam may be constructed across the river to form reservoir.

 However, an intake well is constructed on the body of the weir or dam in

such way that the water can be tapped throughout the year.
 The intake pipes which have screen at the ends are fitted at different levels

to a vertical pipe which provided inside the well. This vertical pipe again
connected to the treatment plants.

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 Cont.…

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 B) Lake Intake (Cont…)

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 D) Canal Intake
 It is a very simple structure constructed on the bank of the canal.

 The well may be circular or rectangular and it is constructed with masonry work.

 It has an opening on its side provided with screen.

 An inlet pipe is inserted in to the well extending up to the L.W.L of the canal for drawing
water and it carries a hemispherical screen at the end.

 A manhole is provided on the well cap for inspection work.

 The intake pipe is connected to the pumping unit for sending water to treatment unit.

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 Conti..

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 Pipe Material
 In water conveyance and distribution, a pipe is a hollow tube or conduit
used to transport water from one location to another.
 Pipes are made of various materials, (see table on next slide):
 The selection of pipe materials is based on
 carrying capacity
 strength
 ease of transportation and handling
 availability
 quality of water
 cost (initial and maintenance)

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 Pipe Material (Cont….)

• Cast iron pipes:

– highly resistant to corrosion,

strong but brittle,

– easy jointing, withstanding high

internal pressure, long life

– very heavy and difficult to transport

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 Pipe Material (Cont.….)

• Steel pipe:
– strong, very light weight and can withstand

higher pressure than cast iron pipes.

– cheap, easy to construct and can be easily

transported
– cannot withstand external loads, affected

by corrosion and are costly to maintain.

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 Pipe Material (Cont….)

• Cement-lined cast iron pipes:

 cement protect against corrosion.

 very small coefficient of friction

than unlined cast iron pipes.

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 Pipe Material (Cont….)

• Plastic pipes:
– corrosion resistant , light weight

and economical.
– Rigid (unplasticized) uPVC is

stronger and can withstand much

higher pressure for a given wall
thickness

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 Summary of Pipe Material
Pipe materials Description
PVC (Polyvinyl • lightweight, durable, and resistant to corrosion
Chloride) • They are commonly used for water supply lines and irrigation systems.
CPVC • similar to PVC pipes but can withstand higher temperatures, making
(Chlorinated Polyvinyl them suitable for hot water systems
Chloride)
PE  PE pipes are flexible, easy to install, and resistant to chemicals. They are
(Polyethylene) often used for underground water distribution.
Galvanized • Galvanized steel pipes are strong and have a long lifespan but can be
Steel prone to corrosion over time.
Copper • Copper pipes are durable, resistant to corrosion, and suitable for both
hot and cold water systems
• However, they can be more expensive than other materials
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 Pipe selection criteria
Material: Choose a pipe material that is compatible with the
type of water being transported (e.g., potable water, wastewater) and the
environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, soil composition).
Size: Select a pipe size that can accommodate the flow rate and pressure
requirements of the system
Pressure Ensure that the pipe has the appropriate pressure rating to withstand the
Rating operating pressure of the system.
Corrosion Consider the level of corrosion resistance required based on the water quality
Resistance and potential exposure to chemicals or other corrosive substances
Choose a pipe type that is easy to install and
Installation: maintain, taking into account factors such as flexibility, jointing methods, and
compatibility with existing infrastructure
Cost Choose a type that is less in cost
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 Pipe appurtenances

• Pipe appurtenances are additional components or attachments

that are used in conjunction with piping systems to control,
monitor, or enhance the performance of the system

• These appurtenances are essential for ensuring the proper

functioning and safety of the overall piping infrastructure

• Some common pipe appurtenances include valves, fittings,

meters, and other specialized devices
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 1. Valves
• One of the most important types of appurtenances is the valve
• A valve is a device that can be opened and closed to different
extents (called throttling) to vary its resistance to flow, thereby
controlling the movement of water through a pipeline
• Valves can be classified into five general categories as follows:

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 • Perhaps the most common valve in the water
distribution system is the isolation valve,
which can be manually closed to block the
1. Isolation Valves
flow of water
• As the term “isolation” implies, the primary
purpose of these valves is to provide means
of turning off a portion of the system
• Well-designed water distribution systems have
isolation valves throughout the network. Isolation
valves include gate valves (the most popular
type), butterfly valves, globe valves, and plug
valves
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 • Directional valves, also called check valves,
are used to ensure that water can flow only
in one direction through a pipeline
2. Directional Valves
• Any water flowing backwards through the
valve causes it to close, and it remains closed
until the flow once again begins to go
through the valve in the forward direction
• Commonly used at pumps outlet

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 • Many water utilities employ devices called
altitude valves at the point where a
3. Altitude Valves pipeline enters a tank
• When tank level rises to a specified upper
limit, the valve closes to prevent any
further flow from entering, thus
eliminating overflow
• When the flow trend reverses, the valve
reopens and allows the tank to drain or to
supply the usage demands of the system
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 • Most systems include special air release
valves to release trapped air during system
operation, and air/vacuum valves that
4. Air Release Valves and
Vacuum Breaking Valves discharge air upon system start-up and
admit air into the system in response to
negative gauge pressures
• These valves are often found in system
high points, where trapped air settles, and
at changes in grade, where pressures are
most likely to drop below ambient or
atmospheric conditions
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 • Pressure reducing valves (PRVs) throttle
automatically to prevent the downstream
5. Pressure Reducing Valves hydraulic grade from exceeding a set value,
and are used in situations where high
downstream pressures could cause damage
• It can be used to separate pressure
zones

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 2. Fittings
• Pipe fittings are components used to connect, control, or divert
the flow of liquids or gases within a piping system
• Common types of fittings include elbows, tees, coupling, unions,
valves and adaptors
• Fittings are installed in the pipelines for the following purposes:

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 • Union: Unions are provided in the
pipeline for ease of repair
a. To connect the same
• Unions are usually installed at 60-
type and size of pipe:
meter intervals on straight pipelines
• Coupling: Used in jointing 2 pipes of
the same diameter

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 • Reducers are used when there is a
b. To connect two reduction of pipe size and include
pipes of different sizes
bushings and elbows for galvanized
iron pipes
• Also available are reducing elbows,
tees and crosses

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 C. To change the direction
of flow:
• Elbow: To change flow direction
• Tee: To divide the flow into two
• Cross: To divide the flow into three

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 • These are the caps, plugs and
d. To stop the flow
blind flanges

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 3. meters

• Flow meters: measure the flow rate of the fluid in the piping
system
• Common types include electromagnetic, ultrasonic, turbine and
deferential flow meters
• Pressure gauges: pressure gauges are used to measure the
pressure within the piping system and essential for monitoring
system performance and safety

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 Water Distribution system
 A Water Distribution System (WDS) is a network of pipelines, valves, pumps,
and other components designed to deliver treated water from a source (like a
reservoir or treatment plant) to consumers.

 WDS Components are:

 Distribution Pipes: Smaller pipes that connect to individual houses and businesses.
 Pumps: Used to increase water pressure and overcome elevation differences.
 Valves: Control the flow of water within the system.
 Hydrants: Provide water for firefighting and other emergencies.
 Reservoirs and Tanks: Store water for peak demand and emergency situations.
 Meters: measure water consumption for billing purposes

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 Requirement of Distribution System

I. The system should convey the treated water up to consumers with the
same degree of purity
II. The system should be economical and easy to maintain and
operate
III. It should safe against any future pollution. As per as possible
should not be laid below sewer lines
IV. Water should be supplied without interruption even when repairs are
undertaken
V. The system should be so designed that the supply should meet maximum
hourly demand
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 Methods of Distribution System
For efficient distribution it is required that water should reach to every
consumers with required flow rate.
There are several methods used for distributing water to consumers,
each with its own advantages and disadvantages.
Depending upon the methods of distribution, the distribution system is
classified as the follows:
I. Gravity system
II. Pumping system
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III. Dual system 47
 I Gravity system
 In this system, water is stored in elevated reservoirs or tanks.

 The potential energy stored in the water due to its elevation is converted into
kinetic energy as it flows downhill through pipes to the consumers.

 When some ground sufficiently high above the city area is available.

 This method is also much suitable when the source of supply & WTP is at
sufficiently higher than city.

 The water flows in the mains due to gravitational forcesIts long pipelines
(sources to SR) having no withdrawals
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 Cont.…

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 Cont.…

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 Advantages and Disadvantages :
 Advantages:  Advantages:
 Simplicity and Reliability: The design is  Topographical Dependence: are viable
straightforward and does not require only in areas where there is a significant
complex mechanical equipment like pumps, elevation difference between the source
making it less prone to mechanical failures. and the distribution area. Regions with
 Economical Operation: Once constructed, flat terrain or insufficient elevation
operational costs are minimal as it does not differentials cannot use this system
require external energy inputs for pumping effectively.
water.  Initial Infrastructure Costs: While
 Sustainability: Gravity systems leverage operational costs are low, constructing
renewable energy (gravity), making them reservoirs and pipelines in hilly or
environmentally friendly and ideal for elevated regions can be expensive.
sustainable development projects.  Water Loss Risks: Elevated pipelines may
suffer from higher leakage rates due to
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 2. Pumping System
 This system relies on mechanical pumps to push water through pipelines to the distribution
network, suitable for areas where gravity alone cannot be utilized.
 In this method the excess water pumped during periods of low consumption is stored in
elevated tanks or reservoirs.
 During periods of high consumption the stored water is drawn up on to augment that
pumped.
 This method allows fairly uniform rates of pumping and hence is economical,
 Constant pressure can be maintained in the system by direct pumping into mains.
 Rate of flow cannot be varied easily according to demand unless numbers of pumps are
operated in addition to stand by ones.
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 2. Pumping System (Conti…)

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Water supply & Treatment Dr. Bahar Adem
 Advantages and Disadvantages :
 Advantages:  Advantages:
 Overcomes Topographical Limitations:  High Energy Consumption: Pumping
Pumping systems can supply water to areas systems require continuous energy input,
located below or at the same level as the leading to significant operational costs.
source.  Maintenance Demands: Pumps and
 Flexibility: Pumps can be adjusted to meet associated infrastructure are prone to wear
varying demands, making it effective in and tear, requiring regular servicing and
urban settings with fluctuating water parts replacement.
consumption patterns.  Dependence on Energy Supply: A reliable
 Scalability: The system can be expanded energy source is essential, making the
relatively easily to include additional pumps system vulnerable to power outages.
or extend pipeline networks.  Environmental Impact: The energy-
intensive nature of pumping systems
contributes to carbon emissions unless
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 3. Combined /Dual system
• A combined system integrates gravity flow and mechanical pumping to optimize
efficiency, particularly in complex terrains or where a consistent water supply is critical.
• It is the least desirable system, for a power failure would mean complete interruption in
water supply
• This system is more reliable and economical, because it requires uniform rate of pumping
but meets low as well as maximum demand.
• The water stored in the elevated reservoir meets the requirements of demand during
breakdown of pumps and for fire fighting.

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 3. combined /Dual system (Cont.….)

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 …cont’d

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 Advantages and Disadvantages :
 Advantages:  Advantages:
 Flexibility and Reliability: By combining both  Complexity: The integration of two
methods, this system can overcome elevation systems requires careful planning, design,
challenges while utilizing gravity flow to and management, increasing initial
reduce pumping needs where feasible. implementation time and cost.
 Energy Efficiency: Pumps are used selectively,  Higher Initial Costs: Constructing
often to lift water to an elevated reservoir reservoirs, installing pumps, and laying
from which gravity can distribute it. pipelines result in substantial capital
 Pressure Regulation: Offers better control expenditure.
over water pressure, mitigating issues like pipe  Maintenance Challenges: The dual
wear or insufficient flow. infrastructure requires expertise and
 Scalability: Similar to standalone pumping resources to manage both gravity and
systems, this setup can be expanded to pumping components effectively.
accommodate future needs..
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 Summary of Comparison Table
Feature Gravity System Pumping System Combined System
Energy Dependency Low High Moderate
Operational Costs Low High Moderate
Moderate (depends
Reliability High High
on energy)
Moderate
Initial Investment (topography- Moderate to High High
dependent)
Scalability Limited High High
Maintenance Needs Low High Moderate to High

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 Methods of Supply of Water
1. Continuous System
• This is the best system and water is supplied for all 24 hours

• This system is possible when there is adequate quantity of water for supply

• In this system sample of water is always available for fire fighting and

• due to continuous circulation water always remains fresh

• In this system less diameter of pipes are required and rusting of pipes will be

less
• Losses will be more if there are leakages in the system
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 Methods of Supply of Water (Cont…)

2. Intermittent System
 If plenty of water is not available, the supply of water is divided into zones

and each zone is supplied with water for fixed hours in a day or on alternate
days
 As the water is supplied after intervals, it is called intermittent system

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 Disadvantages of Intermittent System
 Consumers have to store water for non-supply hours
 Bigger sized pipes are to be laid, because full day’s supply is to be
provided within few hours of supply
 Pipelines are likely to rust faster due to alternate wetting and drying. This
increases the maintenance cost
 There is also pollution of water by ingress of polluted water through leaks
during non-flow periods
 More wastage of water due to the tendency of the people to store more
water than required quantity and to waste the excess to collect fresh
water each time

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 Layouts of Distribution System
 Generally in practice there are four different systems of
distribution which are used. They are:
1. Dead End or Tree system
2. Grid Iron system
3. Circular or Ring system
4. Radial system

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 1.Dead End or Tree System

 This system is suitable for irregular BRANCHE

MAIN PIPE (M) SUB-MAIN (S)
developed towns or cities S
(LATERAL
B

 In this system water flows in one direction S)

B
only into sub-mains and branches B
S
BRANCH (B)
 The diameter of pipe decreases at every tree B
S
branch B
B B

B
B
B S
B S

B
Fig. 3.7
M

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 1.Dead End or Tree System (cont..)
Advantages Disadvantages
 Discharge and pressure at any point in the  There is stagnant water at dead ends
distribution system is calculated easily of pipes causing contamination
 The valves required in this system of layout  During repairs of pipes or valves at any
are comparatively point the entire
 less in number  downstream end are deprived of
 The diameter of pipes used are smaller and supply
hence the system is  The water available for firefighting will
 cheap and economical be limited in quantity
 The laying of water pipes is used are simple.

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 2. Grid Iron System

 From the mains water enters the branches at

all junctions in either direction into sub-
mains of equal diameters
 At any point in the line the pressure is
balanced from two directions
 because of interconnected network of pipes

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 2. Grid Iron System (cont..)
Advantages Disadvantages
 As water is supplied from both the sides at  More length of pipes and number of
any point, very small distribution area will be valves are needed and hence there is
affected during repair increased cost of construction
 Every point receives supply from two  Calculation of sizes of pipes and
directions and with higher pressure working out pressures at various
 In case of fire, more quantity of water can be points in the distribution system is
diverted towards the affected area, by laborious, complicated and difficult
closing the valves of nearby localities
 There is free circulation of water and hence it
is not liable for pollution due to stagnation

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 3. Circular or Ring System
Main Pipe

 Supply to the inner pipes is from the

mains around the boundary
 Smaller diameter pipes are needed
 The advantages and disadvantages are Sub mains
same as that of grid-Iron system

Fig. : Ring System

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Water
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 Service (Distribution Reservoirs)
 It is seldom possible or economic for a source to give a fluctuating
output in step with demand
 Pumps need to be run near their design point for maximum efficiency, whilst
electricity tariffs may influence their running times;
 So, it is not economical for a long supply main to have an overlarge
capacity simply to meet the peak demand of a few hours duration
 A technical and economic study of the capital and operating costs of the
various options available, i.e. service reservoir requirements

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 Functions of service reservoirs
I. To balance the fluctuating demand from the distribution system,
permitting the source to give steady output

II. Provide a supply during a failure or shutdown of treatment plant,

pumps or trunk main leading to the reservoir

III. To give a suitable pressure for the distribution system and reduce
pressure fluctuations there in

IV. To provide a reserve of water to meet fire and other

emergency demands
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 Equalizing demand and supply

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 Distribution reservoirs
• Maintaining pressure levels within acceptable
ranges

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 Position and Elevation of Reservoirs
 It should be positioned as near as possible to the area of demand
 It should be positioned at high elevation area. It is, of course, not always possible
to find a high point which in the center of the distribution area and the best must be
done in the circumstances
 The elevation at which it is desirable to position a service reservoir depends up on
both the distance of the reservoir from the distribution area and the elevation of the
highest building to be supplied
 If the distribution area varies widely in elevation it may be necessary to use two
more service reservoirs at different levels, so that the lower area does not receive
an unduly high pressure
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 Position of Elevated Reservoir (Cont….)

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 Position of Elevated reservoir (Cont….)

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 Position of Elevated reservoir (Cont….)

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 Types of Service Reservoirs

Generally, there are two types of service reservoirs:

I. Surface reservoir (Ground Reservoir or Non-elevated)

II. Elevated reservoir ( Over head Tank)

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 Surface reservoir (Ground Reservoir)

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 Elevated reservoir ( Over head Tank)

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 Accessories of Service Reservoirs
1. Inlet Pipe : For the entry of water
2. Ladder : To reach the top of the reservoir and then to the bottom
of the reservoir, for inspection and cleaning
3. Lightening Conductor : In case of elevated reservoirs for the
passage of lightening
4. Manholes : For providing entry to the inside of reservoir for
inspection and cleaning
5. Outlet pipe: For the exit of water
6. Outflow Pipe : For the exit of water above full supply level
7. Vent pipes : For free circulation of air
8. Washout pipe : For removing water after cleaning of the reservoir
9. Water level indicator: To know the level of water inside the tank
from outside.
Water
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83
 Accessories of Service Reservoirs (Cont.…)

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84
 Design considerations and details
• design considerations and details
– Minimum capacity: Equalizing storage +
Emergency reserve (about 25%) + Fire
storage.
– Location: provide several smaller storage
Proposed work in next 6 months
units
– Aesthetics: visual impacts
– Ventilation
– Overflow
– Security and safety

Water
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85
 Design Capacity of Service Reservoirs

 The three major components of service storage are:

I. Equalizing or operating storage

Proposed work in next 6 months
II. Fire reserve
III. Emergency reserve

Sewage and WWT

Water supply & Treatment Dr. Bahar Adem
86
 Equalizing or operating capacity
 Can be obtained by:

1 Analytically
 by finding out maximum cumulative surplus during the stage when pumping
rate is higher than water consumption rate and adding to this maximum
cumulative deficit which occurs during the period when the pumping rate is
lower than the demand rate of water

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87
 Conti…
b) Mass curve method
• A mass diagram is the plot of accumulated inflow (i.e. supply) or outflow (i.e. demand)
versus time.
• The mass curve of supply (i.e. supply line) is, therefore, first drawn and is superimposed
by the demand curve.The procedure to construct such diagram is as follows:
i. From the past records, determine the hourly demand for all 24 hours for typical days
(maximum, average and minimum)
ii. Calculate and plot the cumulative demand against time, and thus plot the mass curve of
demand
Read the storage required as the sum of the two maximum ordinates between
demand and supply line
iv. Repeat the procedure for all the typical days (maximum, average and minimum), and
determine the maximum storage required for the worst day
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88
 Breakdown Storage

 The breakdown storage or often called emergency storage is the

storage preserved in order to tide over the emergencies posed by
the failure of pumps, electricity, or any of the mechanism driving
the pumps

 A value of about 25 % of the total storage capacity of

reservoirs

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89
 Fire Storage
 The third component of the total reservoir storage is the fire storage

 This provision takes care of the requirements of water for

extinguishing fires. A provision of 5 to 10% of the total storage is
sufficient to meet the requirement

 The total reservoir storage can finally be worked out by adding all the
three storages

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90
 Example 1
Conclusions

A small town with a design population of 16000 is to be supplied

water at 150 liters per capita per day.The demand of water during
different periods is given in the following table: Determine the
capacity of a balancing reserve if pumping is done 24 hours at
constant rate
Time(Hr) 0-3 3-6 6-9 9-12 12-15 15-18 18-21 21-24
Demand (m3) 200 250 300 500 350 300 250 250

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91
 Solution
• Per capita water consumption = 150l/c/d

• Total water demand = demand * population

= 150*16000 = 2400,000liters

• Rate of pumping = 2400,000/24 = 100,000lit/hr = 300,000lit/3hr

=300m3/hr

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92
 Conti….
Time Pumping Demend Cum. Sup Cum.Dem Surplus Deficiet

0-3
300 200 300 200 100
3-6
300 250 600 450 150
A. Analytical Method 6-9
300 300 900 750 150
9-12
300 500 1,200 1,250 50
12-15
300 350 1,500 1,600 100
15-18
300 300 1,800 1,900 100
18-21
300 250 2,100 2,150 50
21-24
300 250 2,400 2,400 0 0
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93
 Cont.….
3,000

2,500
2,400
2,
2,115
00
0
2,000
1,900
1,800
B. Mass Curve
1,600 Supply
1,500 1,500
1,
1,225
00
0 Demand
1,000
900
750
600
500 450
300
200
0
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00
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94
 Cont.….
• Maximum cumulative surplus = 150m3

• Maximum cumulative deficit = 100m3

• Balancing storage = 150 + 100 = 250m3

If the reservoir is circular with depth, h = 5.0 m,

Fire reserve and break down storage are 5% &25% of balancing storage
respectively, the total reservoir capacity become:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 250𝑚 + 0.05 ∗ 250 + 0.25 ∗ 250 = 𝟑𝟐𝟓𝒎3

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95
 Example 2: what if pumping is only for 8 hrs (8-16)

• Per capita water consumption = 150l/c/d

• Total water demand = demand * population
= 150*16000 = 2400,000liters
• Rate of pumping = 2400,000/8 = 300,000lit/hr =
900,000lit/3hr =900m3/hr

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96
 Cont…. Conclusions

Time(Hr) Demand Pumping Cum. Sup Cum.Dem Surplus Deficiet

0--3 200 0 0 200 200.0
3--6 250 0 0 450 450.0
6--8 200 0 0 650 650.0
8--9 100 300 300 750 450.0
9--12 500 900 1,200 1,250 50.0
12--15 350 900 2,100 1,600 500
15-16 100 300 2,400 1,700 700
16-18 200 0 2,400 1,900 500
18--21 250 0 2,400 2,150 250
21-24 250 0 2,400 2,400 0 0

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97
 Cont…

• Maximum cumulative surplus = 700m3

• Maximum cumulative deficit = 650m

• Balancing storage = 700 + 650 = 1350m3

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98
 Cont…..
3000

2500
2,4002,4002,4002,400
2,100 2,150
2000
1,900
1,700
1500 1,600
Demand
1,2500
Supply
1000
650 750
500 450
300
200
0 0 0 0
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00
-500
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Water
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 Pipe size determination
• The size of the pipe is determined by considering the discharge through the pipe and
permissible velocity of the flow in the pipe.
Q = A*V
Where, Q = discharge (m3/s)
V = permissible velocity (0.6 to 1.50m/s)
A = Cross sectional area of pipe (m2)
• In water distribution systems, there are several formulas and methods commonly used
to estimate pipe sizes and friction losses.

• The size of the pipe used in the water distribution system can be determined by one of the
following formulas:
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 1. Darcy-Weisbach Equation
2
fLV
hf 
2 gD
Where
• hf = head loss (m)
• f = friction factor (which is related to the relative roughness of the pipe
material & the fluid flow characteristics)
• L = length of pipe (m)
• V = velocity of flow (m/s)
• D = diameter of pipe (m)
• g = Acceleration due to gravity
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 2. Hazen-Williams formula
Pipe Material C
Asbestos Cement 140
Cast Iron
■ Cement lined 130 – 150
hf
Q  0.278CD 2.63
S 0.54
,S  ■ New, unlined 130
L ■ 5years-old, unlined 120
■ 20 years old, 100
unlined
• C = Coefficient that depends on Concrete 130
the material and age of the pipe Copper 130 - 140
• S = Hydraulic gradient (m/m) Plastic 140 - 150
New welded Steel 120
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 3. Manning’s Formula

1AR 2 / 3 S 1/ 2 Where
Q Q = Flow rate
n
n = Manning's roughness coefficient
A = Cross-sectional area of flow
R = Hydraulic radius
S = Slope of the channel

The most common pipe flow formula used in design and evaluation of a
water distribution system is the Hazen-Williams’ formula.

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 Eexample 2
A town with a population of 120,000 persons and average per-capita of 120
l/cap/day is to be supplied with water from a reservoir situated at a distance of 3
km. Half of the maximum daily demand is expected to be delivered in 8 hours.
a)Estimate maximum flow rate
b) Determine pipe size using
Darcy-Weisbach formula
Hazen-William’s formula
Nomograph

• (Assuming minimum allowable head loss=14m, C = 100, n = 0.013 &f =

0.035)
Water supply & Treatment Dr. Bahar Adem
 a. maximum flow rate

• 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 120,000∗120
2∗8∗60∗60

• 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 250 𝑙/𝑠

• 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.25𝑚3/𝑠

Water supply & Treatment Dr. Bahar Adem

 Pipe size:
using Darcy Weisbach Equation
2
𝑓𝐿𝑣
• ℎ𝑓 =
2𝑔𝐷

8𝑓𝐿𝑄 2 1Τ
• 𝐷= ( 2 ) 5
𝜋 ℎ𝑓𝑔

8∗0.035∗3000∗0.25 2 1Τ
• 𝐷= ( 2
) 5
𝜋 ∗14∗9.81

• 𝑫 = 521.93 mm=0.52m

Water supply & Treatment Dr. Bahar Adem

 Pipe size:
Using Hazen-William’s formula

• 𝑄 = 0.278𝐶𝐷2.63𝑆0.54

𝑄 1
• 𝐷=( ) Τ2.63
0.278𝐶𝑆 0.54

0.25 1
• 𝐷=( ) Τ2.63
0.278∗100∗0.00470.54

• 𝑫 = 𝟓𝟎𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝒎𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎𝟏𝒎

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 Pipe size:
Using Nomograph

• Read by connecting
Q= 250 & Hf for
1000m=4.6666m

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 General
• A pipe network is analyzed for the determination of the nodal pressure
heads and the link discharges
• As the discharges withdrawn from the network vary with time, it results in a
continuous change in the nodal pressure heads and the link discharges
• The network is analyzed for the worst combination of discharge withdrawals
that may result in low-pressure heads in some areas
• The network analysis is also carried out to find deficiencies of a network for
remedial measures
• It is also required to identify pipe links that would be closed in an emergency
to meet firefighting demand in some localities due to limited capacity of the
network
• The effect of closure of pipelines on account of repair work is also studied
by analyzing a network
• Thus, network analysis is critical for proper operation and maintenance of a
water supply system.
Water supply & Treatment Dr. Bahar Adem
 Cont…
• The water distribution networks have mainly the following three
types of configurations:
 Branched or tree-like configuration
 Looped configuration
 Branched and looped configuration

Water supply & Treatment Dr. Bahar Adem

 Hardy Cross Method
• Analysis of a pipe network is essential to understand or evaluate
a pipe network system
• In a branched pipe network, the pipe discharges are unique and
can be obtained simply by applying discharge continuity
equations at all the nodes
• However, in case of a looped pipe network, the number of pipes
is too large to find the pipe discharges by merely applying
discharge continuity equations at nodes
• The analysis of looped network is carried out by using additional
equations found from the fact that while traversing along a loop,
as one reaches at the starting node, the net head loss is zero
• The analysis of looped network is involved, as the loop
equations are nonlinear in discharge
Water supply & Treatment Dr. Bahar Adem
 Cont…
• The method is based on the following basic equations of
continuity of flow and head loss that should be satisfied:
1. The sum of inflow and outflow at a node should be equal:
σ 𝑄𝑖 = 𝑞 𝑗 ………………………………………i
for all nodes j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n,
• where
 Qi is the discharge in pipe i meeting at node ( junction) j, and qj
is nodal withdrawal at node j
2. The algebraic sum of the head loss in a loop must be equal to
zero:
σ 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑘 𝐾𝑖𝑄𝑖|𝑄𝑖| = 0 ……………………..ii
for all loops k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , kL
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 Cont…
• Where
8𝑓 𝑖 𝐿 𝑖
𝐾𝑖 = ……..………………..…iii
𝜋 2 𝑔𝐷 5 𝑖
where i =pipe link number to be summed up in the loop k.
• In general, it is not possible to satisfy Eq. (ii) with the initially
assumed pipe discharges satisfying nodal continuity equation
• The discharges are modified so that Eq. (ii) becomes closer to
zero in comparison with initially assumed discharges.
• The modified pipe discharges are determined by applying a
correction ∆Qk to the initially assumed pipe flows
• Thus,
σ 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑘 𝐾𝑖 𝑄𝑖 + ∆𝑄𝑘 𝑄𝑖 + ∆𝑄𝑘 = 0………..…iv Dr. Bahar Adem
Water supply & Treatment
 Cont…
• Expanding Eq. (iv) and neglecting second power of ∆Qk and
simplifying Eq. (iv), the following equation is obtained:
σ 𝐾 𝑖 𝑄 𝑖 |𝑄 𝑖 |
∆𝑄𝑘 = − ………………………..v
2 σ 𝐾𝑖|𝑄𝑖|
Knowing ∆Qk, the corrections are applied as
𝑄𝑖 𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑄𝑖 𝑜𝑙𝑑 + ∆𝑄𝑘……………..vi

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 Cont…
• The overall procedure for the looped network analysis can be
summarized in the following steps:
1. Number all the nodes and pipe links. Also number the loops. For clarity, pipe
numbers are circled and the loop numbers are put in square brackets
2. Adopt a sign convention that a pipe discharge is positive if it flows from a
lower node number to a higher node number, otherwise negative
3. Apply nodal continuity equation at all the nodes to obtain pipe discharges.
Starting from nodes having two pipes with unknown discharges, assume an
arbitrary discharge (say 0.1 m3/s) in one of the pipes and apply continuity
equation (i) to obtain discharge in the other pipe. Repeat the procedure until all
the pipe flows are known.

Water supply & Treatment Dr. Bahar Adem

 Cont…
4. Assume friction factors fi =0.02 in all pipe links and compute
corresponding Ki using Eq. (iii)
5. Assume loop pipe flow sign convention to apply loop discharge
corrections; generally, clockwise flows positive and
counterclockwise flows negative are considered
6. Calculate ∆Qk for the existing pipe flows and apply pipe
corrections algebraically
7. Apply the similar procedure in all the loops of a pipe network

*Repeat steps 6 and 7 until the discharge corrections in all the

loops are relatively very small.

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 Example
• The pipe network of two loops as shown in Fig. below has to be
analyzed by the Hardy Cross method for pipe flows for given
pipe lengths L and pipe diameters D. The nodal inflow at node 1
and nodal outflow at node 3 are shown in the figure. Assume a
constant friction factor f = 0.02.

Water supply & Treatment Dr. Bahar Adem

 Solution
• Applying steps 1–7, the looped network analysis can be
conducted as illustrated in this example. The K values for
Darcy–Weisbach head loss–discharge relationship are also given
in Fig.
• To obtain initial pipe discharges applying nodal continuity
equation, the arbitrary pipe discharges equal to the total number
of loops are assumed. The total number of loops in a network
can be obtained from the following geometric relationship:

Total number of loops = Total number of pipes -Total

number of nodes + 1

Water supply & Treatment Dr. Bahar Adem

 Cont…
• To apply continuity equation for initial pipe discharges, the
discharges in pipes 1and 5 equal to 0.1 m3/s are assumed
• The obtained discharges are
• Q1 =0.1 m3/s (flow from node 1 to node 2)
• Q2 =0.1 m3/s (flow from node 2 to node 3)
• Q3 =0.4 m3/s (flow from node 4 to node 3)
• Q4 =0.4 m3/s (flow from node 1 to node 4)
• Q5 =0.1 m3/s (flow from node 1 to node 3)

*The discharge correction ∆Q is applied in one loop at a time until the

∆ Q is very small in all the loops. ∆ Q in Loop 1 (loop pipes 3, 4, and
5) and corrected pipe discharges are given in the following table: Dr. Bahar Adem
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 Loop 1: Iteration 1

*Thus the discharge correction DQ in loop 1 is 0.15 m3/s. The

discharges in loop pipes are corrected as shown in the above table.
Applying the same methodology for calculating DQ for Loop 2:
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 Loop 2: Iteration 1

The process of discharge correction is in repeated until the

DQ value is very small as shown in the following tables:

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 Loop 1: Iteration 2

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 Loop 2: Iteration 2

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 Loop 1: Iteration 3

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 Loop 2: Iteration 3

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 Loop 1: Iteration 4

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 Loop 2: Iteration 4

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 Loop 1: Iteration 5

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 Loop 2: Iteration 5

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 Cont…
• The discharge corrections in the loops are very small after five
iterations, thus the final pipe discharges in the looped pipe
network in Fig. are
• Q1=0.223 m3/s
• Q2=0.223 m3/s
• Q3=0.192 m3/s
• Q4=0.192 m3/s
• Q5=0.182 m3/s

Water supply & Treatment

Dr. Bahar Adem
Thank you

132