degradation process can weaken the interface, compromising the load transfer efficiency between fibres
and matrix components, and the overall structural integrity. All these degradation mechanisms can affect
the mechanical performance of FRP bars but also the bond between concrete and FRP bars that is a
matrix dominated property. Factors such as moisture ingress, temperature variations, and exposure to
chemicals within the concrete or via crack paths can affect the bond strength of FRP bars [5, 10], and
thus the long-term structural integrity of FRP reinforced and prestressed concrete structures.
Understanding the degradation mechanisms and developing strategies to mitigate these effects is crucial
for ensuring the reliable performance of composites in civil engineering applications. A durability test
protocol for CFRP tendons has been recommended in [11] but there are no established test standards
for the durability of fibres and matrix components and their interrelationships in a composite material like
GFRP bars. The aim of this study is to set the foundation for a durability test protocol in GFRP bars and
correlate the degradation of the matrix dominated properties in GFRP bars with the degradation of the
vinyl ester matrix component.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Materials
Materials used for the testing program are helically wrapped sand-coated GFRP rebars with vinyl ester
matrix and nominal diameter of 12.7 mm (supplied by Sireg Geotech), and vinyl ester resin (VE140)
provided by Easy Composites Ltd. The Glass FRP bar mechanical properties, as provided by the supplier,
are included in Table 1. Data on the type of vinyl ester used in the FRP bars wasn’t mentioned by the
FRP supplier to check if the chosen type of vinyl ester resin is the exact match as in the rebars.
Table 1. GFRP mechanical properties – SIREG
Guaranteed Ef-Tensile Transverse Ultimate Linear
Tensile Strength Elastic Modulus Shear Strength Strain Weight
850 MPa 46 GPa > 150 MPa 1.6% 258 g/m
Sample Preparation and Test Methodology
All samples were submerged in a solution simulating ocean saline conditions with sodium chloride (30
g/L) and sodium sulfate (5 g/L) dissolved in water. To accelerate the degradation, the temperature was
maintained at 50°C throughout the exposure. The water level in the tank was checked daily to prevent
excessive evaporation by adding water as needed. Samples were tested in their wet state within 5
minutes of removal to preserve their moisture condition. At least five samples were prepared for each
test at each exposure time.
Moisture uptake for all FRP and resin specimens was tracked with time over the 30-day exposure duration
to perform diffusion analysis to samples which was calculated as follows:
Mt-Mo
Moisture uptake = Mo
(1)
Where Mo is the oven-dried mass of the sample and Mt is the mass after the moisture uptake at time t.
Diffusion analysis for exposed samples is calculated using the following equation derived based on Fick’s
Second Law of Diffusion [12].
Mt 4 Dt
M∞
= √ (2)
l π
Where M∞ is the relative mass at equilibrium saturation, l is sample thickness, t is time, and D is the
diffusion coefficient. However, Crank [12] clarified that this method is valid at the initial stage of moisture
uptake when Mt ≤ 0.6 M∞.
In addition, dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) was conducted on the resin samples using Discovery
DMA 850 machine to evaluate the impact of exposure conditions on the glass transition temperature (Tg)
of the resin according to ASTM E1640 – 23 [13].
GFRP bars were cut into 225 mm and 52 mm lengths for transverse shear (ASTM D7617 [14]) and
interlaminar shear testing (ASTM D4475 [15]) of FRP bars respectively (Appendix I). Separate vinyl ester
resin (VE140) specimens were prepared for tensile and short beam testing in accordance with ASTM
D638 [16] (shape V samples) and ASTM D2344 [17] standards respectively. The resin samples for short
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