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Reeds Sea Transport 6th edition by Patrick M Alderton

ISBN 9781408131428
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This book gives a complete picture of the Maritime Transport Industry.

Now in its sixth edition, it includes new data and statistics, new advice
on safety, a review of ship types including the growth in tonnage and the
increase in container ship sizes, as well as the effect of the ‘depression’
over recent years, all of which make essential reading for professionals
as well as students on courses concerned with Shipping Ports and
Transport.

Reeds Marine Distance Tables 15th edition by Miranda Delmar-Morgan

ISBN 9781472948977
ISBN ePDF 9781472948984
These tables, which give worldwide coverage, are particularly useful to
ship owners and brokers for voyage estimating. Using this one reference,
anyone can calculate the shortest or most economical distances between
all the major ports in the world.

Reeds Marine Surveying 3rd edition by Thomas Ask and Valerio de

Rossi
ISBN 9781472960122
ePUB 9781472960115, ePDF 9781472960139
A textbook for students of marine surveying, boating professionals and
technically minded boat owners. It covers all materials including
composites, failure analysis, stress concentration, fatigue and fracture,
corrosion, damaging organisms and a checklist for conducting a survey.
Reeds Marine Engineering Series Volumes 1–15
Fifteen volumes on syllabus subjects for the Department of Transport
Marine Engineers’ Certificates of Competence including worked
examples and typical exam questions. Visit www.adlardcoles.com for
more details.
CONTENTS

Preface to the Fourth Edition

Preface to Previous Editions
Acknowledgements
About the authors

1 The Atmosphere
⟩ Composition ⟩ Vertical distribution ⟩ Variation of temperature and
pressure with height

2 Solar Radiation and Temperature

⟩ Radiation as a form of heat transfer ⟩ Diurnal temperature range ⟩
Factors affecting the heating effect of solar radiation

3 Humidity and Condensation

⟩ Water vapour ⟩ Saturated and unsaturated air ⟩ Dew point ⟩
Absolute and relative humidity ⟩ Hygroscopic nuclei

4 Classification of Clouds
⟩ Characteristics of cloud types ⟩ Associated height ranges ⟩
Descriptions and illustrations (Photos 1 to 16) ⟩ Weather indicated by
cloud types

5 Cloud Formation and Development

 ⟩ Adiabatic heating and cooling ⟩ The physics of cloud formation ⟩
Lapse rates ⟩ Stability and instability ⟩ Causes of initial uplift of air

6 Precipitation
⟩ Rain and drizzle ⟩ Types of rain ⟩ Snow, sleet, hail, frost, sea spray,
dew and rime

7 Thunderstorms
⟩ Causes ⟩ Lightning and thunder ⟩ Types of thunderstorm

8 Visibility
⟩ Definitions ⟩ Types of fog ⟩ Advection, frontal, radiation, Arctic sea
smoke ⟩ Mist, dust and haze ⟩ Sound signals ⟩ Use of radar

9 Atmospheric Pressure and Wind

⟩ Units of pressure ⟩ Cause of wind ⟩ Relationship between wind
direction and force and isobars ⟩ Buys Ballot’s Law ⟩ Distinction
between geostropic and gradient wind ⟩ Effect of heating upon
pressure ⟩ Planetary system of pressure and winds ⟩ Prevailing winds
of the oceans ⟩ Land and sea breezes ⟩ Local winds

10 Sea and Swell Waves

⟩ Definitions ⟩ Characteristics ⟩ Formation of waves ⟩ Relationship
between the period of a ship’s roll and the period of waves ⟩ Wave
dimensions ⟩ Shallow water effects ⟩ Importance of observing and
reporting wave data ⟩ The Beaufort scale ⟩ Illustrations

11 Air Masses and Associated Weather

⟩ Sources and characteristics ⟩ Classifications ⟩ Polar and tropical air
masses and associated weather

12 Isobaric Patterns
⟩ Distinctive types ⟩ General characteristics and weather associated
with depressions, anticyclones, secondary depressions, troughs,
 ridges of high pressure, cols and straight isobars

13 Fronts and Frontal Depressions

⟩ Air mass boundaries ⟩ Main frontal zones ⟩ Frontal theory of
formation of depressions ⟩ The sequence of cloud and weather at
fronts ⟩ The process of occluding ⟩ The movement of depressions ⟩
Families of depressions

14 Non-Frontal Depressions
⟩ Formation ⟩ Thermal, instability and orographic depressions

15 Anticyclones
⟩ Formation and properties ⟩ Types ⟩ Associated weather

16 Tropical Revolving Storms

⟩ Origins and life history ⟩ Tracks ⟩ Strengths of wind and sequence
of likely weather ⟩ Storm tides ⟩ Seasons ⟩ Regional names and
details

17 Avoidance of the Worst Effects of a TRS

⟩ Natural warnings ⟩ Radar and radio warnings ⟩ Action required of
masters ⟩ Practical rules of avoidance in both northern and southern
hemispheres

18 Weather Forecasting for the Seafarer

⟩ Global warming ⟩ Climate change ⟩ International co-operation ⟩
Voluntary Observing Ship Scheme ⟩ Weather satellites ⟩ The synoptic
chart ⟩ Special forecasts for shipping

19 Meteorological Factors of Planning an Ocean Voyage

⟩ General principles ⟩ Recommended references ⟩

20 Forecasting by the Mariner

 ⟩ Guidelines for assessing movement ⟩ Movements of fronts ⟩ Rules
for estimating ⟩ Development of anticyclones ⟩ Winds of the upper
atmosphere ⟩ Upper air charts

21 Ocean Surface Currents

⟩ Causes ⟩ Characteristics ⟩ General surface circulation ⟩ Tabulated
ocean currents

22 Sea Ice
⟩ Physics and formation ⟩ Development ⟩ Icebergs ⟩ Distribution and
seasons ⟩ Practical warnings ⟩ Dangers of icing on deck

23 Weather Routeing
⟩ Climatological routeing ⟩ Least time tracks ⟩ Practicalities and
types

24 Meteorological Aspects of Radar

⟩ Meteorological phenomena on radar ⟩ Wave clutter ⟩ Standard
conditions ⟩ Non-standard conditions

25 Brief Notes on Observations and Instruments

⟩ Importance of being observant ⟩ Logbook entries ⟩ Aneroid
barometers ⟩ Barographs ⟩ Hygrometers ⟩ Sea thermometers ⟩ Wind
and the Beaufort scale ⟩ Clouds ⟩ Visibility ⟩ Ocean currents

26 Meteorology and Care of Cargo

⟩ Ventilation ⟩ Heavy weather ⟩ Meteorological factors affecting
containers ⟩ Cargo sweat ⟩ Ship’s sweat ⟩ Hygroscopic cargoes

A Meteorological Glossary
Appendix: Units and Equivalent Values
Index
Plates
Chart of ocean currents
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH
EDITION

From the time that anyone, be they professional or amateur seafarer, sets
out upon the sea, they will immediately be aware of current weather
conditions. Many will have received training in navigational techniques,
in collision avoidance, in the construction and strength of their ships and
other technical aspects of running the ship under their guidance. In
addition to current weather, it is more than prudent for all of them to
have a sound basic knowledge of meteorology in order to ply their route,
for the good reasons of safety, economy or even enjoyment. This does
not require a forbidding depth of knowledge of physics, but a sound
background awareness of what can be experienced in a variety of
climates and conditions will enable seafarers to voyage with greater
confidence and safety.
The authors hope that the study of this book will help to emphasise the
importance of a good understanding of the subject of marine
meteorology to intending mariners and to bring their voyages to safe and
satisfactory conclusions.
Almost inevitably, the majority of technical advice and illustrations
focus on the northern hemisphere, but the relevant theories should be
understood and capable of transfer to students and readers in the
southern hemisphere.
In a meteorology textbook published in the first quarter of the 21st
century, the authors also feel that it would be remiss not to draw attention
to the growing concern for both the question and increasing certainty of
climate change and the resultant global warming, particularly as it relates
to shipping.
Bon Voyage.

Note: We have referred to units of atmospheric pressure as hectopascals

(hpa) in the text. It has exactly the same numerical value as a millibar but
is the preferred equivalent SI unit of the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO). Until recently, the millibar (mb) has been used in
the majority of meteorological publications and is still used in weather
forecasts for the general public.
PREFACE TO PREVIOUS EDITIONS

In keeping with the original aim, this edition has been written primarily
for serving and trainee deck officers on merchant ships and for
fishermen. It is hoped that it will also be of value to yachtsmen and
women and to all who have an interest in the sea and meteorology.
We have avoided what appeared to us unnecessary in-depth theory, but
at the same time have given as complete an explanation of various points
as we considered appropriate. The book is principally designed as a
suitable textbook for those studying for certificates of competency. As far
as possible, it anticipates changes in examination structures leading to
Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA) qualifications in the UK, and
since similar changes are also taking place internationally, it should also
appeal to other English-speaking readers.
We have taken into account the vast range of information available
through the internet and included website addresses that we considered
most appropriate for further reading at the end of some chapters. The
choice of websites was difficult as there are many hundreds.
A helpful Glossary is included and questions at the end of each chapter
are designed to help the student to test his or her knowledge and
understanding.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Captain Ghulam Hussain FNI, Technical
Manager of the Nautical Institute, for his helpful advice on various
aspects of up-to-date technology, in particular the relevance of
meteorology to the carriage of cargoes in the era of containers and of
modern bulk carriers.
Jenny Clark of Bloomsbury Publishing has been an extremely
understanding guide and point of professional reference since
recommencing this work and deserves our warm thanks.
Finally, we are both grateful for both the assistance and support of our
respective families while producing the fourth edition.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Maurice Cornish served at sea as a navigating officer, principally in
tankers. After obtaining his Extra Masters Certificate he commenced
teaching in London before moving to Plymouth College of Further
Education, where he taught for 19 years. In 1982, he was appointed as
Head of the Maritime Studies Department in Glasgow College of
Nautical Studies. He retired from that post in 1992 and for some time
acted as a tutor in meteorology by distance learning. He is a Fellow of
the Nautical Institute.

Elaine Ives graduated with a degree in physics from the University of

Edinburgh in 1971. Taking up a post as a lecturer in the School of
Navigation at Glasgow College of Nautical Studies in 1978, she lectured
in meteorology and marine environmental studies, becoming Head of the
School of Transport Studies within the Faculty of Maritime Studies in
the same college. She retired from the College in 2009.
1
THE ATMOSPHERE

INTRODUCTION
The Earth with its atmosphere, making their daily revolution together,
could be likened to an enormous grapefruit having a skin that is thinner
than rice paper. The difference in this analogy is that the ‘skin’ around
the Earth is an invisible gas termed the ‘atmosphere’ and held to the
Earth by gravitational force. Its upper boundary has not yet been
positively defined. In meteorology, we are concerned almost entirely
with the lower region of the atmosphere called the troposphere, which
extends from the surface to a maximum height of about 16km (10 miles)
(compared with the Earth’s diameter of about 11,000km [6,900 miles]).
Because of its gaseous state, internal motions and physical effects, it is
mainly responsible for all our ‘weather’ (state of sky, clouds,
precipitation, fog, mist and other meteorological phenomena).

The composition of the atmosphere

Dry air is composed of a mixture of gases; within about 16km (10 miles)
of the Earth’s surface, which is the zone in which we are interested, the
principal ones are nitrogen (about 78 per cent) and oxygen (about 21 per
cent). There are also small quantities of other gases such as argon,
carbon dioxide, helium and ozone. Finally, there is a variable amount of
water vapour in the atmosphere (see below).

The importance of water vapour

The above gases are all, except carbon dioxide, more or less constant in
proportional composition and are essential to life, but meteorological
interest is centred chiefly on the amount of moisture (water vapour) in
the atmosphere. The amount of water vapour present at any time is very
varied because of changes in temperature and in the amount of
evaporation from water surfaces and in condensation and precipitation.
The changing quantities of dust and salt particles in the atmosphere are
also of great meteorological importance.

VERTICAL SECTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Figure 1.1 is a schematic diagram showing a vertical section of the lower
part of our atmosphere, which is termed the troposphere and, from our
earthbound viewpoint, is really the ‘effective atmosphere’. This lower
region is characterised by a fall in air temperature with height averaging
about 0.6°C per 100m (1°F per 300ft), a very appreciable quantity of
water vapour, vertical currents of air, turbulent eddies and hence
formation of cloud, precipitation and various atmospheric disturbances.
Then comes a transition layer called the tropopause, immediately above
which we find the stratosphere in which temperature change with height
is small and a layer of ozone is found that protects the Earth from
harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation. Above this comes the ionosphere,
which plays such an important part in the world of radio transmission
and reception.

Pressure of the atmosphere

Our atmosphere comes under the gravitational force of the Earth and
although all gases are light they do have weight; the nearer to the Earth,
the greater the amount of atmosphere pressing down and the greater the
weight or atmospheric pressure per square unit area of Earth’s surface.
At sea level, the average atmospheric pressure is about 1,013.2hPa; at a
height of 3,000m (9,850ft) this will have fallen to about 670hPa. It
should be borne in mind that atmospheric pressure at any point is a
force that acts horizontally in all directions as well as upwards and
downwards.
HEATING OF THE TROPOSPHERE
The atmosphere is transparent to the short-wave radiation from the sun
and receives little or no appreciable heat from this source. The Earth,
however, is heated by the sun’s rays and the surface air layer is warmed
by contact with the Earth. This warmth is spread upwards by convection,
turbulence and conduction. The latter process is, by itself, very slow.
Thus air temperature in lower levels tends to be determined by that of the
underlying surface.

VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE WITH HEIGHT

(See Lapse rate in the Glossary.)
Under normal conditions, atmospheric temperature decreases with height
from the surface up to the tropopause because the heating element (the
Earth) has maximum effect at close quarters. Above the tropopause, air
temperature is no longer governed by upward air currents that transfer
heat from surface levels.
Fig 1.1 Temperature structure of the lower part of the atmosphere.
Note: Height equivalents are approximate

The reasons for this will become apparent in later chapters. The
average lapse rate of temperature within the troposphere is about 0.6°C
per 100m (1°F per 300ft). The actual lapse rate varies appreciably from
day to day and from place to place, especially in levels near the surface,
where considerable changes often occur within a few hours.

Environmental lapse rate (ELR) within the

troposphere
Figures 5.2(a) to (d) (see here) show four characteristic graphs of Air
temperature v Height within the troposphere. The actual values for
temperature and height have been omitted on purpose. The shape of the
curve is one of the most important factors in the development of clouds,
rain, hail, thunder and weather systems.
The diurnal (daily) variation of lapse rate in the lower levels of the
troposphere is often very marked over a land surface, especially in fine,
dry weather with clear skies. In the mornings, when the Earth is cool, a
little before sunrise, the lapse rate is small and inversions (ie increase of
temperature with height, see Figure 5.2 (b)) are common. After sunrise,
the land warms rapidly, causing an increase in the temperature lapse rate,
and this may become steep (ie large) by mid or late afternoon. As
darkness approaches, the Earth cools once more and its temperature
continues to fall throughout the night, thereafter the cycle is repeated.
These effects may be modified or masked at times by the direction and
force of wind.

VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH HEIGHT

Atmospheric pressure at any level is the weight of the air above that
level. It follows, therefore, that the pressure must always decrease with
height. In the lower levels the average rate at which pressure falls is
approximately 1hPa per 27.7m (90ft) of height, but the actual rate at any
given time is governed by temperature.
 In Figure 1.2, A and B are two columns of air having the same cross-
sectional area and the same mean sea level pressure, but they have
different mean temperatures.

Fig 1.2 Section showing columns of the atmosphere, A and B, with different mean
temperatures.

The cold air at B is denser and heavier per unit volume than the warm
air at A, but the pressure difference between the top and bottom of each
column is the same. Thus, column A exerts exactly the same force as
column B and the rate at which pressure falls with height must be greater
in the cold column.
2
SOLAR RADIATION AND
TEMPERATURE

Radiation is a form of heat transfer that is completely independent of the

medium through which it travels. All bodies, whatever their temperature,
emit heat energy in the form of short electromagnetic waves that travel
through space at the speed of light. The actual wave length depends on
the temperature of the radiating body. The hotter the body, the shorter the
wave length and the more intense is the emission. At very high
temperatures, a body emits both heat and light, eg a fire. The surface
temperature of the sun is something in the nature of 6,000°C (10,830°F).
Of the sun’s radiant energy that strikes the Earth, much is absorbed and
the surface temperature rises. The surface then emits long invisible heat
waves back into space. Some of the incoming short-wave radiation from
the sun is lost through absorption, reflection and scattering by cloud. A
thick cloud will reflect nearly 80 per cent of the radiation that it receives.
Very little is absorbed, probably about 7 per cent.
Water vapour and cloud, when present, strongly absorb most of the
outgoing long-wave radiation. Some of this is re-radiated into space and
some re-radiated downwards to the Earth’s surface. This partly
compensates for the heat lost by outgoing radiation. This is called the
greenhouse effect. It explains why, when there is a thick cloud layer at
night, the fall in surface temperature during the hours of darkness is less
than on nights when there is a clear sky allowing free terrestrial
radiation.
DIURNAL RANGE OF SURFACE TEMPERATURE
Soon after sunrise, the incoming short-wave radiation begins to exceed
the outgoing long-wave emission. The temperature of the surface then
starts to increase and generally reaches its maximum by about 14.00
hours Local Time, after which it gradually begins to cool. All incoming
radiation ceases when darkness falls, and the surface continues cooling
through the night until sunrise, when the whole cycle is repeated.
Bodies that are good absorbers of heat are also good radiators of heat.
In general, a land surface absorbs and emits more strongly than a water
surface. Thus the diurnal range in temperature of a land surface is much
greater than that of the sea surface, which, in ocean areas, is generally
less than 0.5°C (33°F) (the interior of continents may vary by 16°C
[30°F] or more). The general pattern of diurnal variation in land
temperature is often modified locally by weather. For instance, a change
in wind direction might bring a much colder or warmer airstream into the
region.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE HEATING EFFECT OF

SOLAR RADIATION
The inclination of the solar beam to the Earth’s
surface
This depends on:

• the latitude of the place

• the sun’s declination, which varies with the seasons
• the daily change in the sun’s altitude

In Figure 2.1, the arc ER represents a portion of the Earth’s surface. X

and Y are two solar beams of equal intensity and having the same cross-
sectional area.
Beam X is directed at an oblique angle to the Earth’s surface and its
energy is spread over a relatively large area AB. Beam Y is nearly
vertical to the surface and its radiation is concentrated on to the relatively
small area CD. The pecked arc FGH represents the upper limit of the
atmosphere, from which it can be seen that the beam X has to pass
through a greater thickness of atmosphere than beam Y before reaching
the Earth, and so will suffer a greater loss of energy due to reflection and
scattering. Thus, all other things being equal, the heating effect will be
greatest at area CD.

Fig 2.1 Shows two beams of solar radiation X and Y incident on the earth at different
latitudes.

The nature of the surface

Snow and ice surfaces reflect about 80 per cent of the radiation received.
Dry soil, bare rock and sand, though poor conductors of heat, are very
good absorbers and the heat energy received penetrates only a very
shallow layer of surface amounting to a few inches. Hence there is a
relatively high rise in temperature for a given amount of radiation. By
contrast, the temperature of the sea surface changes only a very little for
the same amount of heat energy. The reasons for this are:
 • the specific heat capacity1 of water is much greater than that of
land
• the solar rays penetrate the sea surface to a depth of several
metres
• the stirring effect of the wind brings up colder water from
below
• much of the heat received by the sea surface becomes rapidly
used up in the process of evaporation
• a water surface reflects solar radiation, especially at large
angles of incidence

Air temperature near the surface tends to follow that of the surface
below.
Thus the annual range, like the diurnal range, is greater over the interior
of large continents than over the oceans. The main factors governing air
temperatures at sea are:

• latitude – generally warmest within the tropics and subtropics

• season
• proximity to large land masses
• prevailing winds
• ocean currents
• upwelling of cooler water from the depths
• the presence of ice or snow covering

NOTES
1 The specific heat capacity of a substance is the number of joules required to raise the
temperature of 1kg of that substance by 1 ° C. The specific heat capacity of water is higher
than that of any other common substance. Hence the gain or loss of a given quantity of heat
brings about a smaller change in temperature of sea than of land. of water is much greater than
that of land
3
HUMIDITY AND CONDENSATION

Water vapour
This is water in the vapour state and although quite invisible, is always
present in the atmosphere. The amount varies in both time and place. It is
supplied by evaporation from the sea surface and, to much lesser degree,
from lakes, rivers, snow, ice and other moist surfaces on land.

Cloud and fog

These should not be confused with water vapour; cloud and fog are
visible water droplets in the liquid state.

Saturated air
The maximum quantity of water vapour that can be contained in a given
volume of air is limited by temperature. The higher the temperature, the
greater the quantity of water vapour the air can hold. When the
maximum possible amount is present, the air is said to be saturated. Air
that contains less water vapour than the maximum possible amount is
said to be unsaturated. Air that is unsaturated is often called dry air
although it contains some water vapour. If unsaturated air is cooled
sufficiently it will become saturated. Further cooling will result in the
excess water vapour being condensed into the liquid or solid state, ie
visible water droplets or ice crystals.

Dew point
The temperature to which unsaturated air must be cooled to become
saturated is the dew point.
So long as air remains unsaturated and the amount of water vapour
remains constant, the dew point will also remain constant, although the
air temperature changes. If air is saturated its temperature is its dew
point.

Absolute humidity
The water vapour content of the air at any one time and place expressed
in mass per unit volume is absolute humidity – usually in grammes per
cubic metre (g/m3).

Relative humidity
This is the ratio of the amount of water vapour actually present to the
maximum amount possible at the same temperature. It is expressed as a
percentage.

Refer now to Figure 3.1, which is a graph showing the approximate

saturation values of absolute humidity against air temperature. Exact
values are of little or no concern to the mariner but the shape of the
curve is of immense importance and this will become apparent in later
chapters. The following should be noted:

1 At a temperature of, say, 20°C the maximum possible amount of

water vapour that the air can contain is about 20g/m3, whereas at
40°C it can hold about 50g/m3. Thus, the higher the air temperature,
the greater the saturation value of absolute humidity.
2 Suppose a sample of air at a temperature of 40°C contains 20g/m3 of
water vapour.
 (a) Relative humidity = (20/50) x 100 = 40%
(b) If the air is cooled sufficiently it will become saturated at
about 20°C. The dew point is then 20°C. The dew point is
constant through any changes of temperature above 20°C.
(c) Should the temperature fall below the original dew point
(20°C) to, say, 10°C, then the new dew point would be
10°C, the absolute humidity 11g/m3 and a total of (20 – 11)
= 9g/m3 of water vapour would have been condensed into
visible droplets (eg fog, mist, cloud or dew). During such
cooling below 20°C, the dew point will, at all stages, be
equal to the existing air temperature.

3 The curve shows that a fall in temperature of saturated air results in

the condensation of the excess water vapour. The higher the initial
dew point, the greater the amount of water vapour condensed.

Fig 3.1 Graph showing saturation values of absolute humidity against temperature.

HYGROSCOPIC NUCLEI
Very minute solid particles, such as dust1 , salt from sea spray, soot and
smoke from domestic and factory fires and other sources are always
present in the atmosphere. Most of these particles are hygroscopic – that
is, they tend to attract and absorb moisture. They are the nuclei on to
which water vapour condenses, forming visible water droplets (cloud or
fog). Without their presence, any condensation would be highly
improbable. They are most abundant in the levels near the surface,
whence they are carried upwards to higher levels by convection. In those
industrial areas where there is a very high degree of smoke pollution, fog
can sometimes form in falling temperatures a little before the dew point
has been reached.

QUESTIONS

1 Explain what is meant by the term troposphere.

2 Explain how atmospheric pressure changes with height above
sea level.
3 State what is meant by the term environmental lapse rate.
4 Name and describe the processes by which heat is transferred from the
Earth’s surface to the troposphere.
5 Describe how the temperature of the ground will change during a day
with clear skies and calm winds.
6 Describe the factors that affect the heating effect of incoming solar
radiation on the Earth’s surface.
7 Explain why daily changes in the temperature of the sea surface are
smaller than those over land.
8 Explain what is meant by the greenhouse effect on the Earth’s
atmosphere.
9 Define: (a) specific heat capacity
(b) absolute humidity
(c) dewpoint
10 Give two examples of hygroscopic nuclei and explain how they can
influence the formation of fog.
NOTES
1 Dust is not generally considered to be hygroscopic.
4
CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUDS

INTRODUCTION
Cloud identification can be and often is, somewhat complicated, various
types of clouds being present at different levels at the same time; on
other occasions it may be quite simple, with only one cloud type present.
It is important that a seafarer should be able to recognise the main cloud
types because of their bearing upon existing and future weather; he or
she does not need to be a weather forecaster but the arrival of a particular
type of cloud may confirm the timing of a particular forecast or may give
warning of an unexpected weather change. This can be particularly
useful when weather forecasts are for any reason unobtainable. A
seafarer also needs to be able to recognise and name cloud types for
inclusion in weather reports that are transmitted to a meteorological
service. The cloud formation in any locality is an important feature of
most weather situations and provides the meteorologist with valuable
information when preparing a forecast.

SUMMARY OF CLOUD TYPES

The names and descriptions of the various cloud types have been agreed
internationally by the World Meteorological Organization. The earliest
cloud classification, prepared in 1803, contained five types derived from
Latin words: cirrus (meaning ‘thread’), cumulus (‘heap’), stratus
(‘layer’), nimbus (‘grey rain cloud’) and fractus (‘broken’). The present
classification is an amplification and combination of these. Briefly, cirrus
clouds are of a feathery or fibrous appearance; cumulus are cauliflower
shaped above with a flattish base; stratus clouds form a more or less
shapeless or homogenous layer or sheet; nimbus clouds have a uniform
dark grey and threatening appearance, often with precipitation or ‘virga’
trailing beneath. Cloud types are further divided into three groups based
upon their height above the observer: high, medium and low.

CLOUDS HEIGHTS
The names of the main cloud types, their abbreviations and their
approximate heights are shown in the table below.

The abbreviations as shown above are customarily used by

meteorologists and voluntary observers in describing the clouds.

DESCRIPTION OF CLOUD TYPES (SEE HERE)

Stratus (St)
A more or less continuous layer or sheet of cloud, similar in appearance
to fog but rarely touching the ground except in the case of high land.
When it does touch the ground it is indistinguishable from fog. When
broken up into patches by the wind it is called fractostratus (Fs). Height
of base is generally between 150m (500ft) and 600m (2,000ft).

Nimbostratus (Ns)
A low, dark grey, shapeless and somewhat ragged cloud, of rainy
appearance, often having below it pieces of ‘scud’ termed Fractostratus
(Fs) from which precipitation may often fall; when it does, it is usually
continuous. Height of base is usually between 150m (500ft) and 600m
(2,000ft) but may be either very close to the surface or sometimes as
high as 1,200m (4,000ft).

Stratocumulus (Sc)
An extensive layer or patches or rolls of globular-shaped light grey
clouds. They are often arranged in lines or groups orientated in one or
two directions. When covering the whole sky they give it a wavy
appearance. Height of base is usually between about 460m (1,500ft) and
1,350m (4,500ft). (See also altocumulus and cirrocumulus.)

Cumulus (Cu)
Whitish cauliflower-shaped clouds with a more or less flat base and
appreciable vertical thickness. They vary in size and vertical extent and
can develop up to great heights (see Cb). These clouds are a feature of
the Trade wind area – but can occur anywhere. In certain conditions of
light, parts of these look dark. Base height is usually between about
460m (1,500ft) and 1,500m (5,000ft).

Cumulonimbus (Cb)
The thundercloud, a cumulus type of cloud but of great vertical extent.
The top, instead of being rounded like a cauliflower, looks more
mountainous or may grow into the shape of a fibrous-looking anvil. The
base is generally flattish and often has fractostratus (Fs) clouds below it
from which precipitation falls. If cumulonimbus cloud is very extensive
it may resemble nimbostratus (Ns).
 Height of base is usually between 460m (1,500ft) and 1,500m
(5,000ft).

Altocumulus (Ac)
A layer or patches of flattish, globular-shaped, fairly small clouds, white
or grey in colour, often arranged in lines, very similar in appearance to
stratocumulus but at a greater height and the individual cloudlets look
smaller. Base height is above 2,000m (6,500ft) and not easy to estimate.
(See also stratocumulus and cirrocumulus.)

Altostratus (As)
A thin and apparently formless veil or sheet of cloud, usually grey in
colour.
When present it often covers the whole sky, giving it a watery
appearance; sun or moon shows through it with blurred outline.
Sometimes it is thick enough to obscure sun or moon, in which case it is
dark in colour. Base height above 2,000m (6,500ft) and not easy to
estimate. (See also cirrostratus.)

Cirrus (Ci)
Nicknamed ‘mares’ tails’, feathery, fibrous or hairy clouds of delicate
texture, high in the sky, usually coloured white and in various
formations. Height of base is above about 5,500m (1,800ft).

Cirrocumulus (Cc)
Layers or patches of very small globular cloudlets similar in appearance
to diminutive altocumulus but derived from cirrus clouds. Popularly
known as ‘mackerel sky’, the cloudlets are arranged usually in lines and
somewhat resemble flocks of sheep. Base height above about 5,500m
(18,000ft). (See also altocumulus and stratocumulus.)

Cirrostratus (Cs)
A diffuse and thin veil of cloud, whitish in colour, somewhat similar to
altostratus, but more diffuse. Only slightly blurs the outline of the sun
and moon; it often produces a halo effect, which altostratus does not.
Sometimes gives the sky a greyish or milky effect. Base height is above
about 5,500m (18,000ft). (See altostratus.)

WEATHER ASSOCIATED WITH CLOUD TYPES

With a few obvious exceptions, a particular cloudscape does not indicate
very much by itself about impending weather changes; it needs to be
considered against a background of the process of formation or
dissipation of those particular clouds, and the wind and pressure changes
that have occurred recently. Ideally, a synoptic map is needed to get an
overall picture of what is happening to the weather some distance away.
It can be said, in very general terms, that at sea level the possible
indications usually associated with certain cloud types are as follows, but
complications may arise if high land is involved.

Stratus
No special significance but may affect visibility if very low. The
presence of stratus indicates a stable air mass, ie not much convection.
Drizzle often falls from this cloud.

Nimbostratus
Can be termed the rain cloud. Considerable rain probable and prospects
of bad weather generally. In some cases the rain does not reach the
ground.

Stratocumulus
No special significance, not generally a bad-weather cloud. As with
stratus, it indicates stability. Occasionally, light rain or drizzle falls from
this cloud.

Cumulus
Generally a fair-weather cloud when small. When large, they indicate
unstable air with the possibility of showers due to strong convection, and
of sudden squally wind when nearby. If it thickens to windward, it may
indicate rain.

Cumulonimbus
When cumulus clouds develop to this stage they are associated with
heavier showers and thunderstorms are a possibility.

Altocumulus
No special significance, not generally a bad-weather cloud. Rain is likely
when these clouds thicken to windward.

Altostratus
This is not infrequently a herald of rain (and wind) and may give
warning of an approaching depression if it derives from cirrostratus and
is accompanied by a falling barometer.

Cirrus
If it grows in extent it may well indicate the approach of windy and bad
weather generally. Gives timely warning of a tropical storm, especially if
followed by a falling barometer. If it turns to altostratus it probably
indicates a coming depression or confirms the advent of a tropical storm.
If it disperses it probably has no significance.

Cirrocumulus
‘Not long wet not long dry’ seems a fair summary of its message,
associated with fair weather and little wind.

Cirrostratus
Gives a fair indication of the approach of rain. If it follows cirrus it may
well indicate the approach of a depression, or a tropical storm.
Good guides to cloud identification can be found at the useful Royal
Meteorological Society website, www.rmets.org/weather-and-
climate/observing/cloud-identification and the World Meteorological
Organization Cloud Atlas on their website, https://cloudatlas.wmo.int/.
 QUESTIONS

1 List the names and abbreviations of the ten principal cloud types.
2 State the average range of heights where ‘low’, ‘medium’ (or middle)
and ‘high’ clouds are found in middle latitudes.
3 Describe each of the following cloud types: Ci, Cs, As, Ns.
4 State which type of weather is likely to be indicated by an increase in
the extent of cirrus cloud.
5 Describe the differences between the appearance of cirrus and
altostratus clouds.
6 Describe the appearance of cumulonimbus clouds.
7 Describe the differences between the appearance of cumulus and
cumulonimbus clouds.
8 State which type of cloud is most commonly associated with
thunderstorms.
5
CLOUD FORMATION AND
DEVELOPMENT

ADIABATIC HEATING AND COOLING

(See Adiabatic in the Glossary.)
When a body of air is subjected to an increase in pressure it undergoes
compressional heating as opposed to thermal heating. If the same body
of air is subjected to a reduction in pressure it undergoes expansional
cooling as opposed to thermal cooling. Changes of this type are called
adiabatic changes. For an example in the former case, the temperature of
the air in a bicycle pump is increased when vigorously compressed. In
the latter case, when compressed gas is released from a cylinder its
temperature falls.

ADIABATIC PROCESSES IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Atmospheric pressure decreases with height. Thus, if a body of air rises
through the surrounding air (ie its environment) it undergoes a reduction
in pressure and is cooled adiabatically. Conversely, if it sinks it is
subjected to an increase in pressure and is warmed adiabatically. In both
cases, no interchange of heat takes place between the body of air and its
environment.

CLOUD FORMATION (IN BRIEF)

1 When unsaturated air is forced to rise it will expand and cool
adiabatically.
2 If the ascent continues long enough it will reach its dew point and
become saturated. The height where this occurs is called the
condensation level. The base of the cloud occurs at this height.
3 Further upward motion will result in the condensation of excess water
vapour in the form of cloud (visible water droplets or, if the
temperature is low enough, ice crystals).

Note: Moist air gives a relatively low cloud base, dry air a relatively high
cloud base.

ADIABATIC LAPSE RATES

(See Lapse rate in the Glossary.)

Dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR)

When unsaturated air is forced to rise through its environment it cools at
a constant rate of 1°C per 100m (5.4°F per 1,000ft).

Saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR)

Upward motion of saturated air results in condensation of excess water
vapour. The process of condensation releases the latent heat of
vaporisation which, in turn, warms the air around the water droplets, thus
reducing to some extent the expansional cooling. Hence the SALR is less
than the DALR. See Figure 5.1.
Near the Earth’s surface, the SALR averages about half the DALR, ie
about 0.5°C per 100m (2.7°F per 1,000ft). As the rising air gains height
above the condensation level the amount of water vapour is
progressively reduced, so there is less and less condensation taking place
and, therefore, less and less release of latent heat. Thus, the SALR
increases with height, but it can never exceed the DALR.
Fig 5.1 Path of parcel of unsaturated air rising from the surface.

The environmental lapse rate (ELR)

The ELR within the troposphere averages about 0.6°C per 100m (1°F per
300ft), but the actual value is subject to irregular variations with time,
place and altitude. Refer now to Figure 5.2, which illustrates the
characteristic shapes of four possible environmental temperature/height
graphs (ELR curves):

(a) Represents a near average ELR curve with some slight

variations.
(b) Illustrates a curve with negative1 lapse rate in the surface
levels. A surface inversion may be caused through
 radiation cooling of a land surface at night, or by a warm
air mass moving over a relatively very cold surface.
(c) Shows an inversion at height, which may be brought
about by dry air subsiding from upper levels and being
warmed at the DALR during its descent. It is generally
associated with an anticyclone, and this will be explained
fully in Chapter 15.
(d) Illustrates an isothermal layer, which, like the inversion at
height, may be formed by the subsidence of dry air.

Fig 5.2 Examples of ELR graphs.

ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY AND INSTABILITY

(See Stability in the Glossary.)
If a parcel of air at the surface becomes warmer and less dense than the
air surrounding it, the parcel will begin to rise. As the air rises it will
cool adiabatically due to the change in pressure. When the parcel reaches
a level where it is at the same temperature as its surroundings the upward
movement will cease. The height at which this will occur is governed
almost entirely by the shape of the ELR curve.

Case 1 Stable air (Figure 5.3(a))

Here the ELR has been found to be E 1 E
If a parcel of air at height X is disturbed and moves upwards it will
cool adiabatically. If unsaturated, it will cool at the DALR (D1D) or, if
saturated, it will cool at the SALR (S1S). At each successive level the
parcel will become cooler and thus denser and heavier than the
surrounding air. This will increase its resistance to upward motion. If the
disturbing force ceases to act, the colder, denser air parcel will sink back
to its starting level, where its temperature will match the temperature of
its surroundings.
Similarly, if initially the parcel is forced downwards it will become
warmer and lighter than the surrounding air. If the displacing force
ceases to act the parcel will move upwards to return to its original level.
Fig 5.3(a) Stable air.

Case 2 Unstable air (Figure 5.3(b))

Here the ELR has been found to be E2E
If a parcel of air at height X is disturbed and moves upwards it will
cool adiabatically. If unsaturated, it will cool at the DALR (D1D) or, if
saturated, it will cool at the SALR (S1S). At each successive level the
parcel will become warmer and thus less dense and lighter than the
surrounding air. If the disturbing force ceases to act the warmer, lighter
air parcel will continue to rise away from its starting level.
Fig 5.3(b) Unstable air.

Similarly, if initially the parcel is forced downwards it will warm

adiabatically but will become colder and denser than the surrounding air.
If the displacing force ceases to act the parcel will continue to sink
downwards away from its original level.

Case 3 Conditionally unstable air (Figure 5.3(c))

Here, the ELR has been found to be E3E.
In this situation, where the ELR lies between the DALR and SALR, the
situation is more complicated. If a parcel of air at height X is disturbed
upwards it will cool at the DALR if unsaturated or the SALR if
saturated. However, unsaturated air will become colder than its new
surroundings and will be stable, but if the parcel is displaced enough to
reach its dew point and become saturated it will become warmer than its
surroundings and will be unstable.
Fig 5.3(c) Conditionally stable air.

Note: In general, stratiform cloud is associated with stable air and

cumuliform
cloud with unstable air.

EFFECT OF DEW POINT UPON CLOUD

FORMATION
The degree of stability or instability depends not only on the shape of the
ELR but also upon the height of the condensation level that is controlled
by the dew point of the air.
Refer now to Figures 5.4(a) and 5.4(b), in each of which the letter T
represents the air temperature at surface level, V the temperature to
which a sample of surface air is raised by solar radiation, and D the dew
point of the air. Note that the values of T, V and the ELR are the same in
both figures, but D is different.
 First, consider Figure 5.4(a). The air specimen of temperature V will
rise through its environment cooling at the DALR until it reaches its dew
point at the condensation level (CL), at which height it is saturated and,
being still warmer than the surrounding air, will continue to rise but now
cooling at the SALR, and so becoming increasingly unstable. The cloud
thus formed could reach to a very great height.

Fig 5.4(a) and (b) Combined effects of dew point and atmospheric stability on cloud
formation.

Comparing Figures 5.4(a) and 5.4(b), it is clearly shown that although

the values of T, V and the ELR remain unchanged, in Figure 5.4(b) the
dew point (D) is relatively low, hence the condensation level (CL) is
relatively high. In this example, the specimen of warmed air, rising and
cooling at the DALR reaches the same temperature as that of its
environment at the level AB, where all upward motion is arrested. Thus,
the air becomes stable at a height well below that of the condensation
level and cloud cannot form.
Figure 5.5 illustrates an intermediate condition whereby, although the
rising air is unstable at the condensation level, it becomes stable when it
has gained sufficient height. This is because the SALR increases with
altitude and the curve eventually meets that of the ELR at a level at
which upward motion of air ceases and is thus the maximum height to
which cloud can develop.

Fig 5.5 Rising unstable air becomes stable.

In Figure 5.6 the ELR is greater than average up to a considerable

height. Surface heating by the sun is strong and the dew point is high.
The atmosphere is thus very unstable. Under these conditions cloud of
great vertical development can be expected.
Fig 5.6 Unstable atmosphere.

Figure 5.7 illustrates a subsidence inversion above the condensation

level (CL). All upward motion of air will be arrested at the level of the
inversion (QR). Layer-type cloud will be formed; if the base is below
300m (984ft) it will be stratus. A higher base gives stratocumulus.
Fig 5.7 Stable atmosphere.

If the dew point is low enough to give a condensation level above QR

the sky will be cloudless. See Figure 5.8.
Fig 5.8 Stable atmosphere.

In stable atmosphere the cloud formed will be stratiform. Very moist

air gives low stratus. Fairly dry air gives a higher, smoother cloud base –
stratocumulus. See Photos 7 and 8.
In unstable atmosphere cloud will be cumuliform. The greater the
degree of instability, the greater the amount of cumuliform cloud.

MAIN CAUSES OF INITIAL UPLIFT OF AIR

1 Thermal uplift has been described earlier in this chapter and is the
result of the air temperature being raised through contact with a
warmer surface.
2 Turbulent uplift. Air flowing horizontally over a rough surface sets
up horizontal and vertical eddy currents, which occur mainly in the
lowest 600m (1,968ft) of the troposphere. The actual height to which
 this turbulence can extend depends on the nature of the surface and
the force of the wind. When surface air is forced up to a height above
the condensation level cloud will form. Turbulence can occur from a
variety of causes anywhere in the troposphere. It gives altocumulus
cloud at medium heights and cirrocumulus at high levels.
3 Orographic uplift occurs when an airstream meets an obstructing
coastline or barrier of hills and is forced upwards, irrespective of
whether the air is stable or unstable. Cloud will not form unless the air
is lifted above the condensation level. Orographic cloud can be either
stratiform or cumuliform depending on whether the rising air is stable
or unstable after passing the condensation level.
A very well known orographic stratus cloud is the ‘tablecloth’ that
often forms on Table Mountain, Cape Town, when warm moist air
flows in from over the sea. This cloud covers the flat table ‘top’ and
appears to hang down on the lee side for some distance, until the
descending air causes evaporation after adiabatic warming. A similar
effect sometimes occurs at Gibraltar.
Orographic uplift of warm moist air can produce very heavy rain,
much of which is deposited on the windward slopes of the obstructing
hills or mountains. In such cases, the weather on the lee side is
relatively warm and dry. For example, with a westerly airstream
flowing across Scotland, giving cold wet weather on the West Coast,
it is not uncommon to have mild, dry weather on the East Coast. This
is called a ‘Föhn effect’ (See Föhn and Chinook in the Glossary.)
4 Frontal uplift operates mainly within depressions but can occur
elsewhere. More often than not, the cloud structures of the warm front
are of layer type, whereas cumuliform cloud is a common feature of
the cold front. Frontal uplift is fully explained in Chapter 13.
5 Uplift resulting from convergent winds. When the horizontal inflow
of air into an area exceeds the horizontal outflow, the surface air is
forced upwards mechanically. Except in arid regions, convergence is
generally associated with much cloud and precipitation; typical
examples are at fronts and centres of depressions.
 QUESTIONS

1 Define the following terms: water vapour, relative humidity, dew

point.
2 State what is meant by the term ‘hygroscopic nuclei’ and describe
their role in the process of condensation in the atmosphere.
3 Define the term ‘dry adiabatic lapse rate’ (DALR).
4 Explain why the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR) differs from
the dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR).
5 Define the terms ‘environmental lapse rate’ (ELR) and ‘isothermal
layer’.
6 Explain what is meant by the term ‘surface inversion’ and describe
two situations in which surface inversions commonly form.
7 List the main causes of the initial uplift of the air to form cloud.
8 Describe the physical processes by which cloud forms in rising air.
9 Sketch simple temperature/height graphs to illustrate stable and
unstable air and state the cloud form that is associated with each.
10 (a) Sketch a simple temperature/height graph to illustrate
conditionally unstable air.
(b) State the factors that determine the degree of instability.

NOTES
1 negative temperature lapse rate (called an inversion) is one in which the air temperature
increases with height.
6
PRECIPITATION

In meteorology, ‘precipitation’ is a generic word embracing most forms

of water deposit that are derived from the condensation of water vapour
in the atmosphere. It includes rain, drizzle, snow, sleet and hail, which,
together, are the more common concept of the term; but it also includes
dew, hoar frost, rime and glazed frost, which are, more often than not,
regarded by mariners as ‘not strictly precipitation’. Meteorologists refer
to all of these phenomena as hydrometeors.
Cloud, fog and mist are not classed as precipitation but are
hydrometeors.
The difference between rain and drizzle is only that the drops in drizzle
are relatively very small (diameter between 0.2 and 0.5mm) and light.
They fall slowly and gently from low-based stratus cloud. Unless the
relative humidity is high beneath the cloud base, the drops are likely to
evaporate before reaching the surface.

RAIN AND DRIZZLE

Formation
Raindrops vary in size but they are all larger than the tiny droplets or ice
particles of which clouds are composed; to turn these into rain,
appreciable convection (vertical movement) within the cloud is
necessary. When convection is active within cloud, the water droplets are
carried up to greater heights and the process of cooling and condensation
continues. A proportion of the droplets will increase in size due to either:

• collision and coalescence of very small droplets with larger

ones, and/or
• growth of ice crystals at the expense of water droplets, in
clouds where ice crystals and water droplets initially co-exist

Whatever the formation process, rain is nearly always created in clouds

of appreciable vertical extent. The greater the vertical thickness of the
cloud, the larger the raindrops. Thus, drizzle may fall from quite shallow
cloud.
When the droplets are large and heavy enough to overcome the upward
motion of air they will start to fall. During descent through cloud they
will continue to increase in size due to collision with the rising cloud
droplets, until they fall as rain from the base of the cloud.
Some evaporation takes place in the warmer unsaturated air below the
cloud base; if the falling drops are large enough in both size and number
they will reach the surface.
The dark vertical or trailing streaks of precipitation seen falling from
the base of a cloud, and which do not reach the surface, are called virga
or fallstreaks.

CLASSIFICATION OF RAIN
There are three main types:

1 Convectional rain
Associated with unstable atmosphere, high relative humidity and a large
lapse rate in the lower levels due to strong solar heating of a land
surface, particularly during the hottest hours of the day.
 Sea surface temperatures undergo very little change in temperature
during the course of a day (see Chapter 2), but moisture-laden air
moving over a relatively very warm sea surface will often produce
convectional rain, usually in the form of isolated showers, sometimes
heavy with hail and thunder, especially in tropical regions.

2 Orographic rain
This occurs when a moisture-laden airstream encounters a range of hills
or mountains, and is thus forced to rise to heights well above the
condensation level. It is usually heaviest on the weather slopes and may
be very light or negligible on the leeward side. (See Föhn in the
Glossary.)
This type of rain can be exceptionally heavy and persistent if given
suitable conditions: for example, the Western Ghats of India (height
about 1,900m [6,235ft]). Here, during the south-west monsoon, the very
heavy rain is almost continuous for three months but is comparatively
slight on the leeward side.
When sea winds cross a coast, surface friction on forested land is
considerable and forms a barrier of air over which the oncoming air is
forced to rise, and sometimes causes precipitation.

3 Frontal rain
This is associated mainly with depressions of the temperate latitudes.
Details are given in Chapter 13.

SNOW AND SLEET

Formation
At temperatures well below freezing point, water vapour can undergo a
sublimation process to produce minute ice crystals, which, during their
very slow fall through cloud, build up a growth of feathery crystals
forming snowflakes.
The size of snowflakes depends on temperature. In very low
temperatures, the ice crystals do not unite to form snowflakes, but may
do so on reaching lower levels of the cloud, where the temperatures are
less cold. Thus, the lower the temperature, the smaller the snow flakes
that reach the surface.
For snow to reach the ground, air temperature near the surface must be
lower than 3.5°C (38°F). Above about 3°C (37°F) it will fall as sleet,
which is a mixture of snow and rain or of melting snow. Whether the
snow lies or not depends mainly on the temperature of the surface on
which it falls.
In very cold weather, heavy snowfall can adversely affect a ship’s
stability. Heavy snow can also seriously affect visibility.

HAIL
Hail falls from cumulonimbus cloud in the form of hard ice pellets of
varying shapes and is often associated with thunderstorms.

Formation
Vigorous convection currents may carry supercooled water drops (see
the Glossary) up to a height where ice crystals are present and are
supported by strong updrafts. The ice particles grow in size by collision
and coalescence with the supercooled water drops, which freeze instantly
on impact, thereby forming pellets of white opaque ice (called soft hail).
When the pellets become large enough, they will commence to fall and
continue to grow.
On entering the lower levels of the cloud, where the temperature may
be a little above 0°C (32°F), they may encounter water drops that are not
supercooled and that freeze slowly on to the freezing hailstones
surrounding them with a coating of hard clear ice before they fall below
the cloud base.
Due to the strong turbulent eddies, which are a characteristic of
cumulonimbus clouds, some hailstones make several upward and
downward journeys between the upper and lower levels of the cloud
before finally falling to earth. This would account for the concentric
structure of very large hailstones, which when cut in half may be seen to
be made up of alternate layers of opaque and clear ice.
 In winter, when the freezing level is well below the cloud base, above
which all water drops must be supercooled, there will be no coating of
clear ice on the hailstones.

Size of hailstones
On reaching the surface, the size of hailstones depends mainly on the
vertical extent of the cloud in which they are formed and the strength of
the upcurrents within it. Usually, they measure only a few millimetres in
diameter. In some hot, moist regions of the world, hailstones larger than
cricket balls and weighing 1–2 kg (2.2–4.4lb) have been reported.

GLAZED FROST
This, as the name suggests, is a layer of ice that looks like glass. It occurs
when surface temperatures are below 0°C (32°F), often at the end of a
severe ‘cold spell’.
Rain or drizzle falling from the cloud associated with a warm front will
freeze immediately on contact with the cold surface and other cold
objects, coating everything with smooth clear ice.
This form of ice can also be produced by fog droplets freezing on to
cold objects. The term ‘black ice’ is also used to describe a thin coating
of this ice on a road surface, the temperature of which is below 0°C
(32°F). It is occasionally confused with black frost (see the Glossary).

SEA SPRAY
The most dangerous form of icing encountered at sea is produced by sea
spray freezing on to the vessel. Ice from this source can accumulate very
rapidly and can pose a severe threat to stability, particularly of small
vessels. The added weight will reduce a vessel’s freeboard and make her
unstable, ie ‘top heavy’, in addition to problems with lifesaving
appliances, antennae and other equipment becoming frozen.
Sea water freezes at about –2°C (28.5°F). If the air temperature is
below this, sea spray landing on the superstructure will freeze, producing
a coating of ice. Significant amounts of spray are not generally present
until wind speed reaches Force 5 and the rate of icing increases with
increasing wind speed above this force.

DEW
A deposit of water formed by condensation on surfaces that have been
cooled by radiation to a temperature below that of the dew point of the
air. Favourable conditions are a calm night with a clear sky and high
relative humidity.

HOAR FROST
A deposit of thin ice crystals or frozen dew upon surfaces whose
temperatures have fallen below both dew point and 0°C (32°F).

RIME
When water droplets of fog strike solid objects such as trees, telephone
wires, ship’s masts, rigging and superstructure, at temperatures below
0°C (32°F), they freeze on impact, forming a deposit of white ice
crystals. The deposit is rough in appearance and grows to windward of
the object.
A good example of ice accretion. Photo by JF Thomson
7
THUNDERSTORMS

A thunderstorm is one of the more spectacular shows put on by nature.

Its potential dangers to the mariner are its sometimes torrential rain,
which may reduce visibility to zero; sudden squalls of wind; the risk it
poses of interference with radio communications (known as
‘atmospherics’ or ‘static’); and the possibility of damage to magnetic
compasses if the ship is struck by lightning (a rare event). The causes of
a thunderstorm’s formation are such that, in general, it is more violent
when the weather is relatively warm and humid. In the Mediterranean,
for example, a violent thunderstorm may last for an hour or two. This
can create serious difficulties for any ship trying to enter harbour and is
quite dangerous to a small vessel, especially if she is under sail. In
temperate zones, thunderstorms may occur at any time of the year during
the passage of a cold front, due to cold air undercutting warmer air, but
that tends to be a squally occasion in any case.

CAUSES OF THUNDERSTORMS
The conditions necessary for the formation of thunderstorms are:

• a cumulonimbus with its base at a temperature warmer than

0°C (32°F), which is producing precipitation
 • the lapse rate must exceed the saturated adiabatic to a height
of at least 3,000m (10,000ft) above the cloud base, thus
facilitating vigorous convection
• a large supply of water vapour at low levels, so that the release
of latent heat produced by condensation will boost convection

In temperate latitudes, these conditions are most likely to be found in

cols and shallow depressions, but the thunderstorms that result are not as
frequent or violent as those that occur in the tropics.
Given the necessary conditions, as above, other favourable conditions
are:

• high surface temperature

• light prevailing surface winds
• a trigger action to initiate convection, such as:
a) horizontal convergence of surface air
b) orographic uplift of moist air
c) frontal uplift, eg a cold front
d) insolation over land
e) advective heating or
f) any combination of the above

HEAVY RAIN AND HAIL

The formation of hail is described in Chapter 6; the very heavy nature of
the rain, which is also a frequent feature of thunderstorms, is due to
somewhat similar processes within the cumulonimbus cloud. Hail and
heavy rain, although often present within the cumulonimbus cloud, do
not necessarily reach the ground on all occasions.

LIGHTNING AND THUNDER

The intense activity within a Cb cloud results in the build-up of
tremendous electrical charges. Scientific investigations have shown that
the upper part of a thunder cloud is charged with positive electricity,
lower down the charge is negative. Near the base there is often a small
localised region that is positive.

Lightning flash
This is an electric spark on a gigantic scale, ie an enormous electrical
discharge (estimated to be millions of volts), which takes place either
within the thunder cloud, between two separate clouds, or between the
cloud and earth. It renders the air white hot along its channel.

Danger from lightning

The risk of a steel ship being struck by lightning is not very great
because her masts and other prominent features, being part of her
structure, are so perfectly earthed to the water in which she is floating.
Ashore, the risk to high buildings and other erections not fitted with
lightning conductors, and to trees, is greater.

Thunder
The sound resulting from the instantaneous expansion and contraction of
the air is known as thunder. The rumbling effect that we hear is because
the sound of the explosive report has to travel from different parts of the
long lightning path to the observer and there may be echoes from the
clouds.
Light travels very rapidly and can be treated as though it arrived
instantaneously, but the sound travels at about 335m per second (1,100ft
per second). The distance to a thunderstorm can be approximated by
measuring the time in seconds between seeing the flash of light and the
arrival of the sound. The distance in miles is found by dividing this
figure by five and the distance in kilometres is found by dividing the
figure by three.
When the lightning stroke takes place between cloud and earth, or
across a clear space between two clouds, its main channel (and
‘branches’) is directly visible to the eye and is called forked lightning,
but when the channel is obscured by cloud, so that the emitted light is
diffused, it is termed sheet lightning.
There are various theories as to the mechanism resulting in the
separation of charges within a Cb cloud. Most of them have good
experimental support but it is thought that several of the charging
processes operate together and, in addition, there are other electrical
processes that are not yet completely understood.

TYPES OF THUNDERSTORM
Heat thunderstorms
These develop over land in warm, moist conditions accompanied by
strong surface heating and convection. Surface air flows in from all sides
(thus, to an observer positioned in advance of the storm, it would appear
to be travelling against the wind). In temperate latitudes, they are most
frequent in summer, on late afternoons or evenings of warm sultry days
with light winds. Mountainous islands in the tropics are especially prone
to these.

Coastal thunderstorms
This type can occur in any season, by day or night. They are most
frequent in winter and are caused by a large lapse rate in polar maritime
air. The final ‘trigger action’ comes from the forced ascent of air crossing
the coast from seaward. They are usually slight and dissipate rapidly on
moving inland.

Frontal thunderstorms
In temperate latitudes, frontal thunderstorms are more common in winter,
because there are more depressions at that time.
Active cold fronts are unstable, especially when there is a large
temperature difference between the warm and cold air masses and if the
frontal convergence is extremely marked, as for example in a V-shaped
trough (see Line squall in the Glossary).
 Warm front thunderstorms are uncommon and less active, because
the frontal slope is gradual. They form at upper levels, which leaves little
room for development of Cb cloud. (Compare Figures 13.4 and 13.5.)
Occlusions sometimes produce thunderstorms, more often with cold
occlusions than with warm ones.

GENERAL
Thunderstorms over the ocean Except in the doldrums only the frontal
type are experienced. They are rare in high latitudes due to low
temperatures and consequent lack of moisture.
At night It is possible, over land or sea, for severe thunderstorms to
develop given favourable conditions aloft, but some initial ‘trigger
action’ is required to start the cloud formation.
Passage of a thunderstorm This is associated with a sudden fall in
temperature, which can be of the order of 10°C or 11°C (50 or 51.8°F).
This is due to cold air from high level being dragged down to the surface
by falling precipitation. The precipitation is localised and may be very
heavy. The arrival of the cold air is associated with a sudden veer in wind
direction with a fierce squall and there are violent squalls with large
changes in wind direction as the storm passes. The pressure generally
rises at the forward edge of the storm and then there is a ‘wake low’ at
the rear of the storm.

QUESTIONS

1 List the three conditions necessary for the formation of thunderstorms.

2 Describe three other conditions that are favourable to the development
of thunderstorms.
3 Name the three main types of thunderstorm and describe the
conditions and time of day when each is likely to develop.
4 Give two examples of how a thunderstorm can present a danger to the
mariner.
8
VISIBILITY

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Bad visibility
Bad visibility may be due to the presence in the air of:

(a) visible moisture in the form of liquid water droplets (not water
vapour, which is invisible), or
(b) solid particles such as dust, smoke or sea salt

Good visibility
Good visibility is favoured by air temperatures that are below that of the
underlying surface, and by strong winds.

Terminology
When the horizontal visibility lies between 1,000 and 2,000m (1,100–
2,200 yards) the terms mist or haze are used – the former only when the
atmospheric obscurity is due to the presence of moisture and the latter
when due to solid particles. The term fog is applied when the visibility,
irrespective of cause, is below 1,000 metres (about 1,100 yards or 0.5
nautical mile).

Formation of fog
Fog is formed by the cooling of a large volume of air below its dew
point, resulting in condensation – a process similar to that of cloud
formation but taking place at or near the sea or ground surface. In certain
circumstances it may also be caused by the evaporation of water vapour
into the air. The necessary cooling referred to above is caused by:

(a) proximity to cold land or sea, and

(b) some turbulent mixing of the air

TYPES OF FOG
In order of the most likely frequency at sea, the principal types of fog
are:

• advection or sea fog

• frontal fog
• radiation fog
• Arctic sea smoke

ADVECTION FOG
This is the most widespread type likely to be encountered at sea and is
caused by relatively warm air being cooled by flowing over a cooler sea
surface. The latter will be below the dew point of the air and normally
the wind speed will be between 4 and 16 knots (between Force 2 and 4
on the Beaufort scale). There are only certain localities where such
conditions are relatively prevalent. One is off the Grand Banks of
Newfoundland where the cold Labrador Current causes a decrease in sea
temperature. The warm, moist, southerly airstream flowing over this is
cooled below its dew point to form advection, or sea fog.
The English Channel is often affected by advection fog when south-
westerly winds reach the British Isles from the Azores in spring and
early summer. In ocean regions, well away from shallows and coastal
waters, the sea surface temperature changes very little through solar
heating or night radiation. Generally, the daily change in sea surface
temperature is less than 0.5°C (32.9°F).
It is possible to estimate the likelihood of the formation of fog from
observations of air temperatures, wind direction and other weather signs,
plus a knowledge of sea temperatures to be expected on the course
ahead. Admiralty Ocean Routeing Charts give information for each
month of the year on:

• mean sea temperatures

• mean dew point temperatures
• percentage frequency of fog (visibility – less than 800m (½
mile))
• percentage frequency of low visibility (less than 8km (5
miles))
• mean air temperatures
• mean barometric pressures

FRONTAL OR MIXING FOG

This may occur along the boundary when two widely differing air
masses meet. Usually associated with either a warm front or a warm
occlusion when cold air meets warm moist air; hence, it is normally
experienced in temperate or high latitudes. It is caused by the
evaporation of relatively warm rain or drizzle, which in turn cools the air
through which it falls.

RADIATION FOG
This forms over land, most frequently during autumn and winter over
low-lying land, especially if it is damp and marshy and in valleys on
quiet nights with clear skies. Under these conditions, the land loses heat
by radiation and cools the air close to the ground, possibly to below its
dew point. If there is a gentle breeze blowing (up to 5 knots), this will
cause turbulent mixing, but only close to the surface, and condensation
in the form of fog will take place. A stronger wind will cause the cooling
to be diffused through a greater depth of air and the dew point will not be
reached.
Since cold air is heavier than warm air, it will tend to drain down into
valleys. Although it never actually forms over the sea, it may drift from
the land for several miles but seldom extends for more than 16km (10
miles) offshore.
Cloudy skies overnight will reduce the effect of the radiation from the
land, or even re-radiate heat back to the surface, and radiation fog will
not occur under these conditions.
Radiation fog will be most dense around sunrise and normally
disperses fairly rapidly as the land warms.

Fig 8.1 Formation of radiation fog.

ARCTIC SEA SMOKE

This is a type of fog occurring close to the sea surface when the air is dry
and cold – probably at least 9°C (48.2°F) below the sea surface
temperature. Rapid evaporation takes place from the relatively warm sea
surface into the colder air and condensation takes place, giving the effect
of steam or smoke rising from the sea.
It is most common in Arctic and Antarctic waters and in the Baltic, but
it can also occur off the eastern coasts of continents in winter, eg off
Newfoundland and over inland seas and lakes. This is one type of fog
that may also be associated with strong winds since it requires a
continual supply of cold air.

MIST, DUST AND HAZE

Visibility that is impaired but is more than 1,000m (1,100 yards) is
described as mist – when caused by water droplets and when the relative
humidity is more than
95 per cent. When caused by smoke or dust particles, it is described as
haze.
Causes of the latter range from forest fires, smoke from industrial
areas, to dust or sand storms, which may be experienced to seaward of
desert regions, such as off the West African coast or off the Arabian
coast when seasonal winds blow off the land.
Sand storms may extend up to 160km (100 miles) out to sea and
constitute a serious problem for the mariner.

SOUND SIGNALS IN FOG

The very conditions that create fog may also cause distortions in both the
direction from which another ship’s fog signal appears to come and in its
strength. The watchkeeper must, therefore, exercise considerable caution
when attempting to estimate either the distance from another sound
source or its direction.

USE OF RADAR IN FOG

Meteorological factors may affect the normal expected range of radars. If
humidity decreases with height, super-refraction may be expected,
resulting in a considerable increase in radar range. On the other hand, if
humidity increases with height, sub-refraction may be expected, with a
consequent decrease in range.
Radar range is likely to be more adversely affected by heavy rain than
by fog. It is recommended that further reference is made to the
appropriate chapter of a specialist textbook dealing with radar.
 QUESTIONS

1 Define the terms ‘fog’, ‘mist’ and ‘haze’.

2 Visibility is usually good when there is a large lapse rate and strong
winds. Explain why this is the case.
3 State the conditions that are favourable for the formation of
radiation fog.
4 Explain how radiation fog is formed.
5 State the seasons in which radiation fog most frequently occurs and
give two examples of locations where it can affect the mariner.
6 Define the term ‘advection’.
7 State the conditions that are favourable for the formation of
advection fog.
8 Explain how advection fog is formed.
9 State the seasons in which advection fog most frequently occurs and
give two examples of locations where it can affect the mariner.
10 State the conditions necessary for the formation of Arctic sea smoke.
9
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND WIND

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Atmospheric pressure at any level (height above the sea) is caused by the
weight of air that lies above that level. It follows, therefore, that pressure
decreases as height increases; for example, atmospheric pressure at a
height of approximately 5,500m (18,000ft) is generally about half its
value at ground level.
Surface pressure at any one point varies continually, the average is
about 1,012hPa at sea level.

Units of barometric pressure

Pressure may be expressed in ‘inches’ or ‘centimetres’, being the
equivalent to the height of a column of mercury (under certain standard
conditions) that is required to balance atmospheric pressure. In modern
meteorology, pressure is expressed in hPa or millibars. See note in the
Preface.

Isobars
An isobar is a line, drawn on a weather chart, that passes through all
points of equal barometric pressure. Isobars are spaced at intervals of one
or more hPa, depending on the scale of the chart. The isobaric patterns
that they form enable us to recognise definite pressure systems, such as
depressions, anticyclones, ridges, etc, each of which is associated with its
own characteristic weather.
CAUSE OF WIND
It is important at this stage to remember that atmospheric pressure at any
point is exerted equally in all directions. (Unlike the force of gravity,
which acts vertically downwards.)
Horizontal movement of the air is caused by differences in pressure
between one point at that level and another. This difference in pressure
produces a pressure gradient force, which acts to move the air directly
from high pressure to low pressure.

Relationship between wind direction and isobars

The horizontal pressure gradient force acts at right angles to the isobars,
but it is not the only force acting upon the air. The Earth is rotating upon
its axis and this produces an effect upon the motion of the air that is seen
by an observer at the Earth’s surface. The path of the air appears to be
deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the
southern hemisphere. Calculation of this effect is simplified by using an
imaginary force, the Coriolis force, to represent the effect of the Earth’s
rotation.
Fig 9.1 Pressure gradient force.

At heights of 600m (2,000ft) or more above the Earth’s surface, the

effects of surface friction can be ignored. If the isobars are straight and
parallel, the pressure gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis force and
the geostrophic wind blows parallel to the isobars (see Figure 9.2).

Fig 9.2 Geostrophic wind.

Buys Ballot’s Law

If observers in the northern hemisphere face the wind, pressure is lower
on their right hand than on their left (see Figure 9.2), while the converse
is true in the southern hemisphere.
In latitudes within 5° of the equator, the effect of the Earth’s rotation is
small. The wind flows straight across the isobars and Buys Ballot’s Law
does not apply.

Relationship between pressure gradient and wind

speed
The pressure gradient is the change in pressure with distance, where the
distance is measured perpendicular to the isobars. The greater the
pressure gradient, the closer the isobars and the stronger the wind.
Pressure gradient is described as steep when the isobars are close
together and slack when they are widely spaced.

The geostrophic wind speed

This may be found by means of a geostrophic wind scale printed on a
synoptic weather chart, or else by means of a scale engraved on
transparent plastic.
The perpendicular distance between two isobars is measured and this
distance laid off from the left-hand edge of the scale at the appropriate
latitude. The geostrophic wind speed is found from the curved lines.

The gradient wind

This wind flows parallel to curved isobars. A resultant force is needed to
allow the air to travel on a curved path, so that now pressure gradient
force and Coriolis force are not exactly equal. This results in the gradient
wind speed being less than the geostrophic wind speed when circulating
around low pressure and more than geostrophic when circulating around
high pressure.

Fig 9.3 Geostrophic wind scale.

 At the surface, the angle between the wind and the isobars varies with
the nature of the surface over which the wind blows; it may generally be
taken as about 10° to 15° over the sea.

Diurnal variation of wind speed at the surface

This is caused by diurnal variation in convection currents. During the
day, when convection currents are strongest, the retarding effect of
surface friction is diffused through a greater depth of turbulence (see
Friction layer in the Glossary). Thus, the reduction in surface wind speed
is less by day. At night, when the depth of turbulence is shallow, the
retarding effect is greater and therefore the wind speed is less. The
diurnal variation of wind speed over sea areas is negligible.

Fig 9.4 Surface wind direction.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON SURFACE

PRESSURE
Knowledge of the following will greatly assist in the understanding and
memorising of the prevailing and seasonal winds of the world.

Unequal heating of the Earth’s surface

During the course of a year, sea surface temperatures change very little
by comparison with land surfaces (especially in the interior of the
continents). In the middle latitudes, in summer the land becomes warmer
than the surrounding sea, whereas in winter land temperatures are
generally below that of the adjacent sea. This is because the specific heat
capacity of water is higher than that of land.
If an area, such as a large land mass, is subjected to a long period of
surface heating the air column above the area attains a mean temperature
greater than that of its environment. Pressure at an upper level within the
column then becomes higher than in the surrounding air at the same
upper level.
At this upper level, air tends to flow away from the high-pressure area
towards cooler regions.
This reduces the total quantity of air over the warm area and so causes
pressure to fall at the surface (less air, less weight and therefore less
pressure). Similarly, an inflow of air into an upper level of a cold region
will cause surface pressure to rise. (See Figure 9.5.)
The continent of Asia shows a very marked example of the above.
Surface pressure is low over north-west India in summer and very high
over Siberia in winter. (See Monsoon in the Glossary.)
Fig 9.5 Air motion due to differences in surface temperature.

PLANETARY SYSTEM OF PRESSURE AND WINDS

Within the tropics, the sun’s rays are nearly vertical throughout the whole
of the year. At the polar caps, they are nearly horizontal during the half-
year that the sun is above the horizon. Thus, surface heating is strong in
equatorial latitudes and very weak in polar regions. (See Figure 9.6.)

Idealised pressure distribution and wind circulation

on a uniform globe
If the surface of the Earth were uniform, eg completely covered by water,
belts of high pressure would develop in some latitudes, such as polar
regions and belts of low pressure would develop in others, such as
equatorial latitudes. The air moving towards the areas of lower pressure
would be deflected due to the Coriolis force.
The ‘idealised’ pressure distribution and surface wind flow is shown in
Figure 9.7.

Fig 9.6 Distribution of solar radiation on the earth’s surface.

Fig 9.7 Idealised planetary wind pattern.

Wind circulation on the Earth

The idealised wind pattern illustrated in Figure 9.7 is modified in
practice due to the presence of the continental land masses, since there
are large seasonal temperature variations over the continents. The
modification is more significant in the northern hemisphere. The
southern hemisphere has a small total land area in comparison to the
great expanse of ocean, and the wind circulation more nearly conforms
to the ideal pattern.

WORLD PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION AND

PREVAILING WINDS
Figures 9.8 and 9.9 show the mean distribution of Mean Sea Level
(MSL) pressure for the months of January and July. The subtropical
high-pressure belts, though much broken up in the summer by land
masses, are still clearly recognisable in both figures, with the highs lying
towards the eastern sides of the oceans. These oceanic highs move north
and south a little, following the annual movement of the sun. Take
special note of the seasonal changes over Asia and compare the general
pattern of isobars in the North Indian Ocean with the North Atlantic and
North Pacific. Bear in mind that Figures 9.8 and 9.9 show mean
pressures for their respective months and that the pressure distribution
locally on any particular day may show isobaric patterns very different
from those illustrated.

THE PREVAILING WINDS OF THE OCEANS

The prevailing winds of the oceans conform to the main pattern of
isobars for the season and follow Buys Ballot’s Law. The winds,
especially in the southern hemisphere, show a similarity to those
described for the uniform globe. They are, however, only mean winds
and considerable variations can be expected locally from time to time.
Ignoring, for the moment, the prevailing winds of the Indian Ocean,
there is a definite clockwise circulation round the highs of the North
Pacific and North Atlantic, and an anticlockwise circulation in the South
Pacific and South Atlantic. The surface outflow of air from these highs
produces the NE Trades and the SE Trades on their equatorial sides;
westerly winds prevail on the poleward sides. In the central areas of
these anticyclones light variable winds and calms with fine, clear
weather generally persist. Vessels that are dependent only on sail for
their propulsion can be delayed for long periods in these regions. (See
Figures 9.10 and 9.11.)

Trade winds
The Trade winds blow more or less constantly (except when monsoons
prevail) throughout all seasons at a mean speed of around 14 knots and
are generally strongest in the late winter. They extend from about latitude
30° towards the equator and change their direction gradually with the
curvature of the isobars. The Trade wind areas follow slightly the annual
movement of the sun. Note, however, that in the South Atlantic the SE
Trades blow right up to and across the equator throughout the whole
year.
Fig 9.8 Average pressure at mean sea level in January.

Fig 9.9 Average pressure at mean sea level in July.

Fig 9.10 Mean surface winds in January.

Fig 9.11 Mean surface winds in July.

Winds of the temperate zones

Westerly winds predominate on the poleward sides of the oceanic highs,
but the winds of the temperate zones are subject to considerable variation
in direction and force, because they are in the very disturbed region of
travelling depressions and anticyclones, which generally travel from
west to east. In the southern hemisphere, the westerlies blow right round
the world with great consistency and frequently attain gale force, which
gives them the name of Roaring Forties.

The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

This band of convergence is due to the meeting of air from the northern
and southern hemispheres. This fluctuates seasonally, its range of
movement being small in some areas of the ocean and very large in
monsoon areas. The belt of separation between the NE and SE Trades
has its maximum width on the eastern sides of the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans, and these regions of light and variable winds and calms are
known as the doldrums. They are further characterised by very heavy
convectional rain and thunderstorms. These stormy areas are easily
identified on satellite images. The doldrums of the North Atlantic remain
north of the equator throughout all seasons. Towards the western sides of
the oceans, the Trade winds tend to flow nearly parallel to one another
and finally become easterly in direction.

MONSOONS
Large land masses become heated in summer and, as explained earlier in
the chapter, pressure becomes low over the land and high over the sea.
The reverse takes place in winter. The resulting wind circulations tend to
persist throughout their particular seasons and are called monsoons. The
most developed monsoons occur over southern and eastern Asia. They
occur to a lesser degree in West Africa, America and Australia. In
general, the monsoons of summer, being heavily moisture-laden from a
long sea passage, are associated with much convection or orographic rain
on reaching the coast. A winter monsoon is cool and dry with mainly fine
weather, unless it has a long path over the sea.

Monsoons of the Indian Ocean and China Sea

In northern summer, the wind circulates anticlockwise round an
extensive low centred over North West India. The pressure gradient
extends beyond the North Indian Ocean into the southern hemisphere, so
that the SE Trades of the South Indian Ocean cross the equator and, due
to the rotational effect of the Earth, veer to SW as they are drawn into the
monsoonal circulation. In the North Indian Ocean and western part of the
North Pacific the Trade winds disappear completely during the period of
the south-west monsoon. (See Figure 9.11.)
The south-west monsoon season is from June to September (inclusive).
In the Indian Ocean it blows as a strong wind reaching gale force at
times. During its long passage over the warm sea it picks up a vast
quantity of moisture and gives very heavy orographic rain on the
windward coasts of India. Tropical cyclones occur in the Indian Ocean
and Bay of Bengal, especially at the beginning and end of the south-west
monsoon.
In the China Sea this summer monsoon is less strong than in the Indian
Ocean and the rainfall is comparatively slight. More often than not it
flows between south and east rather than south-west. Typhoons occur
frequently, particularly in October.
In northern winter a large anticyclone is situated over Siberia and the
north-east monsoon, which blows from October to March (with much
less force than the summer monsoon), extends over the North Indian
Ocean and China Sea, crosses the equator gradually backing to the NW
and reaches Australia as the ‘north-west monsoon’. In the North Indian
Ocean this monsoon is dry and usually brings fine and clear weather.
Along the coast of China and Indo-China the pressure gradient is steep
and the winds stronger. Between January and April, in the China Sea and
along the South China coast, periods of overcast drizzly weather with
mist or fog occur. From February to April such periods may persist for
over a week. The local name for these periods is Crachin. (See Figure
9.10 and the Glossary.)

Examples of other monsoons

When reading the following refer to Figures 9.8 and 9.9, which show
world pressure distribution for January and July, respectively:
 Northern Australia and Indonesia. Winds are south-easterly in
winter and north-westerly in summer.

West coast of Africa – Gulf of Guinea. A south-west monsoon

blows from June to September. The effect extends from latitude about
8°N to about 20°S.

South-eastern part of the USA (north of the Gulf of Mexico). The

prevailing winds are north-westerly in winter and south-westerly in
summer. They are disturbed by travelling depressions.

East coast of Brazil A north-east monsoon blows from September to

March, when pressure over Brazil is low.

LAND AND SEA BREEZES

The principal wind systems of the world undergo local modifications for
various reasons but due mainly to the unequal heating and cooling of
land and sea. Land and sea breezes are a diurnal effect. They occur most
frequently and are more pronounced in countries where solar heating is
powerful. They are experienced in temperate latitudes during warm
summer weather but rarely exceed Force 3 and may extend 16–24km
(10–15 miles) on either side of the coastline. In the tropics, they
sometimes reach Force 5 and may be felt 32km (20 miles) from the
coast.
The most favourable conditions for land and sea breezes are
anticyclonic, that is with clear skies and very light winds. Under such
conditions in summer months the land heats up rapidly during the day
while the sea remains cool. The warm air over the land rises and is
replaced by air flowing in from over the sea. This sea breeze generally
becomes appreciable after midday but in very warm weather may
commence earlier if conditions are otherwise favourable. At night, the
process is reversed; the temperature of the sea does not change
appreciably, whereas the land cools rapidly under clear skies after the
sun goes down. The air, cooled by contact with the cold land, becomes
denser and heavier and gravitates down the slope of the land towards the
sea. The air over the sea is displaced by the land breeze and forced
upwards. Higher up, it flows back to the land, thereby completing the
circulation. The land breeze is much weaker than the sea breeze, but its
effect can be frustrating to small craft when trying to make port under
sail. In tropical areas, the land and sea breeze effect is almost routine.
Being local and temporary, land and sea breezes do not adjust
themselves to the general pressure gradient. If the existing pressure
gradient is steep and unfavourable it will completely mask the land and
sea breezes. Conversely, the wind force along the coast may be
considerably increased when the gradient is favourable .
(See Anabatic and Katabatic winds in the Glossary.)

Local winds
The following list gives the names and localities of the well-known
‘local winds’. A brief description of each is given in the Glossary.
Bise Southern France
Bora Eastern Adriatic
Crachin China Sea
Etesians Aegean Sea
Föhn Swiss Alps. The same effect occurs in most parts of the world
Haar Eastern Scotland and eastern parts of England
Harmattan North-west Africa
Kaus Persian Gulf
Khamsin Egypt and North African coast
Kharif Gulf of Aden
Leste Madeira and North Africa
Levanter Strait of Gibraltar
Leveche South-east coast of Spain
Libeccio Northern Corsica
Maestro Adriatic Sea
Marin Gulf of Lyons
Mistral North-west coast of Mediterranean
 Norther Gulf of Mexico
Pampero Rio de la Plata area
Scirocco Mediterranean
Shamal Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman
Solano Strait of Gibraltar
Southerly buster South and South-east coast of Australia
Sumatras Malacca Strait
Tramontana West coast of Italy and Corsica.
Vendavales East coast of Spain and Gibraltar Strait

QUESTIONS

1 State Buys Ballot’s law.

2 Define the following terms:
(a) the geostrophic wind
(b) the gradient wind
3 Explain the relationship between the surface wind direction and the
isobars.
4 Describe the effect of surface temperature changes in the formation
of the land and sea breezes in temperate latitudes.
5 Sketch a diagram to show the idealised wind pattern over an
‘ideal’ Earth.
6 Describe the characteristic weather of the doldrums.
7 Describe the weather conditions associated with the NE Trades in the
North Atlantic Ocean.
8 State the months of the SW monsoon and NE monsoon of the Indian
Ocean.
9 Describe the weather associated with the SW monsoon in the Indian
Ocean.
10 Describe the weather conditions in the China Sea during the
NE monsoon.
10
SEA AND SWELL WAVES

INTRODUCTION
Whenever the wind blows over the surface of the water the friction or
tractive force of the wind creates waves in the water. Up to a limit, the
stronger the wind, the higher will be the waves. In the open ocean the
size of the waves depends also upon the depth of the water, the length of
time the wind has been blowing and the ‘fetch’, which is the distance to
windward of the observer over which the wind has blown. All this
happens to be rather a convenient arrangement for mariners because, as
described later in this chapter, it enables them to estimate the force of the
wind without the aid of instruments.

SEA WAVES AND SWELL

Waves caused directly by the wind blowing at the time of observation are
known as sea waves. By contrast, swell waves will have been created
some time beforehand by winds blowing in an area some considerable
distance away. In the vicinity of the observer, both the current wind and
sea surface may be calm but there may be experienced a distinct wave
motion, often with a long wave length in proportion to its height. These
waves are known as swell waves, or simply swell. They often have an
oily appearance and may have originated thousands of miles away.

CHARACTERISTICS OF WAVES
The overall characteristics of sea waves are quite complex but the simple
wave is described in these terms:

• Length L the horizontal distance in metres between

successive crests or troughs.
• Period T the time in seconds between two successive crests or
troughs past a fixed point.
• Speed C the rate in knots at which an individual crest
advances.
• Height H is the vertical distance in metres from crest to
trough.

For any individual wave it can be shown that:

L = 1.56 x T2
C = 3.1 x T

Where,
C is the speed in knots
L is the length in metres
T is the period in seconds

For example, given a period of 10 seconds, the length of wave will be

156m and its speed will be 31.0 knots.
The steepness of a wave is described by the ratio of Height to Length
(H/L). The height is not specifically related to the other factors because
when the steepness exceeds about 1 in 13 the wave will break.

WAVE TROCHOIDS
Although each wave has a forward motion, each particle of water at a
wave’s surface moves in a circular orbit of which the diameter is equal to
a wave height (see Figures 10.1(a) and (b)). The result is that, at the crest
the motion of each particle is forward and at the trough it is backward
relative to the wave’s motion. Below the surface, the water particles take
up similar orbits, diminishing in size with the depth until, at a depth
equal to the wave length, there is practically no motion due to the waves.
The shape of this wave is described as a trochoid. Quite simply, a
trochoid is the pattern that would be traced out if some kind of marker
were to be fastened to the spoke of a wheel; if the wheel were then rolled
along a flat surface next to a wall, a pattern as illustrated in Fig 10.1(a)
would be produced.

Fig 10.1(a) A simple wave form.

Fig 10.1(b) Resulting motion of a cork on the surface of the wave.

This shows in elevation a cross-section through a simple wave. The

numbered arrows indicate the motion of a particle of water, or cork
floating on the surface, as the wave form progresses in the direction
indicated. Figure 10.1(b) shows that the cork describes a circle, but does
not in fact move away
from its mean position at the centre of the circle. The circular motion
decreases rapidly with depth.

WAVE COMPLICATIONS
In the open ocean, except perhaps in the case of a directional swell with
no wind, the waves in any particular system are almost never uniform in
their characteristics, although their motion is always to leeward. When a
wind starts to blow, trains of waves are created and move to leeward of
the observer, but, due to the wind turbulence and other factors, each
wave train usually contains waves of differing length, period and height,
the result being an irregular mixture in which only a few well-formed
waves stand out. Another complication arises when sea waves and swell
waves are present together, sometimes from the same direction, at other
times from totally different directions. In such cases it may be difficult to
distinguish sea from swell and synchronism may cause some of the
waves to be very large.

WAVE GROUPS
Wind-generated waves travel in groups, where large waves are
continually overtaking smaller waves. This fact is important in handling
a ship in heavy seas. The behaviour of a vessel depends to a great extent
on her period of roll and pitch.
When the period of roll is less than the period of the wave the ship will
tend to align her decks with the slope of the wave. A violent motion may
result but little water will be shipped.
If the period of roll is greater than the period of the wave, the ship
tends to dip her deck edge into the wave and to ship water while rolling
more easily.
A dangerous condition can arise with the waves abeam when the
period of roll is the same as the period of the wave. Synchronisation
may result in the ship being rolled over, ie capsizing.
In large merchant ships, the period of roll is greatly in excess of the
longest wave periods. On very small craft, however, with much shorter
periods, synchronisation is a definite possibility. Since waves travel in
groups, however, a series of individual waves all having the same period
is an unlikely occurrence.

WAVE DIMENSIONS
A wave of a period of 2 seconds would have a length of about 6m and if
the period were 10 seconds the length would be about 155m. These
waves could be expected to have maximum heights of about 0.6m and
12m respectively. A long swell, however, with no wind present might
have a period of 15 seconds and length of about 335m but a height of
only 0.3m or so. The maximum wave height recorded to date is 25m.
The size of waves depends also on the duration of blow. Initially, the
waves are short and steep, but if the wind continues to blow from the
same direction they gradually become longer, and their heights increase.
The high seas of the Roaring Forties, for example, are generated by fairly
consistent strong winds of virtually unlimited fetch.

OCEAN WAVES IN SHOALING WATER

When an ocean wave comes into shallow water, beginning at a depth of
half the wave length, its speed and length are reduced though its height
stays the same, but the wave breaks when the depth is about one-and-a-
half times its height. When approaching a beach at an oblique angle, a
wave tends to change its direction so that the advancing edge or front
becomes parallel to the beach. It is important to remember that in
relatively shallow and enclosed areas, such as the North Sea and the
Baltic, although the waves are unlikely to obtain oceanic dimensions,
they are at times steep and short and therefore dangerous.

TSUNAMI
These waves were also known as tidal waves, but they are not caused by
the tides. Their cause is sudden, large-scale movement of the seabed,
such as the violent motion caused by earthquakes, volcanoes or
landslides. The waves that are produced have small heights and long
wavelengths in the deep ocean and travel very rapidly away from their
source. Their speed of travel is related to the square root of the depth of
the water, so the tsunami begins to slow down as it reaches shallow
coastal waters. As the front part of the wave slows the water begins to
pile up, the height of the wave increases and the wave length decreases.
The tsunami, which may pass unnoticed in deep water, can have
disastrous effects in coastal areas due to the great quantity of energy that
it carries.
 The Pacific is prone to tsunamis because of the seismic activity that
takes place there. Indeed, the word ‘tsunami’ is derived from Japanese
and means ‘harbour wave’. A warning service has been set up to detect
possible tsunami-producing events. Since December 2004, work has
begun to instigate a similar service in the Indian Ocean. Tsunamis are
extremely rare in the Atlantic but have been recorded, notably the
tsunami that hit Lisbon in 1755.
Investigate www.tsunami.noaa.gov/ for a good description of tsunamis
and their effects.

TIDAL STREAMS
A tide flowing against the wind, a weather tide, will often cause waves to
heap up and break at the crest. A lee tide tends to flatten the sea.
Tidal races can be hazardous as the seas produced tend to be confused.
Such areas are indicated on charts and in sailing directions. The waves in
a race often arrive from several directions with little warning. The very
strong currents experienced in some tidal races, such as the Portland
Race and the Alderney Race, can make it very difficult to con low-
powered craft and yachts.

FREAK WAVES
When swell and waves are moving in different directions, the crest of
several waves may arrive simultaneously at one point. This can produce
a wave of unusual height in an otherwise moderate sea. Troughs
synchronising in a similar manner will produce what has been described
as a ‘hole in the ocean’.
Very steep and dangerous waves are sometimes experienced with
south-westerly winds off the east coast of South Africa south of Durban,
in the vicinity of the Aghulas Current and its inshore counter-current.
Investigations are still continuing into the apparent complete
disappearance of a number of ships, including large bulk carriers, which
it is believed may be attributed to this cause.
 Practical value of wave data
Information about wave performance in the oceans is needed for the
following purposes:
1 To assist in the preparation and issue of information of weather
routeing for ships (see Chapter 23).
2 For research into the behaviour of ships in a seaway and into ship
designs generally.
3 For the design and orientation of harbours and breakwaters and
design of oil platforms at sea.
4 To assist in the forecast of wave conditions on exposed coasts (eg
exposed anchorages).
5 For meteorological and oceanographical research generally.

OBSERVING THE WAVES

In the deck log aboard a ship it is customary to record wave conditions
descriptively, eg ‘Slight Sea’, ‘Heavy Swell’, etc. Similar phrases are
customarily used in weather bulletins for shipping to describe actual and
forecast waves. A more exact method of describing waves when coding
weather reports for sending to meteorological services is to report their
estimated height and period. Such observations are admittedly difficult to
make with any accuracy from the high bridge of a fast-moving ship, but
some proficiency can be attained with practice. The synoptic maps,
broadcast to shipping by facsimile, concerning actual and forecast wave
conditions, give height in metres but rarely include period.
The following tables giving descriptions and approximate equivalent
heights of sea and swell waves have been agreed by the WMO for
international use.
(These tables are not used for coded weather reports and are only
intended for guidance.)
THE BEAUFORT SCALE
This was first produced in 1808, by Admiral Beaufort who was
subsequently a distinguished and long-serving hydrographer of the Navy.
The scale provides a practical means of estimating the force of the wind
from the appearance of the sea. Originally, the categories were related to
characteristics of manoeuvring various categories of sailing ships of the
period, eg ‘Force 6 – That in which a well-conditioned man-of-war could
just carry single-reefed topsails and topgallant sails’. Although these
criteria no longer appear, the ‘Sea Criterion’ as defined by Beaufort for
the same wind strength – ‘Large waves begin to form; the white foam
crests are more extensive everywhere. Probably some spray’ – are
unaltered.
Watch-keepers should thoroughly familiarise themselves with the scale.
Wind speeds are stated for a height of 10m above sea level.

STATE OF SEA PHOTOGRAPHS FOR ESTIMATING

WIND SPEEDS
The second set of colour photographs in this book illustrate the
appearance of the sea corresponding to the Beaufort wind scale. Their
purpose is to assist observers in estimating the wind speed when making
weather reports. The description of the sea is according to the Sea
Criterion laid down by the World Meteorological Organization.
The appearance of the sea may be affected also by fetch (see the
Glossary), depth of water, swell, heavy rain, tidal streams and the lag
effect between the wind speed changing and the sea state responding.
Probable wave heights and probable maximum wave heights have been
added only as a rough guide to show what may be expected in sea areas
remote from land. In enclosed waters, or when near land with an offshore
wind, wave heights will be smaller and the waves steeper.
Notes (1) It must be realised that it will be difficult at night to estimate
wind force by the Sea Criterion.
(2) The lag effect between increase of wind and increase of sea should be
borne in mind.
(3) Fetch, depth, swell, heavy rain and tide effects should be considered
when estimating the wind force from the appearance of the sea.

*This table is intended only as a guide to show roughly what may be

expected in the open sea, remote from land. In enclosed waters, or when
near land with an offshore wind, wave heights will be smaller, and the
waves steeper. Figures in brackets indicate probable max height of
waves.

WARNING: FOR A GIVEN WIND FORCE, SEA CONDITIONS CAN

BE MORE DANGEROUS NEAR LAND THAN IN THE OPEN SEA;
IN MANY TIDAL WATERS WAVE HEIGHTS ARE LIABLE TO
INCREASE CONSIDERABLY IN A MATTER OF MINUTES.

Very few ships carry an anemometer, and this would only indicate the
relative wind aboard a moving ship. What is needed is the true wind
force and direction and the Beaufort scale provides the best method of
making this important observation.
The line of sight at right angles to the wave’s line of advance indicates
the true direction of the wind.
Both these observations are relatively easy to make in daylight but
difficult on a dark night, especially with light winds, particularly in a fast
ship. Care, experience and common sense are needed, using the feel of
the wind on the face or wetted finger, first of all, to determine the force
and direction of the relative wind. For example, if the ship’s speed is 15
knots and the relative wind observed is nil, there is a 15-knot wind from
right aft. If the relative wind seems to be about 15 knots from abeam,
then the true wind is on the quarter, about 20 knots, a fresh breeze. This
can be solved fairly simply from a vector triangle, one side being the
ship’s course and speed, another side the direction and speed of the
relative wind, the third side will be the direction and speed of the true
wind. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute has an interesting website at
www.whoi.edu/, which offers a great deal of information on
oceanography.

QUESTIONS

1 Define the following terms in relation to ocean waves: ‘wavelength’,

‘period’, ‘height’, ‘speed’.
2 The period of a wave is observed to be 5.4 seconds. Calculate its
wavelength and speed.
(Answers: wavelength = 44m, speed = 17 kts.)
3 Describe how sea waves are affected by the fetch and duration of the
wind.
4 Describe how sea waves are affected by:
(a) shoaling water
 (b) tidal streams
5 A vessel is experiencing heavy seas.
(a) Describe how different waves can affect the vessel’s behaviour.
(b) State the action that can be taken to avoid or modify dangerous
rolling.
11
AIR MASSES AND ASSOCIATED
WEATHER

An air mass may be described as a huge body of homogeneous air

covering thousands of square miles; throughout the air mass, temperature
and humidity are more or less uniform in any one horizontal plane. An
air mass could be broadly classified, therefore, as warm or cold and
moist or dry; the terms are relative. Classification of air masses is
described later.
The lower levels of the atmosphere automatically assume the
characteristics of the underlying surface. Thus an air mass originating
over very cold land in winter would be cold and dry, whereas an
airstream approaching the land after a long sea passage from warmer
latitudes would be relatively warm and moist.

SOURCE REGIONS
The area in which an air mass originates is called the source region. The
principal source regions are the large anticyclonic areas that lie to the
north and south of the disturbed westerlies, ie the polar highs covering
the polar caps, the oceanic sub-tropical highs and the continental highs;
the latter being the anticyclones that develop over large land masses
during winter months. (See Figures 9.8 and 9.9 showing world pressure
distribution for January and July respectively.) Other parts of the world
may become source regions for short periods.
 In all these areas, the pressure gradient is generally slight and the
horizontal movement of air is slow, thus allowing plenty of time for the
surface characteristics (temperature and humidity) to penetrate upwards
to considerable heights.

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF AIR MASSES

This is broadly based on the source regions, and the terms used to
describe a particular type of air mass may seem a little confusing at first.
For example, so-called Polar air does not originate from the polar caps
but from subpolar regions. Air coming from polar regions is called
Arctic air or Antarctic air, as appropriate. Similarly, so-called Tropical
air does not flow from tropical latitudes but from the sub-tropical belts.
An airstream flowing from between the Trade wind belts is classified as
equatorial air. These main types are sub-classified as maritime or
continental; the former originating over the sea and being moist in
character, the latter flowing from dry land and generally fairly dry, but it
is important to remember that the history of an air mass can change its
characteristics.
The table of Air Mass Classification given below is general. Almost
any area of the world can occasionally act as a source region.

Characteristics of an air mass

The characteristics of an air mass are governed by three factors:

1 The ORIGIN, which determines temperature and humidity.

2 The PATH, which determines the modifications that take place at the
surface. As an air mass moves away from its source region it assumes
the characteristics of the surface over which it is passing; thus, warm,
dry air moving over a cold sea will pick up moisture and gradually
become cooler in the layers near the surface.
3 The AGE of an air mass determines the height to which the surface
characteristics will penetrate.
Modifications to the surface temperature may alter the stability of the air
mass.

AIR MASS WEATHER

Air mass characteristics are based on the following general
principles:

Cold air moving over a warm surface

1 Becomes heated at the surface by contact.
2 The warmed air rises, not bodily but in vertical columns called
convection currents, through the colder environment. The height to
which convection currents will rise depends on a number of factors,
which are explained in Chapter 5.
3 The greater the temperature difference between the air mass and the
underlying surface, the more vigorous will be the convection
currents.
4 If the rising air goes high enough and there is sufficient moisture
present, cumuliform cloud will appear and, with further
development, there may be some precipitation, characteristically in
the form of isolated showers. (See Figure 11.1.)
 5 This is called unstable air because vertical movement is stimulated,
especially when the air is humid.
6 An unstable air mass is favourable for good visibility, except in
showers.

Warm air moving over a cold surface

1 Becomes cooled at the surface by contact.
2 Surface friction causes turbulent mixing of the air at and near the
surface. This diffuses the cooling upwards from a few feet to a height
of 500m (1,500ft) or more depending on the speed of the wind and
the roughness of the surface.
3 This colder, denser, heavier air forms a shallow layer on the surface
and is said to be stable because it offers resistance to any vertical
displacement. (See Chapter 5.)
4 If the air contains enough moisture a layer of cloud will form below
the top of the turbulence layer. (See Figure 11.2.) If the air is dry or
fairly dry, skies are likely to be clearer.
5 Fog can form in light winds if the temperature of the surface is below
the dew point temperature of the air. Types of fog and their causes
are discussed in Chapter 8.
6 Poor visibility is favoured by a stable air mass.

Fig 11.1 Air travelling across a warmer surface.

Fig 11.2 Air travelling across a colder surface.

DETAILS OF SPECIFIC AIR MASS TYPES

Figures 11.3 and 11.4 illustrate paths taken by some typical types of air
masses. They should be studied in conjunction with the following
descriptions of weather generally associated with each type. Bear in
mind that the air mass characteristics described apply equally to both
northern and southern hemispheres.

Polar maritime (Pm) air

Cold air from higher latitudes moving over a relatively warm surface.
Cool, unstable, cumuliform cloud, possibly with isolated squally showers
(particularly when the air is moving quickly across the isotherms), very
good or excellent visibility except in showers. For example, a north-
westerly airstream reaching the British Isles after a long sea passage.
This same airstream, when passing over cold land in winter, may become
stable with low stratus cloud or fog.

Polar continental (Pc) air

In winter, this is a very cold, stable airstream with a low moisture
content. Little change takes place during its passage over cold land.
Clear skies can generally be expected but, when such an air mass moves
over a relatively warm sea surface, evaporation and warming take place;
this results in instability and cumuliform cloud, wintry showers may
occur. It thus assumes the characteristics of polar maritime air. For
example, in winter, polar continental air from North America becomes
polar maritime air during its passage eastwards across the Atlantic
Ocean.
In summer, the polar continental air mass will remain dry and cloudless
as it moves over land that is warmer than at the source but, when
subjected to surface heating over long distances, it becomes converted
into a warm air mass that, if it then moves over a cool sea, becomes
stable, picks up moisture, and fog or low stratiform cloud may form.

Arctic maritime (Am) air

Originates over ice and snow surfaces and is thus very cold at all levels.
Because of its low temperature, the moisture content is low, but moisture
is picked up over the sea as warming takes place from below. The
weather then becomes similar to that of polar maritime air but much
colder and more intense in character, because the difference between air
and sea temperatures is more marked than in polar maritime air. Cumulus
or cumulonimbus clouds form and squally showers of rain or hail occur.

Arctic continental (Ac) air1

This is similar in character to polar continental air.

Tropical maritime (Tm) air

Warm and very moist air moving into higher latitudes passes over a sea
surface, which becomes progressively cooler. A stable air mass in which
very widespread advection fog, or low stratiform cloud or drizzle may be
encountered. Orographic rain at high coastlines is common. Example:
widespread advection fog often encountered over the relatively cool
waters of the north-east Pacific and the Grand Banks of Newfoundland
area in the North Atlantic.
In summer, when moving over hot land it may become very unstable,
giving cumulus cloud with showers and possibly thunderstorms.

Tropical continental (Tc) air

Very warm and dry at source. Moving into higher latitudes, it becomes
cooled in the lower layers and remains dry while passing over land.
When moving over the sea, its temperature is higher than that of the sea
surface and, although some moisture is picked up, there is generally very
little cloud or precipitation because convection is arrested at a low level
in the stable air. An air mass originating in desert regions may carry
quantities of fine dust for thousands of miles, thus hazy conditions are
not uncommon in a tropical continental air mass. (See Figures 11.3 and
11.4.)

Warm polar maritime (wPm) air or returning polar

maritime (rPm) air
A polar maritime air mass, after moving into lower latitudes where it
becomes warmed in the lower level, sometimes curves round and
increases its latitude again. It then undergoes cooling in the surface
layers, becomes stable and assumes the characteristics of tropical
maritime air. On such occasions it is called returning polar maritime
air or warm polar maritime air (See Figures 11.3 and 11.4.)

Fig 11.3 Air masses reaching the British Isles.

Equatorial (E) air masses
Warm, moist and often very unstable, especially after surface heating
over land when convection currents carry large quantities of moisture to
high levels forming cumulus and cumulonimbus cloud and producing
copious rainfall.

Fig 11.4 Some paths of typical air masses of the N American continent and adjacent
waters.

QUESTIONS

1 Explain what is meant by the term ‘air mass’.

2 Describe the characteristics necessary for an area to be defined as a
‘source region’.
3 Describe the characteristics of each of the following air mass types in
their source region: Pm, Pc, Am, Ac, Tm, Tc.
4 Describe how the characteristics of Pm air will change as it travels
towards lower latitudes.
5 Describe the weather in temperate latitudes associated with a Tm air
mass moving over the sea towards higher latitudes.
6 Describe the weather in the North Sea associated with Pc air in:
(a) summer
(b) winter
NOTES
1 Air masses that originate over the snow-covered areas of the Arctic have similar characteristics
to polar continental air and, for this reason, are designated as such in the North American
continent.
12
ISOBARIC PATTERNS

Out of seven characteristic isobaric patterns there are only two types of
weather systems that are fundamental – the depression and the
anticyclone – the remainder being either outward extensions from one of
these or a neutral area between them.
These seven distinctive isobaric forms are:

• depression
• anticyclone
• secondary depression
• trough
• ridge or wedge
• col
• straight isobars

Depressions, fronts and anticyclones are discussed in greater detail

in later chapters.

DEPRESSION (OR LOW)

An area of low barometric pressure surrounded by an area in which the
pressure is relatively high. The isobars are roughly circular or oval in
shape and, in accordance with Buys Ballot’s Law (see Chapter 9), the
wind flows in an anticlockwise direction round the area of low pressure
in the northern hemisphere (see Figure 12.1) and clockwise in the
southern hemisphere.

Fig 12.1 The Isobaric pattern of a depression.

The wind circulation, anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere, is

indicated by the arrows. In the southern hemisphere the wind flows
clockwise round the low-pressure centre. Note that the isobars are
closer together near the centre.
It should be noted that in both hemispheres the surface wind flows
slightly in towards the central area (see Convergence in the Glossary)
where the worst weather is usually encountered.
Depressions are of greatly varying intensities and are usually
associated with bad weather – ie much cloud and precipitation with
strong or gale-force winds, especially near the centre of the system, the
severity of the weather being governed mainly by the steepness of the
pressure gradient and the moisture content of the surface air, though
there are other important factors involved.
Despite the availability of official weather forecasts, it is important for
a mariner to be able to recognise the precursory signs of bad weather and
to know the weather sequence, shift of wind, etc that may be expected
with the approach, passage and retreat of a well-defined depression.
Indeed, the safety of the ship may well depend on such knowledge and
the ability to act on it.
The term depression is commonly applied to cyclones in latitudes that
lie outside the tropics but may also be used to describe a weak tropical
cyclone.
As a depression develops, the pressure gradient becomes steeper and
the winds stronger, isobars on each successive weather chart are drawn
closer together and the depression is said to deepen. A weakening or
dying depression is said to be filling up.
Depressions tend to move towards areas of low or falling pressure
and to steer round high-pressure regions.

ANTICYCLONE
A region of high pressure surrounded by an area of relatively low
pressure. The isobars are roughly circular or oval in shape. In the
northern hemisphere the wind circulates in a clockwise direction round
the centre of high pressure; the converse is true for the southern
hemisphere. (See Figure 12.2.)
Fig 12.2 Anticyclone.

The wind circulation, clockwise in the northern hemisphere, is

indicated by the arrows. Note that the isobars are more widely
spaced near the centre of high pressure and that the surface wind
tends to flow outwards from the centre.

General characteristics
The pressure gradient is slight, winds are light near the centre. Weather is
usually quiet, dry and settled. Land and sea breezes (see Chapter 9) are
marked, especially during the warmest months of the year.
In summer, the weather is generally dry, sunny and warm but within
the outer portions of the system it is often cloudy with some rain.
In winter, the weather may be one of two types:

(a) cloudless sky with sharp frosts at night or radiation fog

(b) the sky completely covered by stratus cloud. Dull, cold and
foggy or misty weather may persist for some days. (See
Anticyclonic gloom in the Glossary.)

High-pressure systems are usually slow moving by comparison with

other systems and often remain stationary for long periods. An
anticyclone is said to intensify as the pressure within the system rises,
whereas when pressure falls, thereby weakening the system, it is said to
decline.

A SECONDARY DEPRESSION
A secondary depression is one that forms within the isobaric pattern of
another (primary) depression. When the primary depression is old and
filling up, the secondary may develop and deepen until it completely
absorbs all traces of the primary. The secondary in Figure 12.3 has a
steeper gradient and lower pressure at its centre than the primary or
parent depression. Note that secondary depressions often develop into
much more vigorous systems than their primaries.

Fig 12.3 Primary and secondary depressions.

TROUGH OF LOW PRESSURE

This is distinguished on the weather chart by a system of isobars that
appear sharply curved (concave towards low pressure) along a line called
the trough line within a depression. (See Figure 12.6.)
A trough may be termed deep or shallow according to whether the
curvature of the isobars is acute or gentle, respectively. The weather
associated with a trough is generally cloudy with precipitation. (See Line
squall in the Glossary.)

Fig 12.4 Ridge (or wedge) of high pressure.

Fig 12.5 High, low and col.

Fronts
Fronts, which are dealt with in later chapters, are all troughs; a trough,
however, is not always a front. When the isobars of a depression or a
tropical cyclone are circular the term trough refers to a line drawn
through the centre of the system at right angles to the line of progression
of the centre.

RIDGE (OR WEDGE) OF HIGH PRESSURE

A wedge-shaped extension of an anticyclone between two areas of low
pressure. (See Figures 12.4 and 12.6.) The isobars assume their greatest
curvature along the axis of the ridge. It is generally associated with the
fair weather of the anticyclone, often having light winds along the central
portion. A ridge in which the isobars are sharply curved generally moves
faster than a ‘flat’ ridge.
Fig 12.6 Isobaric pattern illustrating high, low, trough, ridge and col.

COL
An area of indeterminate pressure located between two highs and two
lows that are arranged alternately. (See Figures 12.5 and 12.6.) It is
generally associated with light variable winds, often thundery in summer
and dull or foggy or misty in winter. In Figure 12.5 the wind circulation
round the four systems is shown by arrows. It is easy to see why the
winds are variable within the col area.

STRAIGHT ISOBARS
An atmospheric pressure distribution in which the isobars run in more or
less parallel straight lines across a large area. (See Figure 12.7.) It is
usually the outlying portion of a large and distant depression or
anticyclone.
Fig 12.7 Straight isobars.

QUESTIONS

1 List six characteristic isobaric patterns.

2 Define the terms ‘depression’ and ‘anticyclone’.
3 Sketch the isobars of:
(a) a depression
(b) an anticyclone
4 Describe the general movement of mid-latitude frontal depressions in
the northern hemisphere.
5 Describe the general characteristics of an anticyclone:
(a) in summer
(b) in winter
6 Describe the weather associated with a col.
13
FRONTS AND FRONTAL
DEPRESSIONS

Before proceeding with this chapter it is essential that the previous

chapters have been read and understood.

AIR MASS BOUNDARIES

When two air masses of differing characteristics meet they do not mix
freely but remain separated by a boundary called the frontal surface.
Some mixing of the air masses does take place but only along this
boundary, which is really a narrow zone of transition often referred to as
the mixing zone. Such a boundary is represented on the weather chart by
a line called a front.
When two airstreams with different temperatures converge and meet,
the warmer air tends to override the colder, denser, heavier air, while the
colder air tends to undercut the lighter warm air. (See Figures 13.1(a), (b)
and (c).)

THE MAIN FRONTAL ZONES

The positions of frontal zones marking the boundaries between the
principal air masses fluctuate constantly while their mean positions move
north and south with the seasons.
See Figure 13.1(d) and compare the mean positions of the frontal zones
in
 January with those for July, but bear in mind that the day-to-day
positions of these zones can vary considerably from those shown in the
figure, especially in the temperate latitudes.

THE ARCTIC FRONT

The Arctic front marks the transition between Arctic air and polar
maritime air. There is a similar front in the North Pacific.

The polar front

The polar front marks the boundary between polar and tropical air
masses in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In the North Atlantic, its mean
position in summer is from Newfoundland to Scotland. In winter, it
moves southwards and extends from Florida to south-west England.

Fig 13.1(a) Air masses converging at the polar front.

Fig 13.1(b) Vertical section across polar front.

Fig 13.1(c) Vertical section along GH.

Fig 13.1(d) Approximate mean positions of frontal zones.

The Mediterranean front

The Mediterranean front exists only in winter and extends from west to
east across the Mediterranean, separating polar continental air
originating from Europe and tropical continental air from North Africa.

The intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)

The intertropical convergence zone lies within the tropics and is a broad
zone of separation between the NE and SE Trades that flow
equatorwards from opposite hemispheres. It was formerly known as the
Intertropical Front but this term has fallen into disuse, because the
opposing air masses do not differ greatly in their characteristics and it
bears little resemblance to other fronts.
The ITCZ crosses and recrosses the equator at several points and
moves well north in the summer. Due to the very large land masses in the
northern hemisphere, the greater part of its length (in its mean position)
lies north of the equator. Its range of movement is small over the oceans
but may be very large over the continents. Areas of horizontal
convergence along this belt vary from day to day in both position and
activity but are generally associated with cloudy showery weather. (See
Figure 13.1(d).)

FRONTAL THEORY OF FORMATION OF

DEPRESSIONS
Within the temperate zones, cold air flowing from high latitudes
encounters warm air moving from sub-tropical regions. The two air
masses are separated by a frontal surface that slopes upward over the
colder denser air at a gradient that varies from 1 in 40 to 1 in 200. (See
Figures 13.1(a), (b) and (c).)
The polar front tends to remain inactive so long as the warm and cold
air masses flow parallel to one another, but when they converge warm,
moist air is forced upwards over the cold frontal surface. This can result
in the formation of much cloud and precipitation and often starts the
mechanism that leads to the formation and development of a frontal
depression. The sequence of events is described in the following
paragraphs:
 Under suitable conditions, a small wave forms on the polar front, so
that at this point there is a bulge of warm air protruding into the cold. See
Figure 13.2 and note that the two air masses flow more or less parallel to
one another along the polar front, except at the bulge where the winds
are convergent. (See Convergence in the Glossary.)

Fig 13.2 Birth of a depression on polar front.

The wave continues to grow in size. Development usually follows and

pressure falls at the crest of the wave.
Enlargement of the bulge continues and this is accompanied by a
further fall in pressure. The isobars then assume the closed form of a
depression and the wind circulates round the tip of the bulge. As pressure
continues to fall, the gradient becomes steeper and the winds stronger.
(See Figure 13.3.)
Fig 13.3 Early development.

Figure 13.3 shows the isobars and fronts of a well-developed and

active depression. The line LX is a warm front, since warm air is
replacing cold air along this line. LY is a cold front since cold air is
replacing warm air along this line. The warm and cold fronts are
represented on the weather chart by the symbols shown in Figure 13.3.
On working charts, warm and cold fronts are represented by red and blue
lines respectively.
The area between LX and LY is known as the ‘warm sector’ of the
depression.
The centre of the depression will move along the polar front in a
direction roughly parallel to the isobars in the warm sector and at a speed
approximating that of the air in the warm sector. (See Figure 13.3.)

Clouds and weather at fronts

The tables showing weather sequence at warm and cold fronts should be
studied in conjunction with figures 13.4 and 13.5, respectively. It is
important to remember that the description of frontal weather that
follows can only be general; every depression and every front is
different, some fronts have no rain at all, others may have precipitation
far in excess of the average. Similarly, cloud structures do not always
conform to the classic examples given.

Fig 13.4 Vertical section across an average warm front.

† Backing in northern hemisphere, veering in southern hemisphere.
‡ Veering in northern hemisphere, backing in southern hemisphere.
* If the air temperature is low enough, snow will fall instead of rain.

Fig 13.5 Vertical section across an average cold front.

† Backing in northern hemisphere, veering in southern hemisphere.
‡ Veering in northern hemisphere, backing in southern hemisphere.
* If the air temperature is low enough, snow will fall instead of rain.

THE OCCLUDING OF A DEPRESSION

The cold front advances faster than the warm front and gradually
overtakes it, commencing at the tip of the warm sector and working
down the length of the front until the occluding process has been
completed and all the tropical air has been lifted off the ground. Figures
13.6 and 13.7 show the stages in the occluding process. Note that the
symbol for an occlusion is a combination of those used for warm and
cold fronts. On working charts, an occlusion is represented by a purple
line.

Fig 13.6 Depression beginning to occlude.

Fig 13.7 Partly occluded depression.

An occlusion is classified as warm or cold according to whether the

overtaking polar air is warmer or colder than the retreating polar air,
respectively. In the former case, the overtaking air will override the
colder air and, in the latter case, will undercut the warmer air. (See
Figures 13.8(a) and (b), 13.9(a) and (b).)
Fig 13.8(a) Shape of warm occluded front on the surface chart.

Fig 13.8(b) Vertical section across warm occlusion.

Fig 13.9(a) Shape of cold occluded front on the surface chart.

Fig 13.9(b) Vertical cross-section across a cold occlusion.

In Figures 13.8(a) and 13.9(a) the position of the upper front is

indicated by a dotted line. Compare these two figures and notice that the
line marking a cold occlusion is continuous with the line of the cold front
whereas the warm occlusion is shown as a continuation of the warm
front.
MATURITY AND DISSOLUTION OF A
DEPRESSION
The energy to develop and sustain an active frontal depression is derived
mainly from the supply of air in the warm sector. Thus, a depression
having a wide warm sector will usually continue to deepen and grow in
size while unoccluded, and often during the early stages of occlusion.
Later, this development ceases and the speed and direction of movement
of the centre is no longer related to that of the air in the warm sector,
instead it becomes dependent on the general flow of air over a wide area.
Movement tends to become slow at this stage and the depression may
take several days to fill up, but the process of weakening is likely to be
more rapid over a surface that is relatively cold.
The arrival of a new, more vigorous system can destroy the old
circulation and cause it to fill up within 24 hours.

MOVEMENT OF DEPRESSIONS
• Small active depressions move faster than large dying ones.
• Small depressions tend to follow the flow of isobars in the general
pattern, ie to follow the main stream.
• All depressions move from areas of rising pressure tendency towards
areas of falling pressure tendency, ie from isallobaric high to
isallobaric low. (See Pressure tendency and Isallobar in the
Glossary.) If barometric tendencies are the same all round the centre of
a depression it will remain stationary.
• Depressions tend to follow the flow of air round the perimeter of large,
well-established, warm anticyclones.
• An unoccluded depression moves in a direction parallel to the isobars
in the warm sector and, at sea, at approximately the same speed as the
surface wind in the warm sector.
• A partly occluded depression tends to slow down as the occluding
process continues.
• A fully occluded depression becomes slow and sometimes erratic in
movement, but generally moving in the direction of the average flow
 of air up to the tropopause. It also tends to move off to the left of its
original track in the northern hemisphere and to the right in the
southern hemisphere.
• Large, completely occluded depressions are liable to become stationary,
or nearly so, especially if there is little horizontal change in
temperature within the area covered.
• A depression within a family (see Figure 13.10) follows the
approximate path of its parent but tends to move ‘off’ towards lower
latitudes.
• Secondary depressions tend to move with the main circulation of air
round the primary.
• A non-frontal depression tends to move in the same direction as the
strongest winds circulating round it.

THE FUTURE MOVEMENT OF A DEPRESSION

This can be estimated by ‘extrapolation’. That is, movement can be
assumed to continue as shown by a succession of synoptic charts: but
other factors should be taken into consideration, such as those previously
mentioned.

A ‘FAMILY’ OF DEPRESSIONS
The speed of movement of a cold front is greatest where the winds are
strongest, that is, near the depression’s centre. Near the perimeter of the
system movement is less rapid and, as the whole system advances, the
cold front tends to trail out well to the rear, where it is continuous with
the more or less inactive part of the polar front. A new depression may
be formed on this trailing cold front and, as it matures and occludes, the
process is repeated and another depression is born. In this way, a family
of three, four or five depressions may be formed, each new one on the
trailing cold front of its parent. (See Figure 13.10.)
Fig 13.10 Family of depressions.

The cold air circulating in the rear of each system pushes the polar
front further towards the sub-tropics; thus, the track of each depression in
the family commences in a lower latitude than that of its parent. Finally,
the cold air breaks through the polar front and flows equatorwards to
feed the Trade winds. Meanwhile, an anticyclone builds up in the polar
air, a new family commences to form on its poleward side and the whole
cycle may be repeated.
A family of depressions approaching the British Isles from the Atlantic
will give a period of very unsettled weather. The high-pressure ridges
between the lows will generally give short-lived periods of fine weather.

FORMATION OF SECONDARY DEPRESSIONS

A secondary depression is one that is contained within the circulation of
a larger depression called the primary. The depression forming on the
trailing cold front of a depression is an example of a secondary
depression. (See Figure 13.10.)
Occasionally, depressions can also form at the tip of the warm sector or
on the warm front of a partly occluded depression. These secondaries
form when the movement of the centre of the primary depression is
blocked. (See Figures 13.11(a) and (b).)
Fig 13.11(a) Secondary depression forming at the point of occlusion.

Fig 13.11(b) Secondary depression forming on a warm front.

MOVEMENT OF SECONDARY DEPRESSIONS

Secondaries have a tendency to move with the main flow of air round the
primary centre. Their speed of movement is governed by the strength of
wind in the primary circulation. As a secondary deepens it tends to
approach the centre of the primary and eventually absorbs it completely.
When, however, a secondary develops to about the same size and depth
as the primary, the two centres (which together form a ‘dumb-bell’-
shaped depression) tend to rotate about one another – anticlockwise in
the northern hemisphere. Secondaries that form at the occlusion point
(Figure 13.11(a)) move in the direction of the warm-sector isobars and
sometimes to the right of it.

QUESTIONS

1 Name the three principal frontal zones and the air masses that they
separate.
2 Explain what is meant by the term ‘ITCZ’ and describe its associated
weather.
3 Sketch a vertical cross-section showing the position of the warm and
cold air masses at a:
(a) warm front
(b) cold front
(c) warm occluded front
(d) cold occluded front
4 Sketch the international symbols used on synoptic charts to show the
position of:
(a) a warm front
(b) a cold front
(c) an occluded front
5 Describe the development of a mid-latitude frontal depression until it
becomes occluded. Illustrate your answer with sketches of the
isobars and fronts.
6 Describe the typical sequence observed with the passage of a warm
front.
 7 Describe the typical weather observed in the warm sector of a mid-
latitude frontal depression.
8 Describe the typical sequence of weather observed at the passage of
an active cold front.
9 Explain what is meant by the term ‘secondary depression’.
10 Explain what is meant by the term ‘family of depressions’.
14
NON-FRONTAL DEPRESSIONS

(See Convergence and Divergence in the Glossary.)

Frontal depressions occur most frequently in temperate latitudes. It
should not be assumed, however, that all depressions are associated with
fronts.

Formation of non-frontal depressions

(See Figure 14.1.)

1 Divergence at upper level reduces the total weight of air within a

limited area and barometric pressure falls at the surface.
2 Surface air flows in towards the area of low pressure with cyclonic
circulation.
3 Convergence at surface level causes ascent of moist air with
consequent increase in cloud and precipitation.
4 For this system to remain active, the outflow of air at upper level must
exceed the inflow at the surface.
5 When the inflow of air at the surface exceeds the outflow at height, the
depression will fill up.

THERMAL DEPRESSIONS
Land surfaces tend to heat and cool more quickly than sea surfaces.
Thus, in some areas the distribution of land and sea surfaces results in
unequal heating of the atmosphere in the surface layers.
Fig 14.1 Formation of lows and highs.

Thermal depressions are often caused by strong surface heating over

islands and peninsulas in summer, or over inland seas and lakes during
winter when the land is very cold relative to the water surface. A slack
pressure gradient gives very little wind and is therefore also favourable
for the formation of thermal lows. Taking the case of an island in the sun
on a day when there is very little wind, the general mechanics of
formation are as follows:

• Surface heating causes the air to expand vertically.

• This, in turn, gives high pressure at upper level. (Explanation
in Chapter 9.)
• Divergence from the upper high causes reduction in the total
weight of the air column and a fall in barometric pressure at
the surface.
• Warm air over the island readily ascends to replace the outflow
at higher level.
 • Moist air from over the sea surface flows into the low-pressure
area and feeds the ascending air.
• The system is further stimulated by the process of
condensation, which releases latent heat above the level of the
cloud base.

INSTABILITY DEPRESSIONS (POLAR

DEPRESSIONS)
Instability or polar depressions often form in the cold air to the rear of a
depression. They are caused by surface heating where a cold polar
airstream crosses the relatively warm ocean. The latent heat released
when water vapour condenses to form the convection cloud produces an
area of low pressure.
Most thermal lows give heavy showers or thunderstorms rather than
periods of continuous bad weather. The mariner should beware of sudden
violent squalls with large wind shifts and often complete reversal in wind
direction in the vicinity of thunderstorms.
Fig 14.2 An instability (polar depression).

OROGRAPHIC DEPRESSIONS (LEE

DEPRESSIONS)
An airstream that is obstructed by a mountain range may sweep around
the ends of the range. Air does, however, tend to ‘pile up’ on the weather
side, producing an increase in surface pressure. On the lee side, an eddy
effect tends to reduce pressure. Often, this produces only a slight ridge of
high pressure on the weather side and a slight trough of low pressure on
the lee side, but a shallow depression can develop on the lee side. A
depression that forms in this way can become very intense if conditions
are favourable and may continue to deepen as it moves away. Later, it
may become very similar to a frontal depression. Orographic depressions
tend to be associated with certain geographical locations. They often
form to the east of the Rockies and are associated with the region near
Genoa in northern Italy, when the wind blows southwards across the
Alps.
 QUESTIONS

1 State two examples of non-frontal depressions.

2 Describe the formation of
(a) a thermal depression
(b) an orographic depression
3 Describe the formation of, and weather associated with, an instability
depression.
15
ANTICYCLONES

The horizontal motion of the air in an anticyclone has a major influence

on its properties.
An area of convergence is one in which the horizontal inflow of air is
greater than the horizontal outflow at the same level. An area of
divergence is one in which the horizontal outflow exceeds the horizontal
inflow. Both of these motions are accompanied by compensatory vertical
motion.

FORMATION

• Convergence at upper level increases the quantity and total

weight of air within a limited area. This causes barometric
pressure to rise at the surface.
• In the northern hemisphere, the surface air circulates
anticyclonically round the high-pressure area with the usual
outflow (divergence) of air across the isobars towards areas of
lower pressure.
• This outflowing surface air is replaced only by dry air
descending vertically from above. The downward motion of the
air is known as ‘subsidence’.
• The high-pressure system will be maintained so long as the
convergence at upper level exceeds the surface divergence.
 • When the convergent flow of air at upper level ceases to feed the
subsidence, the system will decline.

SOME GENERAL PROPERTIES

The air at upper level is dry and is warmed by compressional heating as
it subsides into regions of higher pressure. Thus, in the central area of a
well-developed anticyclone the air at a height of 500m (1,640ft) is
generally warmer than the air below. This increase of air temperature
with height is called an inversion and is a very stable condition, in which
any vertical ascent of air is arrested at a low level. Since ascending air is
one essential condition for the formation of cloud and rain, it follows that
the central area of an anticyclone is generally associated with fine, dry
weather.

TYPES OF ANTICYCLONE
Anticyclones can be classified into two types: cold anticyclones and
warm anticyclones. The classification is based upon the temperature of
the surface air.

Cold anticyclones
Cold anticyclones are ones in which the air is colder than the air in the
surrounding area. They build up over large land masses in winter,
notably over Siberia, where the pressure may reach 1,050hPa or more.
They can also form over the North American continent, but this occurs
less frequently.
The process of formation is the reverse to that of a thermal low and
may be described therefore as a thermal high in which the air becomes
cooled through a long period in a cold region. The column of air over the
cold surface contracts vertically, leaving a deficiency of air at upper level
(an upper low). The resultant inflow increases the total quantity and
weight of air in the area and barometric pressure increases at surface
level (see Figure 15.1). The layer of cold air produced is very shallow
and lies in the lowest 3–4km (1.9–2.5 miles). Above this level, the air is
at ‘normal’ temperatures. This means that these anticyclones do not
appear on higher-level charts.

Fig 15.1 A ‘cold’ anticyclone.

In late winter, a ridge of high pressure protruding from the Siberian

high can give easterly winds over the British Isles and sometimes a
prolonged period of intensely cold weather. If the air is dry, the weather
will be clear, bright and frosty but if enough moisture is picked up from
over the North Sea it will be dull and foggy.

Transitory cold anticyclones

These commonly form within a polar maritime air mass in the temperate
latitudes and in the rear of a family of depressions. Weak ones sometimes
develop into intense centres when they move over cold land in the
winter. In the summer, such systems are generally short-lived.
An anticyclone or ridge separating successive depressions of a family
normally moves with the depressions.
In winter, near coasts where the air is moist, layer-type cloud spreads
below the subsidence inversion and accumulates smoke pollution and
dust causing anticyclonic gloom, particularly in and near large industrial
areas. Under these conditions, artificial light is sometimes necessary
during daylight hours in order to carry on with normal work indoors.
Inland, where the air is drier, clear skies at night can cause intense
radiation cooling and there is every likelihood of frost or radiation fog.

Warm anticyclones
These are anticyclones in which the surface is warmer than the
surrounding air but at higher levels the air in these anticyclones is
actually colder than the surrounding environment at corresponding
levels. These features can be identified on charts through the full depth
of the troposphere. These anticyclones are formed by the air motion in
the upper atmosphere.

Permanent warm anticyclones

These are the oceanic highs in the sub-tropical belts. These systems are
very stable and the weather is generally fine with little or no cloud and
good visibility. Their average seasonal movement, north and south with
the sun, lies somewhere between latitudes 30° and 40° in both
hemispheres, although the mean positions of the centres for any
particular month vary considerably from year to year. The subtropical
highs are the source regions of the tropical maritime air flowing into
higher latitudes to meet the polar front.
When the Azores high is well developed and extends well to the north
of its average summer latitude we are likely to have a very fine and
settled summer in the British Isles so long as the situation is maintained.
Conversely, if the high is relatively weak and positioned in a lower-than-
average latitude for the season, our summer will probably be very
unsettled with many invading depressions and more than average
rainfall.

Temporary warm anticyclones

These may reach Great Britain as ridges moving along the northern
perimeter of the Azores high, or sometimes as separate centres that start
as ridges and then break off from the main system. In the British Isles,
they are more a feature of summer than winter and can persist for long
periods.
Temporary warm anticyclones may also develop as a result of
continued subsidence within a temporary cold high that remains
stationary for a long period.
A warm high often gives bright, fine weather, especially over land in
summer. There is a possibility of sea fog at any time of the year,
especially in the spring and early summer. In autumn and winter, light
winds of maritime origin can bring radiation fog.

QUESTIONS

1 Describe the processes that lead to the formation of an anticyclone.

2 Describe the general properties of an anticyclone.
3 Explain the differences between ‘warm’ and ‘cold’ anticyclones.
4 Describe how an anticyclone can affect the speed and direction of
movement of a depression.
16
TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS

A tropical revolving storm (TRS) is a disturbance originating in the

tropics. It is smaller in size than a temperate latitude depression and
usually of far greater intensity; the isobars are nearer to true circles; the
pressure gradient is very steep and there are no fronts.
These storms can blow with incredible fury and raise mountainous
seas; their extreme violence and destructive capacity are difficult to
realise without experience. The near vicinity of the centre presents
mariners with the most dangerous and dramatic weather conditions they
are likely to encounter. They occur in all oceans but are extremely rare in
the South Atlantic.
The terminology used by the official warning centres in different parts
of the world is not consistent. In the North Atlantic and NE Pacific the
terms used are that:

• a tropical depression will have sustained winds of Beaufort

Force 7 or less
• a tropical storm will have sustained winds of Beaufort Force 8,
9, 10 or 11
• a hurricane will have sustained winds of Beaufort Force 12
The Joint Typhoon Warning Center uses similar terms in the NW Pacific
with the term typhoon being used where sustained winds reach Beaufort
Force 12. The Japanese Meteorological Agency, working in the NW
Pacific, the Indian Meteorological Department and Meteo France, both in
the Indian Ocean, and the Australian Bureau of Meteorology and Fiji
Meteorological Service, in the Pacific, all use different classifications. It
is essential that a seafarer is aware of the meaning of the warnings being
issued.
The following notes are only general and it is important to remember
that every TRS is different in regard to size, intensity and behaviour; the
tracks and rate of travel vary with the general pressure distribution at the
time of the occurrence.

THE BIRTH AND LIFE OF A TROPICAL STORM

Origin
Tropical revolving storms form mostly on the western sides of the
oceans. They appear to require a water temperature of 26°C (80°F) in
order to form. They generally form between the latitudes of 8° and 20°
north and south of the equator. They do not form within 5° of the equator
because Coriolis force is too small in these latitudes and a circulation
cannot develop. TRS develop from pre-existing or ‘seedling’
disturbances, such as easterly waves (a type of trough) or clusters of
clouds associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone.
Fig 16.1 ‘Textbook’ paths of TRS in the northern and southern hemisphere.

Tracks
After forming, tropical cyclones generally travel westerly then north-
westerly or south-westerly, according to hemisphere (see Figure 16.1),
recurving in about 20° or more of latitude and then moving off towards
the north-east in the northern hemisphere and south-east in southern
latitudes. The point of recurvature that is the most western point on the
track is also called the vertex. (Do not confuse with vortex, which is the
centre of the storm). This broad pattern of movement is by no means
regular; it is sometimes very erratic. (See Figures 16.1 to 16.4.)
The tracks vary considerably and depend on the general pressure
distribution existing at the time. They tend to curve round the adjacent
subtropical anticyclone. An area of high pressure blocking the path can,
if of sufficient intensity, cause the storm to change its path. Seasonal
migration of the subtropical highs causes a corresponding north and
south movement of the average latitude of the vertex.
Figures 16.2, 16.3 and 16.4 show some typical tracks of tropical
revolving storms. Note that recurvature sometimes fails to take place.
Occasionally, a storm will curve right round so as to form a small loop in
the track and then continue along the original path. If two storms are in
close proximity they may interact and rotate around each other.
When a storm crosses the coast on to dry land it generally tends to die
out rapidly from lack of moisture, but not always. For example, Bay of
Bengal cyclones sometimes move across India and regenerate over the
Arabian Sea as a fresh moisture supply becomes available. Storms from
the China Sea may cross the land into the Bay of Bengal.
Some storms reach into temperate latitudes, by which time they will
have increased in size and lost much of their original intensity. They may
then assume the general characteristics of a temperate latitude depression
complete with fronts, or they may become absorbed in the circulation of
a frontal depression. The lifetime of a tropical cyclone may vary from a
couple of days to over a fortnight.
Fig 16.2 Some typical tracks of tropical revolving storms.

Fig 16.3 Some typical tracks of tropical revolving storms.

Fig 16.4 Some typical tracks of tropical cyclones.

Speed of progress
This varies with different storms and the average for each locality also
varies a little. In general, speed is slow at first and gradually increases to
10 or 12 knots. During recurvature, they slow down, more so if the curve
is sharp; sometimes they may become stationary or nearly stationary for
a time. After recurvature, speed increases to over 20 knots and
considerably more if they reach temperate latitudes.

TROPICAL STORM FEATURES

Pressure
Very few observations have been obtained from the centres of these
storms but something in the nature of 960hPa is likely at the centre of a
violent storm, though much lower readings have been recorded. The
hurricane-force winds are the result of a very steep pressure gradient, not
the actual pressure.

Wind force and direction

From the mariner’s viewpoint, the wind force and the height of the
waves are the significant features of a tropical cyclone. The pressure
gradient is generally very steep within about 160km (100 miles) from the
centre – something like 10hPa in 80km (50 miles) and increasing as the
centre is approached.
Wind force varies considerably with different storms. The winds are
strongest on the side of the storm that is nearest the adjacent subtropical
high, because the cyclonic circulation (ie anticlockwise in the northern
hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere) is reinforced by
the general airstream in which the storm is moving. Thus, the strongest
winds occur in the right-hand semicircle in the northern hemisphere and
in the left-hand semicircle in the southern hemisphere. In the centre
itself, there is a small circular area (of anything up to as much as 64km
(40 miles) in diameter) called the eye or the vortex in which there are
light variable winds, patches of blue sky visible between broken low
clouds, and a mountainous confused sea. (See Figure 17.2. See also
under Weather.)
Around the calm central eye lies a ring of very strong winds that is
known as the eyewall. Beyond the eyewall, the winds decay towards the
outer limits of the storm. At a range of 320km (200 miles), the wind
force may reduce to Force 6 or 7, with correspondingly smaller waves,
although there will probably be a very heavy swell, particularly on the
path in advance of the storm.
Very heavy rain is a feature of all tropical revolving storms.
Near the vortex the angle of indraft (see the Glossary) is smallest,
being only slightly aslant the isobars, while at a distance of about 320km
(200 miles) from the centre the wind may be across the isobars at an
angle of 45 degrees.

Cloud sequence
In a TRS, the cloud sequence is normally in the form of cirrus,
altostratus, cumulus fractus, scud and nimbostratus until the eye is
reached, when there will be a partly clear sky.
Weather
Very heavy rain is a feature of all tropical revolving storms, it usually
commences to fall as light rain at a distance of about 160–240km (100–
150 miles) from the centre. As the centre approaches, torrential rain,
hurricane-force winds with extremely violent squalls and sudden shifts
of wind are experienced, sometimes with thunder and lightning. The sea
becomes exceptionally high and is covered with froth and flying spray,
which mingles with the rain and fills the air with water; visibility is thus
very seriously impaired. The deafening roar, which accompanies this
weather close to the centre, will drown the noise of any thunderstorm.
Large seaworthy ships are liable to become unmanageable in such
conditions and may sustain heavy damage.
As the edge of the eye passes the wind suddenly becomes light, the rain
ceases, and the seas become mountainous and confused so that they
approach from all directions. Blue sky is often visible between broken
patches of low cloud. The roar of the wind and sea fades towards the
centre of the eye. The opposite side of the eye arrives with the same loud
roar and the sudden onslaught of violent winds strikes from the opposite
direction to that previously experienced.
The weather in the rear of the storm is generally less extensive and
passes more quickly than on the forward side. As the TRS moves
towards the shore, the interaction with other weather systems may
produce tornadoes.

Storm tides
The long swell ahead of a tropical cyclone is sometimes experienced at a
distance of more than 1,600km (1,000 miles) from the storm’s centre. It
travels much faster than the storm itself and, not infrequently, causes a
‘storm tide’ that results in disastrous flooding on the coast. The water
begins to rise one or two days before the arrival of the storm – that is
when the storm is 480–800km (300–
500 miles) away – and continues to rise until the storm passes or curves
away from the area. The rise of water may be in excess of 6m (18ft)
above the predicted level. The coastal flooding is particularly severe
where a coast is low lying and when the storm tide arrives at the time of
a high spring tide.

Size of tropical cyclones

Diameters vary from 80 to 1,600km (50–1,000 miles) and are rarely less
than 80km (50 miles) or more than 800km (500 miles); more often than
not they are over 160km (100 miles). A storm generally increases its area
as it progresses along its path.

Seasons
These storms develop during the warmest months of the year. Generally,
this is in late summer and early autumn of the appropriate hemisphere. In
monsoon areas the storms tend to occur at the inter-monsoon periods.
(See here.)

Formation of tropical cyclones

As yet, the process of the formation of these storms is not completely
understood but research continues and some of the conditions that are
known to be favourable are given below.
(a) It is essential that a weak cyclonic circulation should exist locally a
short time beforehand; this can occur only in latitudes where the
Earth’s rotation is effective (ie never less than 5° from the equator).
(b) An adequate supply of moisture in a deep, warm layer of unstable air
(see Chapter 5). The sea surface temperature must be at least 26°C
(80°F). These essential conditions exist mainly towards the end of the
hottest seasons.
(c) Little change in wind direction with height in the lower levels of the
troposphere.
Fig 16.5 Vertical cross-section through a TRS.

Nomenclature
Tropical revolving storms are known by local names in different parts of
the world and these names are given on page 124.

NOTES ON TRS BEHAVIOUR IN VARIOUS

REGIONS
West Indies and North Atlantic
These hurricanes develop in the doldrum area (Intertropical Convergence
Zone), which, at the beginning of the season (June) and end of the season
(November), is found mostly in the Caribbean, while at the middle of the
season the area extends to the Cape Verde islands. The track of these
storms is ‘steered’ by the position and extent of the permanent North
Atlantic anticyclone; if it extends to the American coast a storm may
perhaps not recurve but go right through the Caribbean and cross the US
coastline. Normally, however, the hurricanes recurve to the north and
east round the western extremity of the anticyclone. Most of the southern
coast of the Caribbean is not directly affected by these storms. It is not
uncommon for a hurricane to skirt the US coastline well beyond New
York. The average rate of progress of the hurricanes is about 500km (300
miles) per day and their average life is about six days. During the worst
month (September), the average number of storms that reached hurricane
force during an 80-year period was two.
* Worst months refer to wind force, not frequency. Months in which
storms occur most frequently are from July to October (inclusive).

Arabian Sea
The areas in which these cyclones originate depends on the monsoon
season.
During the SW monsoon (April to July) it is near the Maldive Islands
(5°–10°N, 65°–75°E); in the NE monsoon season it moves to the vicinity
of the Laccadive Islands (9°–14°N, 70°–75°E). Occasional storms enter
the Arabian Sea from the Bay of Bengal via Sri Lanka. The tracks of all
these cyclones are very variable; their average rate of progress is about 7
knots. In the worst months of each season (May/June and
October/November), during a 66-year period, there was an average of
one storm every two years.

Bay of Bengal
The birthplace of these cyclones is also governed by the monsoon season
and tends to move with the sun. During the SW monsoon they are
generally born somewhere near the Nicobar Islands (6°–9°N, 92°–94°E)
in April and north of
16°N in June; in the NE monsoon season their birthplace has moved
south to about 12°N by November. Some typhoons from the western
North Pacific enter the Bay via the Thai/Malay Peninsular area. Tracks of
storms in the Bay of Bengal tend to go to the NW and N; they may also
go due W or even to eastward. In each of the worst months (October and
November) during a 61-year period there was about one violent storm (ie
reaching Force 12) per year; during the lesser maximum period (June
and July) there was only about one every two years.

Western North Pacific and China Sea1

This is by far the most active region for tropical storms. Most of them
are born somewhere between the Philippines (about 125°E) and the
Marshall Islands (170°E), between 5°N and 20°N; a very large area to
choose from. Although these typhoons generally tend to follow a
conventional track (NW, N and then NE), they sometimes behave quite
erratically and some of them travel about WNW and may enter the Bay
of Bengal overland. Their rate of progress might be anything between 10
and 20 knots. In the worst months (July to September) during a 70-year
period there was an average of about four storms per month over the
whole area.

Eastern North Pacific

Most of the hurricanes here originate between about 120°W and the
Central American coast, between about 10° and 30°N. Their tracks
generally follow the coastline more or less in a NW’ly direction but they
may go to the westward. The storm field is usually rather small; their rate
of progress might be about 10 knots. In this area the mariner may have
little or no warning of a storm’s approach, the usual indications (see
Chapter 17) being sometimes absent, especially during the season of bad
weather (June to November). In the worst month, September, during an
18-year period, the average number of storms recorded was about two.
There was an average of only 7.4 per annum.

South Indian Ocean

The season for these cyclones (November to April) coincides with the
NE monsoon in the Arabian Sea, which becomes a NW wind after
crossing the equator. The cyclones are born in the doldrums between this
NW monsoon wind and the SE Trade wind area, somewhere between
Southern Sumatra (about 100°E) and Malgache (Madagascar) (about
50°E) and between 7° and 12°S. They cover, therefore, a very large
stretch of ocean; fortunately, they tend to follow conventional tracks
(SW, S and then SE). Their rate of progress is about 8 knots normally.
The worst months are January and February. During a 100-year period,
the average number of storms was about eight per annum, most of which
occurred to the west of longitude 80°E.

North-west Australia
The Arafura Sea, due north of Australia, is the usual breeding ground for
cyclones, though sometimes they are born in the Timor Sea area. They
normally follow a conventional track (SW, S and then SE) and
occasionally they reach as far south as the Great Australian Bight. The
worst months are January and February. The average is not more than
one per annum.

South Pacific
There are no tropical storms in the eastern South Pacific. In the western
part of the ocean the hurricanes originate somewhere in the enormous
area between 160°E (south of the Solomon Islands) and 140°W
(Marquesas Islands) and between 5° and 20°S. They may be born as far
west as the Coral Sea (about 150°E). They tend to follow a conventional
track (SW, S and then SE); sometimes they reach the Australian coast.
Their speed of advance may vary between 10 and 15 knots. In the worst
months (January, February and March), during a 105-year period, the
average number of recorded storms was about one per month every two
years.

QUESTIONS

1 Explain the meaning of the terms:

(a) eye
(b) eye wall
(c) vertex
2 Describe those conditions that are known to be essential for the
formation of tropical hurricanes.
3 Describe the winds, weather and state of sea that a stationary
observer is likely to experience with the approach, passage and
retreat of a TRS. Assume the storm’s eye is 320km (200 miles)
distant to start with and that the storm will pass directly over the
observer’s position.
4 List three of the local names used for tropical revolving storms.
5 Sketch the ‘textbook’ tracks of TRS in the northern and southern
hemispheres, indicating the latitude in which they form.

NOTES
1 At the end of Chapter 17, reference is made to special features of tropical storms in the China
Sea and Western North Pacific and also in the South Indian Ocean.
17
AVOIDANCE OF THE WORST
EFFECTS OF A TRS

WARNING SIGNS
In any locality during the tropical revolving storm (TRS) season,
navigators must exercise constant vigilance to ensure that they are not
caught unawares in the path of a storm. Fortunately, nature provides
warning signs to the alert; also the meteorological services ashore
broadcast very valuable warnings by radio (see Admiralty List of Radio
Signals Vol 3) whenever it is available from ship and/or other sources.
The mariner’s aim must be to avoid getting near the centre of the
storm; here again nature provides these storms with certain common
features that have enabled the evolvement of guidance ‘rules’ to help in
keeping the ship out of serious trouble.
Except for the behaviour of the barometer, any one of the following
warning signs, if taken alone, is only an uncertain indication of the
approach of a TRS. Barometer, swell, sky, etc, must be considered
together.

Natural warnings
The barometer In temperate latitudes, atmospheric pressure is subject to
large, rapid and very irregular daily changes caused by the development
and movement of travelling weather systems. In the tropics, however, in
normal weather, the day-to-day changes in the readings of the barometer
are very small and follow a very regular pattern of diurnal variation;
consequently, the barometer needs to be corrected for its diurnal
variation.
Figure 17.1 shows a typical curve of pressure changes for a day in the
tropics. The maxima occur at 10.00 and 22.00 hours, local time, and the
minima at 04.00 and 16.00 hours. The range of daily change averages
3hPa at the equator, decreasing with latitude (N and S) to 2.5hPa at
latitude 30° and 1.7hPa at 35°.

Fig 17.1 Diurnal range of pressure in the tropics.

In any region and season when tropical cyclones are likely to occur, no
matter how fine and settled the weather may appear, the barometer
should be read and recorded every hour. The reading, after having
being reduced to sea level, should then be corrected for diurnal
variation.1 Each reading thus corrected should be compared with the
mean pressure for the locality and season (as shown in the Admiralty
Pilot or Meteorological Climatological Atlas) and, if it is 3hPa or more
below the mean pressure, or if there is a marked departure from the
diurnal variation, there is a risk of a TRS forming or developing and
a warning signal should immediately be sent by radio to the nearest coast
radio station and repeated to all ships.
If a corrected reading is as low as 5hPa below normal, it should be
taken to mean that a TRS is almost certainly somewhere in the area and
probably within 320km (200 miles) of the observer.
When the storm is 800–1,600km (500–1,000 miles) away the
barometer usually becomes unsteady and often rises a little above the
normal. This is followed by a definite slow fall, usually over a distance
of 800–200km (500–120 miles) from the storm centre, thereafter the rate
of fall increases, becoming rapid on the near approach of the centre.
Appearance of sky Vivid colouring at sunrise and sunset are often a
warning feature, accompanied or followed by cirrus cloud, not
infrequently in V-shaped formation pointing towards the centre. Cirrus
may first appear when the storm is from 480–960km (300–600 miles)
away and is often the first warning of a TRS, even in the early stages of
development. Later, there will be altostratus and eventually cumulus
fractus and scud.
Swell There will be a long swell coming from the direction of the
storm centre provided that there is no land intervening between the storm
and the ship. The swell travels faster than the storm and usually extends
more than 650km (400 miles) and sometimes 1,600km (1,000 miles)
from the centre. Thus, it may well be the first warning sign.
Visibility Exceptionally good visibility frequently precedes a tropical
revolving storm.
Wind During the storm season, an appreciable increase in wind force
and/or direction should be regarded as a possible indication of the
approach of a TRS.

Warning by radar
The average merchant ship’s 3cm radar can, in normal propagation
conditions, display rain at a maximum range of about 48km (30 miles),
so its value in warning of a tropical storm is very limited. Nevertheless,
within that range very clear radar screen pictures of the rain belt
surrounding the eye (vortex) have been seen, the eye itself showing as a
dark circular area in the centre. However, by this time the ship will have
already become heavily involved in the storm.

Radio warnings from a meteorological service

All ocean areas that are visited by tropical storms are now covered by
radio weather bulletins and storm warnings issued by one or more local
meteorological services.
Images from meteorological satellites (see the Glossary) provide
valuable information about existing storms and their development, and in
some areas reconnaissance aircraft keep in contact with each storm.
Provided that the extent, wind force, existing track and speed of
movement of a storm are known, detailed warnings can be broadcast to
shipping at suitable intervals, including forecasts of the storm’s probable
behaviour. These storms are born in mid-ocean and reports from ships
are a valuable addition to the information that meteorologists gain from
satellite images. This is recognised by the International Convention for
Safety of Life at Sea, which requires the master of any ship who suspects
the existence of a tropical storm to report it.
With the advent of the Global Maritime Distress and Safety Systems
(GMDSS), a large proportion of ships no longer carry qualified radio
officers. Information concerning meteorological warnings, including that
relating to TRS, is principally conveyed now by telex or Navtex. This
emphasises the responsibility of the master and ship’s officers to report
any likely indications.

MASTER’S ACTION WHEN STORM IS

SUSPECTED OR KNOWN TO EXIST
Article 35 of the International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea calls
for a safety message to be sent as soon as possible to the nearest
authority ashore and broadcast to shipping in the vicinity. Such a
message might read:

Storm warning
 Typhoon seems to be developing. 0840 GMT. August 15.
06°35’N, 133°20’E. Barometer corrected 1,000 hectopascals,
tendency down 3 hectopascals. Wind NW Force 4. Moderate
westerly swell. Cirrus clouds. Course 345, 15 knots.

Similar reports should be sent at intervals of not more than three hours
until the ship is clear of the storm.
It is in the interest of the reporting ship and all other ships that weather
reports are sent also to meteorological authorities at frequent intervals.
Normal seamanlike precautions should be taken on board for
exceptionally rough weather.

PRACTICAL RULES FOR AVOIDING THE WORST

OF A TROPICAL STORM
As the isobars in a tropical revolving storm are always roughly circular
in shape the storm field has two semicircles, which can be classified as
‘left’ and ‘right’. If an observer faces the direction in which the storm is
travelling, the left-hand semicircle is on the observer’s left and the right-
hand semicircle is on the observer’s right. For safety purposes, the
semicircles are classified as ‘dangerous’ and ‘navigable’. (See Figure
17.2.)

The dangerous semicircle

This is the right-hand one in the northern hemisphere and the left-hand
one in the southern latitudes. It is termed dangerous because the winds
therein tend to blow a ship into the path of the advancing storm’s centre,
or the storm might recurve and the centre pass over the ship. The
advance quadrant of this semicircle is particularly dangerous. The winds
in the dangerous semicircle are stronger than those in the navigable
semicircle.

The navigable semicircle

Here, the winds tend to blow the ship towards the rear of the path, and it
lies on that side of the path that is away from the direction in which a
storm usually recurves.

Before deciding on evasive action the master needs to know:

1 the bearing of the storm’s centre

2 if possible, the distance from the centre
3 the semicircle in which the ship is located
4 the likely path of the storm

1 Find the bearing of the centre

Use Buys Ballot’s Law (see Chapter 9 and the Glossary). Remember, the
wind crosses the isobars at an angle of about 45 degrees at the edge of
the storm field, decreasing until nearly parallel with the isobars near the
centre. Face the wind and the centre is on your right in the northern
hemisphere and on your left in the southern hemisphere. Allow about
12 compass points when the corrected barometer reading starts to fall,
then 10 points when it has fallen 10hPa and 8 points if it falls 20hPa or
more. The wind direction tends to be erratic during squalls. The best time
for observing is when the wind steadies just after a squall.

2 Try to estimate the distance from the centre

As a very rough guide, in the absence of detailed meteorological data,
the centre would probably be about 320km (200 miles) away if the
corrected barometer reading is 5hPa below the local normal and the wind
Force is about 6. If the wind Force is 8 the centre is probably within
160km (100 miles).

3 Find out in which semicircle the ship is located

To a stationary observer in either hemisphere, the wind shifts to the right
in the right-hand semicircle, ie veers, and to the left in the left-hand
semicircle, ie backs. Therefore, to eliminate the relative motion problem
between ship and storm, the master should heave-to or stop the ship to
find out the true windshift and thus determine the semicircle .
If the wind veers, the ship is in the right-hand semicircle; if it backs,
she is in the left-hand semicircle; if it is steady in direction, she is in the
direct path of the storm.
The barometer falls ahead of the trough and rises in the rear, thus the
quadrant can also be determined.

4 Try to find the likely path of the storm

Provided the ship is either stopped or hove-to, a very rough estimate of
the storm’s probable path can be made by working out two bearings of
the centre (as described earlier) with an interval of about three hours
between them. The storm is less likely to be decreasing its latitude and, if
the latitude is less than 20°, it is unlikely to be making any movement
towards the east.
A diagram similar to Figure 17.2 (but omitting the ship) on a piece of
tracing paper will be found useful here in deciding what action to take.
The answers to all of these questions will be very greatly facilitated if
official information about the storm’s behaviour has been received by
radio from a meteorological service.

ACTION TO AVOID THE WORST OF THE STORM:

NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
Right-hand or ‘dangerous’ semicircle (Figure 17.2. Ship A). If under
power proceed with maximum practical speed with wind ahead or on
starboard bow, hauling round to starboard as the wind veers. If sea room
is inadequate to make headway, or if the ship is under sail only, then
heave-to on starboard tack.
Left-hand or ‘navigable’ semicircle (Figure 17.2. Ship B). Run with
the wind well on the starboard quarter (whether under power or sail)
making all possible speed and haul round to port as the wind backs. If
sea room is insufficient to make headway, heave-to on whichever tack is
considered to be the safest under existing circumstances and conditions.

Fig 17.2 Avoiding the centre of a TRS in the northern hemisphere.

In direct path and ahead of storm (Figure 17.2. Ship C). With the
wind on the starboard quarter, make all possible speed into the navigable
semicircle. If there is inadequate sea room to do this, it may be
preferable to proceed into the dangerous semicircle rather than stay in
the direct path, but be on the alert for possible recurvature.
Vessel overtaking the storm (Figure 17.2. Ship D). This may not be
unusual in the fast ships of today. Heave-to; the wind will then shift to
the right and the barometer will rise, showing that Ship D is in the rear
quadrant of the dangerous semicircle. She should then get the wind on
the starboard bow (Ship E) and allow the storm to get clear.
 If Ship D does not heave-to when the storm is first suspected and
continues on course, the barometer will fall and the wind will shift to the
left. This can lead to an erroneous assumption that she is in the left-hand
semicircle ahead of the trough; if she then proceeds (obeying the rules)
with the wind on the starboard quarter she may run into the dangerous
quadrant, especially if her original course was converging with the path.

ACTION TO AVOID THE WORST OF THE STORM:

SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
Exactly the same principles apply as in the northern hemisphere, but
because the wind circulates clockwise, the left-hand semicircle is the
‘dangerous’ one and the right-hand one is ‘navigable’. Thus, the action
to be taken to keep the ship clear of the worst of the storm is different, as
summarised below.
Left-hand or ‘dangerous’ semicircle (Figure 17.3. Ship F). If under
power, proceed at maximum practicable speed with the wind ahead or on
port bow hauling round as the wind backs. If it is impracticable to make
headway, heave-to on the port tack.
Right-hand ‘navigable’ semicircle (Figure 17.3. Ship G). Run with
the wind on the port quarter, making all possible speed and hauling
round to starboard as the wind veers. If it is impracticable to make
headway, heave-to in the most comfortable position.
On the storm path ahead of the centre (Figure 17.3. Ship H). With
the wind on the port quarter, make all possible speed into the navigable
semicircle. If there is insufficient sea room for this, act as described for
northern hemisphere.
Vessel overtaking the storm (Figure 17.3. Ship J). Heave-to; the
windshift to
the left and rising barometer will show Ship J to be in the rear quadrant
of the
dangerous semicircle. Get the wind on the port bow (Ship K).
Fig 17.3 Avoiding the centre of a TRS in the southern hemisphere.

USE OF SAFETY SECTORS – ADDITIONAL

PRECAUTION
The following procedure is only possible when accurate, regular reports
of the storm’s progress are available (refer to Figure 17.4).

1 On the chart, plot the reported position of the storm’s centre (A).
2 From A lay off the track and distance the centre is expected to make
during the next 24 hours (AB).
3 With A (the eye) as centre and radius AB construct an 80-degree
sector (with 40 degrees on each side of the track). This will be sector
1 in Figure 17.4 (refer to N hemisphere).
4 Endeavour to keep the ship outside this sector that is a ‘dangerous’
area.
5 Each time the storm alters its direction of movement, lay off a new
sector.
The normal ‘rules’ for avoiding the worst of a TRS must still be adhered
to in principle.

Fig 17.4 A, C and E are successive positions of the storm’s centre as reported by radio
and the expected tracks are AB, CD and EF.

SHIP IN HARBOUR
When in harbour, whether lying alongside or at anchor, during a tropical
storm season or period, vigilance must be maintained as at sea.
Barometer, wind and sky need watching carefully and it is desirable, if
practicable, to set a modified radio listening watch for weather bulletins
and all possible methods should be employed to obtain information about
the storm.
If a storm is threatened, early seamanlike precautions must be taken. If
it seems likely that the storm centre will pass nearby it may be best to
proceed to sea, provided that there is plenty of sea room available. If
remaining in harbour and at anchor, there is the likelihood of having to
use main engines and/or to let go a second anchor. Buoying the anchors
with brightly painted buoys might well facilitate their successful use for
this purpose.
A small ship at sea within access of a suitable harbour may benefit by
seeking shelter rather than remaining at sea.

LOCAL PECULIARITIES OF TROPICAL STORMS

China Sea and western North Pacific
If there is a fairly steady south-west or north-west wind in June to
September in the northern part of the China Sea, a typhoon to the
northward is probable, the reason being that there is no season when
these winds are normally common; even the south-west monsoon is
usually from the south or south-east.

South Indian Ocean

An approaching cyclone may be masked by the SE Trade wind; should
the Trade wind approach gale force, the ship should be hove-to so as to
observe the windshift.
In all tropical revolving storm areas storm behaviour may be very
erratic.

QUESTIONS

1 (a) Explain why the ‘dangerous’ and ‘navigable’ semicircles of a TRS

(hurricane), are so named.
(b) Use a sketch to show which is the dangerous semicircle in the
northern hemisphere.
2 A vessel is in the vicinity of a tropical cyclone. Explain why the
master may consider it necessary to stop the vessel or heave-to
before deciding upon which action should be taken.
3 List the signs that give warning that a TRS is approaching a vessel.
 4 Explain why tropical cyclones are more likely to be found on the
western side of an ocean.
5 State the action that the master of a vessel must take in accordance
with the International Convention of Safety of Life at Sea, when the
presence of a TRS is suspected.
6 On a voyage from Sydney, Australia, to Fiji, the warning signs of the
approach of a TRS are observed. Describe how the master should
estimate the bearing of the centre of the storm, the quadrant in which
the vessel is located and the distance from the centre of the storm.
7 A vessel is in the North Atlantic when it encounters a hurricane.
State the action that should be taken by the vessel if found to be in
the:
(a) dangerous semicircle
(b) direct path of the storm
8 (a) State the average range of the diurnal range of atmospheric
pressure in the tropics and the local times at which the maximum
and minimum pressures occur.
(b) State where the normal barometric pressure and the diurnal range
for any locality can be found.
9 The master of a vessel in the North Atlantic receives a warning that a
hurricane was in the vicinity. The barometer is found to be falling
and the wind is veering and increasing in speed. The master alters
course and proceeds with maximum practical speed with the wind on
the starboard bow. Explain where the vessel was located in relation
to the TRS and state whether the correct action was taken.
10 Describe, with the aid of a diagram, how safety sectors should be
interpreted to avoid the worst effects of a TRS, assuming that regular
reports of the storm’s movement are being received.

NOTES
1 Caution: When entering a barometric pressure in the logbook, or when including it in a radio
weather report, the correction for diurnal variation should NOT be applied. This correction is
only for the master’s operational use during the tropical cyclone season in the area.
18
WEATHER FORECASTING FOR THE
SEAFARER

International co-operation is vital, as the weather does not recognise

political frontiers and every country needs weather information that is as
accurate as possible. This is not only for public safety, but also for
transport and a variety of economic and industrial purposes, such as
agriculture and tourism. Producing good-quality forecasts depends upon
the rapid receipt of regular observations from a wide variety of locations
over land and sea.

GLOBAL WARMING
Concern about changes in the Earth’s climate has grown steadily,
particularly since the last quarter of the 20th century. It is well
established that the quantity of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the Earth’s
atmosphere has been steadily increasing, as a result of the burning of
fossil fuels, such as coal, oils and wood. CO2 is an important
atmospheric gas because it is relatively transparent to short-wave
radiation from the sun but absorbs long-wave radiation from the earth
and the clouds. An increase in CO2 should raise the mean temperature of
the Earth because it prevents the outgoing radiation from leaving.
In 1988, the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) was established. There are difficulties in identifying the
effects of global warming, since the Earth’s climate is naturally variable.
Computer models of the atmosphere are used to try to predict the effects
of CO2 and with the tremendous improvements in computing power
since the IPCC was established, the computer models have become much
more sophisticated. They are now better equipped to deal with the
modelling of the effect of clouds and other feedback mechanisms: for
example, melting of ice due to warming would lead to less solar
radiation being reflected and so would increaser global warming. This
rise would cause more water to evaporate from the ocean and since water
vapour is a greenhouse gas, this would further increase global warming.
By contrast, an increase in cloud cover would increase the amount of
solar radiation reflected back into space, which would reduce the
warming. Global warming would not produce an equal temperature rise
everywhere on the Earth’s surface, but is predicted to produce regional
and seasonal variations in the general weather pattern. The impact on
agriculture and food production would be important, as would be a rise
in sea level.
The latest IPCC report finds that warming of the atmosphere and ocean
system is ‘unequivocal’ and many of the associated impacts such as sea
level change have occurred, since 1950, at rates unprecedented in the
historical record. The IPCC report also suggests that further warming
will continue if emissions of greenhouse gases continue. The impact
would include the oceans continuing to warm, with heat extending to the
deep ocean, affecting circulation patterns, decreases in Arctic sea ice
cover, and a further faster rise in global temperatures.

SHIPPING AND CLIMATE CHANGE

It has long been suggested that shipping had some impact upon the
Earth’s climate and some evidence has been found to support this view.
For example, clouds produced by ships’ exhaust gases were first
observed in the 1960s, whereby ships were releasing their exhaust gases
into the relatively clean and still marine air. These tracks were observed
to be very persistent in some parts of the oceans.
Shipping was examined more closely as concern about the emission of
greenhouse gases grew. A report, commissioned by the International
Maritime Organization (IMO), found that between 2007 and 2012 the
international shipping industry produced 2.5 per cent of global
greenhouse gas emissions. These emissions were more than that
produced by several countries and the emissions from shipping were
likely to rise in the future. The IMO recently announced that after many
years of negotiations an ‘initial strategy’ had been agreed to reduce CO2
emissions from shipping. It was agreed that the overall CO2 output
should be cut by 50 per cent by 2050 and that the reduction should begin
as soon as possible. The initial strategy includes efforts to make vessels
more efficient, to reduce the amount of CO2 emitted for each unit of
transport work completed. The agreement includes a reference to
bringing shipping in line with the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement’s
temperature goal.

INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION
International co-operation in meteorology has maritime origins because
the weather directly affects the safety, comfort and prosperity of the
seafarer more than almost anyone else. Lieutenant Maury of the US
Navy inspired and organised the first International Conference on
Maritime Meteorology in Brussels in 1853. As a result of this
conference, the UK Meteorological Office was begun, with Admiral
Fitzroy as its first director. The initial function of the Meteorological
Office was to collect observations from ships at sea for compiling
meteorological atlases, and to collect data about the surface currents of
the oceans and other phenomena for the benefit of shipping. Admiral
Fitzroy coined the term ‘forecast’ in its meteorological sense when he
first attempted to anticipate the weather and issue visual storm warnings
in about 1860.
In 1873, the IMO was founded following an international conference in
Leipzig. The directors of most of the world’s weather services were at
the conference and the result was very successful, with all
meteorological activities worldwide being co-ordinated. In 1951, the
IMO was transformed into the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO), an official inter-governmental body and specialised agency of
the United Nations.

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

The supreme body of the WMO is the World Meteorological Congress,
which determines policy. Each member state and territory is represented
when the Congress meets every four years. Congress elects the President
and Vice-Presidents of the Organization and members of the Executive
Council; and appoints the Secretary-General. The Executive Council
(EC) meets about once a year and implements Congress decisions. There
are six Regional Associations (RA); each is responsible for the co-
ordination of meteorological, hydrological and related activities within
their respective region. Technical work is carried out by eight Technical
Commissions responsible for studying meteorological and hydrological
operational systems, applications and research. These establish
methodology and procedures and make recommendations to Executive
Council and the World Meteorological Congress.

Observations
Led by the WMO, national meteorological and hydrological services
provide daily weather forecasts and warnings of high-impact weather
events. Countless lives have been saved by these forecasts. In order to
produce the forecasts, many millions of observations are made. WMO is
responsible for the technical standards of the equipment used and
controls the quality of the data that is collected. Observations are made at
land stations, by vessels at sea, drifting and moored buoys, on
commercial aircraft and by satellite. Data is exchanged between
countries and then fed into numerical prediction models in computers to
produce weather forecasts.

VOLUNTARY OBSERVING SHIP SCHEME

The oceans occupy three-quarters of the Earth’s surface and are the main
source of atmospheric disturbances. This means that regular observations
from ocean areas are essential. The Voluntary Observing Ship Scheme is
an international scheme and was begun under the auspices of the WMO.
Since 1999, the marine activities of the WMO and the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of ENESCO have been co-ordinated
by a joint technical committee (JCOMM).
Ships are recruited by member states on the basis that the shipping
company and the ship’s officers are willing to undertake the observations
and that the ship follows a regular route. The main contact for these
vessels is the Port Meteorological Officer.
Observations are generally made at the standard (or major) synoptic
hours of 00.00, 06.00, 12.00 and 18.00 UTC, and are sent to a
meteorological service, often by INMARSAT. Sometimes, observations
are also made at the intermediate reporting times (minor synoptic hours)
of 03.00, 09.00, 15.00 and 21.00 UTC. Most of the voluntary observing
ships are ‘selected ships’. These are equipped with certified
meteorological instruments for making observations. They transmit
regular weather observations and keep a meteorological logbook. As a
minimum, a selected ship should have at least a barometer, a
thermometer for sea surface temperature, a psychrometer and a
barograph.
Many states have begun to equip vessels with automatic weather
stations to reduce the workload on ships’ officers. There are several
systems; some stand alone and others accept manual input of visual
observations, such as cloud type. Electronic logbook software has also
been developed. The observations are still taken manually, but are then
entered into a software package that calculates the true wind, the mean
sea level pressure (correcting for the height of the bridge) and the dew
point. This same software can also code the observation.

WEATHER SATELLITES
There are two principal types of weather satellite: geostationary and
polar orbiting. Geostationary satellites are placed in orbit above the
equator at a height of approximately 36,000km (22,370 miles). The
period of their orbit results in the satellite remaining above the same
point on the equator. In order to cover the whole globe, a series of
geostationary satellites are needed. The US typically operates two
geostationary satellites called GOES (Geostationary Operational
Environment Satellite); METEOSAT (METEOrological SATellite) is a
European satellite; and the Japanese operate the Japanese GMS
(Geostationary Meteorological Satellite). Due to the curvature of the
Earth, geostationary satellites give poorer coverage in higher latitudes.
Polar orbiters are in rather lower orbit and they circle the Earth at a
height of approximately 850km (530 miles). Their orbits are described as
‘asynchronous’, passing close to the poles, so they are able to cover areas
in higher latitudes and complete the global picture. Both types of satellite
provide images in the visible and infrared parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Visible images rely upon sunlight reflected from the Earth’s
surface and therefore they are not available at night. Visible images of
higher latitudes in the ‘winter’ hemisphere are often very poor. Infrared
images do not rely upon sunlight but are produced by monitoring the
radiation emitted by the Earth and its atmosphere. Visible and infrared
images can be used in combination to determine cloud type and height,
based upon cloud temperature and texture. The position of fronts can
also be determined. Satellite technology has greatly improved since its
introduction, not only in the quality of visible and infrared images, but
also the use of sensors to determine sea state, temperature profiles and
other data. Satellite images are now familiar to the general public as they
are commonly used to illustrate public weather forecasts and are easily
available. Satellites have also made an important contribution to forecast
accuracy by enabling information to be gathered in remote areas of the
ocean where observations were once very scarce.

THE SYNOPTIC CHART

The synoptic chart gives a bird’s-eye view of the weather. It provides a
synopsis of the factors that make up the existing weather over a wide
area and its production is crucially dependent upon good
communications.
Prior to the introduction of wireless telegraphy in 1901, the network
was restricted by poor communications and was necessarily limited. The
ability to receive weather information from vessels at sea extended the
network of observations. The modern style of synoptic chart developed
at the time of World War I, with the adoption of the concept of weather
fronts. Soon after World War II, an international network of upper air
observations was developed and the current range of satellite
observations has greatly extended the observations being collected. The
four main synoptic maps each day are made on a rigid time schedule
based upon the observations made at 00.00, 06.00, 12.00 and 18.00 UTC.
Using computer models, analysis and forecast charts are produced. The
accuracy of forecasts has greatly improved, particularly in the last 20
years, with the advances in satellite technology and high-speed
computing. This has been of enormous value in terms of safety and
economy of shipping.

SPECIAL FORECASTS FOR SHIPPING

Admiral Fitzroy’s visual storm warnings consisting of the north or south
cone for winds with a northerly or southerly component respectively
were still displayed at a few sites until they were finally discontinued in
1984. More elaborate visual signals are still exhibited in certain
countries. Today, the WMO scheme provides that every radio weather
bulletin for shipping, whether it is for ocean or coastal waters, includes
warnings of gales (Force 8 and above) and storms (Force 10 and above)
when either of these is anticipated. In tropical areas, during cyclone
storm season, special steps are taken to give very early warning of the
approach and development of such storms. If the warnings are
transmitted at unscheduled times they are repeated in the routine
bulletins.
SOLAS now contains regulations relating to meteorological services,
which put certain obligations on contracting governments; these include
the requirement to warn ships of gales, storms and tropical storms and to
issue weather bulletins suitable for shipping twice daily, by radio. Marine
forecasts contain a number of terms that are used to convey specific
meanings. For example, the term ‘gale’ means winds of at least Beaufort
Force 8 (34–40 knots) or gusts reaching 43–51 knots, and ‘soon’ means
expected within 6–12 hours of time of issue.
In the UK, the weather forecasts for shipping are broadcast by the
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) on behalf of the MCA and are
followed enthusiastically by many members of the general public with
no connection to the sea. The shipping forecast is broadcast daily on
BBC Radio 4 at 00.48 and 05.20 (long wave and FM) and also at 12.01
and 17.54 (normally long wave only). The bulletins consist of a gale
warning summary, general synopsis, sea-area forecasts and coastal
station reports.
A forecast for UK inshore waters can be heard on BBC Radio 4 at the
end of programmes, approximately 00.48 and on BBC Radio 3 at 05.35.
The inshore forecast includes a general synopsis, the forecast of wind
direction and force, visibility and weather and covers the area up to
19km (12 miles) offshore. The coastal waters around the British Isles are
divided into 19 areas. The broadcast on Radio 4 also includes the latest
available reports of wind direction and force, visibility, sea-level pressure
and tendency, for approximately 20 stations around the UK.
Gale warnings are issued as required throughout the day (for winds of
Gale Force 8 or more). They are broadcast at the first available
programme break after receipt. If this does not coincide with a news
bulletin, the warning will be repeated after the next news bulletin.
Dissemination of meteorological warnings and forecasts to shipping is
now an integral part of the GMDSS system and GMDSS
communications permit automatic shipboard receipt of weather and
navigation information by Inmarsat satellite communications,
radiotelephony and radio-telex (Navtex). Regularly scheduled weather,
sea-state and ice forecasts, along with warnings of tropical cyclones,
gales, storms and other hazards, are now routed to ships at sea by
Inmarsat and Navtex broadcasts.
The waters around the British Isles are divided into three areas,
reflecting the coverage areas of the UK’s Navtex transmitters, with
overlaps as appropriate. The forecast contains details of the likelihood of
gales or storms, a general synopsis and a general forecast for the area of
coverage of each Navtex transmitter.
VHF radio broadcasts of weather information are provided in many
coastal areas around the world. For many countries, providing full
coastal coverage by VHF and Navtex facilities is simply not cost-
effective, which means that other facilities have to be implemented to
reach vessels. For example, some vessels are taking advantage of new
mobile phone technologies to access a range of dial-up weather services
Many national meteorological services and commercial companies are
willing to give special advice about impending weather in a particular
area on request.

Climatological Information
Much information about climatic conditions in various parts of the
world’s ocean and coastal waters is given in the Admiralty Pilots. This
information has been largely compiled from data shown in climatic
atlases prepared by meteorological services. Many observations from
merchant vessels have contributed to this information.

QUESTIONS

1 Explain what is meant by the term ‘selected ship’.

2 State where details of the radio weather forecasts available to
shipping can be found.
3 Explain what is meant by the term ‘global warming’.
19
METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS OF
PLANNING AN OCEAN VOYAGE

GENERAL PRINCIPLES
1 Choice of route must be balanced between considerations of safety
and time, with emphasis on safety.
The direct route is not always the shortest in time. A longer route with
more favourable winds, currents and weather will often prove faster.
2 The regions, seasons, frequency and tracks of tropical revolving
storms should be carefully noted.
3 Avoid areas where there are ice hazards or foul weather or a high
percentage frequency of fog.
4 Avoid adverse currents and obtain as much advantage as possible
from currents that are favourable.
5 Choose favourable prevailing or seasonal winds.
6 There is always the possibility of a long delay and/or damage
resulting from bad weather. Thus, it is prudent to plan for possible
diversions for repairs, refuelling, etc.

RECOMMENDED REFERENCES
Admiralty Sailing Directions (Pilots)1
Used for any coastal or ‘small sea’ passages (eg Caribbean, West Indies),
these amplify in great detail the information given on the charts.
Admiralty Ocean Passages for the World*
As its name implies, this is specifically designed for mariners planning
an ocean passage. It gives recommended routes and distances between
the principal ports of the world. Details of winds, currents, weather, ice
hazards, etc along each route are described. Much other useful
information is included.
For coastal passages, the navigator is referred to the appropriate
Admiralty Sailing Directions for the particular passage in question.

Admiralty The Mariner’s Handbook*

This is an invaluable reference book containing chapters on the sea,
which include information on tidal movements and currents, one on
general meteorology, including a reference to weather routeing, and two
describing the full range of ice likely to be encountered by mariners,
together with recommendations and duties when encountering ice.

MONTHLY ADMIRALTY ROUTEING CHARTS*

Monthly Admiralty Routeing Charts present the following information,
which is essential in route planning and on passage:

Ocean currents
Predominant directions of flow for a stated period of the year are shown
by arrows. Percentage constancy and mean rate (in knots) are also
indicated.

Winds
The following information is presented in each small area of the ocean,
by means of a diagram called a wind rose:
Fig 19.1(a) It can be seen in this illustration that the wind blows most frequently from
NE during the month to which the chart refers. The total length of the arrow against the
scale shows a 40 per cent frequency. (See Figure 19.1(b).)

(a) The direction from which the wind most frequently blows during the
month is shown by arrows that fly with the wind.
(b) Percentage frequency of each wind vector (direction and force) is
indicated by the length of the arrow measured against a scale that is
printed on the chart. (See Figure 19.1(b).)
(c) The force of the wind (Beaufort scale) is indicated by the thickness
and shading of the arrow shaft. (See Figure 19.1(c).)
(d) The upper figure in the circle shows the number of observations. (See
Figure 19.1(a).) The middle figure gives the percentage frequency of
variable winds and the lower figure, calms.
Fig 19.1(b) Scale for finding percentage frequency.

Fig 19.1(c) Thickness and shading showing Beaufort Force.

Note: For the purpose of clarity Figures 19.1(a), (b) and (c) have been
drawn to a larger scale than that on the routeing charts.

Ice limits
(a) Minimum, average and maximum limits of pack ice.
(b) Mean maximum limit of icebergs.

Shipping routes and distances

These are either between principal ports or at the ends of great circle
tracks.

Fog
Isopleths show the percentage frequency of visibility of less than
800m (½ mile).

Low visibility
Isopleths show the percentage frequency of visibility that is less than
8km (5 miles).

Mean air pressure

Mean pressure for the month is shown by isobars spaced at 2 millibar
intervals.

Mean air temperature

Shown by isotherms.

Mean sea surface temperatures

Shown by isotherms.

Mean dew point temperatures

Shown by isotherms.

QUESTIONS

1 List the meteorological factors that should be taken into

consideration when planning an ocean voyage.
2 List the principal sources that provide information for passage
planning.

NOTES
1 Obtainable from Admiralty chart agents.
20
FORECASTING BY THE MARINER

Reliable weather forecasts are available for most of the world’s oceans
and it might be assumed that seafarers would not need to forecast the
weather for themselves. This is not necessarily the case and there can be
situations where onboard forecasting is needed to avoid a weather
hazard. Sensible interpretation of a ready-made weather map depends
upon a good understanding of weather systems and their associated
weather.

GUIDELINES FOR ASSESSING THE LIKELY

MOVEMENT OF SYNOPTIC FEATURES
Movement of frontal depressions
The energy to develop and sustain an active frontal depression is derived
mainly from the air in the warm sector. Thus, the deepening of a
depression having a wide warm sector will usually continue to increase
until the occlusion process begins and often during the early stages of
occlusion (See Chapter 13). Thereafter, it can generally be expected to
decrease as the occluding process continues. A fully occluded depression
seldom deepens.

Movement of fronts
The direction of movement is at right angles to the front.

Speed of movement
A first approximation is obtained directly from the geostrophic wind
scale by measuring the geostrophic wind component at right angles to
the front.
The speed varies along the front and is a maximum near the
depression’s centre, or wherever the isobars are closest together. Hence,
to plot the estimated future position of a front on a weather map, the
geostrophic component should be obtained at several points along the
front and adjusted according to the ‘rules’.
In Figure 20.1, let the line FF1 represent a front, AB and CD two
consecutive isobars intersecting the front at points B and D respectively.
BE is perpendicular to the isobars and its length on the geostrophic
wind scale is inversely proportional to the wind speed (W) shown on the
scale.
Similarly, the length of BD is inversely proportional to the required
wind component (V), which is obtained by measuring BD on the
geostrophic scale.
Fig 20.1 Finding the forward movement of a front.

Rules to assist in estimating the future position of a front

1 The speed of a cold front is usually about equal to, or a little more
than, the geostrophic component. The more the pressure rises
behind it, the faster it moves.
2 The speed of a warm front is less than that of a cold front and is
generally about two-thirds of the geostrophic value. The more the
pressure falls ahead of it, the faster it moves.
3 A front that is parallel to the isobars is slow moving or stationary.
4 When a front is stationary or nearly so, it tends to move from an
area where the pressure is rising towards one where it is falling.
 5 An occlusion advances roughly with the speed of the geostrophic
wind component, but there is no definite rule.
6 An occlusion slows down when approaching a stationary
anticyclone. (See Blocking Conditions in the Glossary.)

Provided that successive weather maps are available, the future position
of a front can be easily estimated by extrapolation (that is, movement can
be assumed to continue as shown by a succession of previous maps). It is
recommended that this method should be used whenever possible;
however, consideration should be given to the foregoing rules and also to
the likelihood of a change in the geostrophic wind during the forecast
period. A close sequence of weather maps is very advantageous.

Anticyclones
Formation and types of anticyclone are described in Chapter 15.

Intensification and decline

1 The intensity of an anticyclone will not change:

• while the pressure in the centre remains constant
• if pressure on one side is rising at the same rate as it is falling on the
other
2 It is intensifying if:
• pressure is rising all around the centre, or
• pressure is rising on one side faster than it is falling on the other
3 It is weakening if:
• pressure is falling all around the centre, or
• falling faster on one side than it is rising on the other

Movement of anticyclones

1 Anticyclones are usually slow moving by comparison with

depressions.
2 An anticyclone or ridge between two depressions of a ‘family’ (see
chapter 13) travels with the same speed and direction as the
 depressions.
3 An anticyclone formed in a surge of Pm (polar maritime) air behind
the last depression of a family moves with the cold air mass, ie
towards lower latitudes.
4 A warm anticyclone moves slowly and tends to become stationary.
5 Anticyclones move from areas of falling barometric tendencies
towards areas of rising tendencies.
6 The centre of an anticyclone tends to move towards the area in which
the temperature is falling the fastest.

THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE

Upper level winds
Some knowledge of the flow patterns in the upper levels of the
atmosphere is useful in estimating the probable movement of
depressions.

Terminology

Free atmosphere
The atmosphere above the friction layer, ie above 600m (2,000ft)
above sea level, where the air motion is considered to be free from
the effects of surface friction.

Lower wind
The wind at 600m (2,000ft), which level can be regarded as the base
of the free atmosphere.

Thermal wind
The effect of horizontal temperature distribution on the upper wind,
ie the vector difference between the upper and lower winds (see
Figure 20.2). The thermal wind increases with increasing height, and
flows parallel to the isotherms of mean temperature with higher
temperature on the right in the northern hemisphere and on the left in
 the southern hemisphere. Its speed is proportional to the temperature
gradient.

Upper wind
The upper wind at any given level is a combination of the lower wind
and the thermal wind at the given level.

Fig 20.2 Vector diagram illustrating thermal wind.

Fig 20.3 Effect of temperature distribution on upper level wind.

Variation of wind with height

In the free atmosphere, the variation of wind with height is caused by
changes in horizontal pressure distribution at successive levels; this in
turn, for any given height, depends on the mean horizontal temperature
distribution of the atmosphere below the given height. For a clearer
understanding of this refer to Figure 20.3.
AB and CD represent two air columns of equal height and, for the sake
of simplicity, standing on a surface of uniform pressure – say, 1,000hPa.
The mean air temperature of column AB is warm, while that of CD is
relatively cold, and therefore denser and heavier than AB. Thus, the fall
in pressure from B to A is less than from D to C, so pressure at A must
be greater than at C. The pressure difference between the tops of two
such columns of air increases, level for level, as height increases. Large
differences in temperature can produce extremely strong winds, for
example the jet streams that are associated with mid-latitude depressions.
In areas where the temperature is high, the pressure at upper levels
tends also to be high, and in areas of low temperature the upper air
pressure also tends to be low.
The mean temperature of the troposphere increases from the poles
towards the equator; hence, the average thermal winds are westerly in
both hemispheres (see paragraph on thermal wind) except within the
tropics, where conditions are more complicated. In very low latitudes,
the Earth’s rotation is not effective and the geostrophic rule, on which the
theory of thermal winds is based, does not apply. In addition, there are
other complications that go beyond the scope of this book.
The main distribution of winds within the tropics consists of a belt of
easterly winds between the NE and SE Trade winds; this belt extends
over 10° to 20° of latitude and moves north and south with the sun. This
easterly flow is modified in some regions by monsoon-like effects.
In general, in both hemispheres:

• westerly winds normally increase with height

• upper winds tend to become increasingly westerly as height
increases
 • easterly winds normally decrease with height and later
undergo a reversal of direction

Relationship between temperature and pressure at the surface

The relationship between temperature and pressure at the surface, as
shown on a synoptic chart, can give a rough guide to the winds aloft by
applying the following ‘rules’:

1 When surface isotherms are parallel to the isobars:

a) High temperature in region of high pressure
b) Wind increases with height with little or no change in direction.
High temperature in region of low pressure
Wind decreases with height and possibly undergoes a reversal in
direction and then an increase with height.
2 When lower wind blows across the isotherms:
a) If lower wind blows from region of lower temperature
Upper winds back with height in the northern hemisphere (veer in
southern hemisphere) and increase after a possible initial
decrease.
b) If lower wind blows from region of higher temperature
Upper winds veer with height in the northern hemisphere
(back in southern hemisphere) and increase after a possible initial
decrease.

Upper air charts

Today, ships have greater access to upper air charts than ever before.
There are several types of upper air charts and they are of particular
value in the forecasting of developments at the surface. They indicate the
large-scale movements of air with greater accuracy and clarity than
surface charts, which are complicated by small-scale weather systems,
topography and other local effects.
Constant pressure or contour charts show heights above mean sea level
at which fixed (ie constant) pressures occur. Isopleths (see the Glossary)
of equal heights on a given pressure surface are called contours and they
are usually drawn at height intervals of 60m (200ft), but at greater
intervals on small-scale charts covering very large areas.
Contour charts are most commonly drawn for the pressure surfaces of
1,000, 700, 500, 300, 200 and 100hPa, of these the 500mb chart is
generally considered as being the most convenient for use by mariners.
The clear indication of general windflow is useful in forecasting
movement of pressure systems at the surface.

Winds flow parallel to the contour lines, with greatest heights

to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the
southern hemisphere.

Wind speed is directly proportional to the contour gradient (ie inversely

proportional to the perpendicular distance between the contours) and
reaches its maximum near the tropopause. Note that ‘highs’ and ‘lows’
refer to heights, not pressure.

Long waves (Rossby waves)

Northern hemisphere contour charts at 500hPa or at higher levels
will often show a wavy circumpolar flow of westerly winds, which
tend to reach their greatest strength in the middle latitudes. The length of
these ‘long waves’ (measured from crest to crest) varies considerably
and some may exceed 3,700km (2,300 miles). The amplitudes of large-
scale troughs and ridges also show considerable variation during periods
of a few days; if the north and south fluctuations become very large,
closed circulations of air may form and become separated from the main
stream. However, there are sometimes periods of many days during
which the position and shape of these long waves change very little.
During such periods, settled weather persists in areas south of the ridges
(in the northern hemisphere); but within and a little to the east of the
troughs, the weather generally remains very unsettled throughout the
period.
Use of 500hPa (mb) contour chart for estimating movement of surface
pressure systems
The contours indicate the general direction of movement of small-scale
surface pressure systems, such as warm sector depressions and cold
ridges of high pressure between them. These systems travel at about half
the speed of the winds at the 500hPa pressure surface.
As depressions develop, their closed circulations extend to higher
levels, but the closed circulation of small shallow depressions are seldom
evident on a 500hPa chart.
The airflow round the long waves tends to guide surface depressions
and anticyclones. If the airflow superimposed over either of these
systems is straight in direction and steady in speed, they will be steered
by this stream.

Changes in upper air patterns

The movement of ‘flat’ upper air troughs and ridges (ie those having
only slight curvature) is fairly rapid.
Upper air troughs and ridges of large amplitude with greatly curved
contours move slowly.
The stronger and more extensive an upper air ‘high’ or ‘low’, the
slower is its displacement.
In the northern hemisphere, the circumpolar westerlies reach their
greatest speed near the tropopause between latitudes 25° and 40°N
during winter, and between 40° and 45° in summer. The average wind
speeds are about 80 knots in winter and about 50 knots in summer, when
the thermal gradient is weaker. In the southern hemisphere, the
disposition of westerly winds is much the same as in the north.
In both hemispheres, there are variations in speed due to local effects,
eg in the vicinity of the south-east coasts of North America and Asia
there is a very large temperature difference between ocean and continent;
this increases the thermal component considerably and, in these areas,
the westerly winds average about 100 knots in winter.
Figure 20.4 shows the contours of a 500hPa pressure surface. It covers
only a very small area on the original chart, from which some
information has had to be omitted for the sake of clarity, and the scale
has been considerably reduced to fit the book page. Note the ‘long
waves’ and closed contours mentioned previously.

Fig 20.4 Contours of 500hPa pressure surface.

Figure 20.5 is a sample of the distance and geostrophic wind speed

scales taken from the original contour chart. These scales have not been
reduced.

Our grateful thanks are due to the Meteorological Office, at Exeter, for
their kind help and permission to use their chart for these illustrations.
Fig 20.5 Geostrophic wind scale and distance scale (from Fig 20.4).

QUESTIONS

1 Describe how the speed of movement of fronts drawn on a weather

chart can be estimated.
2 Describe how a comparison of the pressure tendencies in different
parts of an anticyclone can give an indication of whether the system
is weakening or intensifying.
3 Describe the general movement of anticyclones.
4 Describe how the wind flow at upper levels relates to the contour
lines on upper air charts.
5 Explain how upper air charts, such as the 500hPa chart, can be used
to forecast surface developments.
21
OCEAN SURFACE CURRENTS

A chart of ocean currents is here.

The relationship between the surface currents of the ocean and the
weather systems is so strong that no book on maritime meteorology
would be complete without some description of surface currents. Much
of our knowledge of ocean currents has been derived from observations
made primarily by officers in merchant vessels. The navigator needs
some knowledge about these currents because of their effect on the
safety and economical operation of a ship at sea. Ocean currents not only
affect navigation, but because some of them are warm and some are cold,
they also have an appreciable influence on climate and weather. It is
important to remember that the conventional ways to name winds and
currents are different. It is usual to name winds by the direction they are
coming from and to name currents by the direction to which they are
going.

CAUSES OF OCEAN CURRENTS

The surface currents of the ocean can be divided into two main
categories: drift currents caused directly by the wind and gradient
currents caused indirectly by the wind or by density differences in
adjacent areas. The wind is the primary agent that causes the currents; in
general, the more consistent the wind, the steadier the current.
In the Indian Ocean and China Sea, the surface currents are governed
by the monsoons and therefore they vary seasonally in direction and
strength. In the other oceans, the main surface current circulation skirts
the perimeter of the permanent mid-ocean anticyclone in the same sense
as the wind; the prime mover of these currents in each case is the Trade
winds.
As a constant wind blows over the sea, it tends to move the surface
water along with it due to frictional drag. However, the Coriolis force,
which is due to the Earth’s rotation, deflects this flow. Near the surface,
the water is deflected about 45 degrees from the wind direction and this
angle increases with depth. (See Figure 21.1.) Since the strength of the
current decreases with depth, the resultant effect in the whole depth of
water affected by the wind is a deflection at 90 degrees to the wind
direction. The actual depth of water affected by the wind depends upon
the strength of the wind and also upon the latitude. The deflection is to
the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere. Therefore, a wind blowing from the north in the northern
hemisphere produces a surface current that sets towards the south-west
and the resultant deflection in the whole body of water is to the west.
(See Figure 21.2.) It may appear that only the surface water effect is
important for the navigator, but it should be appreciated that the motion
in the whole body of water is important for the general circulation.
Fig 21.1 Effect of wind on water movement.
Fig 21.2 Change of direction of water movement with depth.

A gradient current, as its name implies, is created by a pressure

gradient or slope in the water level. This gradient may be due to a piling
up of the water (eg against a coastline) or due to a density difference
between two adjacent bodies of water. One of the most spectacular
examples of a wind-induced gradient current is in the Gulf of Mexico,
where the west-going North Equatorial Current piles up the water near
the coast and thus not only initiates the Gulf Stream but also enhances
the Caribbean Countercurrent, which flows eastwards along the coasts of
Panama and Colombia to Barranquilla.
Variations in the density of sea water may be due to temperature or
salinity difference or a combination of both, and when surface water of
low density lies alongside water of a higher density a current will be
created.
CHARACTERISTICS OF OCEAN CURRENTS
In general, warm surface currents originate, as might be expected, in
tropical waters, while cold ones are born in the frigid zones. Probably the
best known example of a warm current is the Gulf Stream, the extension
of which, the North Atlantic Drift Current, brings warm water to
Britain’s shores and keeps northern Norway ice free. A typical cold
current example is the Labrador Current, which extends down the east
coast of the USA to Delaware Bay, inside the Gulf Stream and causing,
off the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, a temperature gradient of up to
5.6°C (10°F).
In some places, local cooling of the surface water is caused by a
process called upwelling. When the surface waters tend to be drawn
away from a coast by a persistent wind, cold water from below rises –
known as upwelling – and results in a lowering of the surface water
temperature. Upwelling is experienced off the coast of Chile and Peru,
California, north-west Africa and south-west Africa. Upwelling brings
nutrients to the surface and so all of these areas are rich in plankton. The
plankton forms the basis of an extensive food chain.
Apart from seasonal changes, such as occur in the monsoon areas
where the currents reverse in direction, there is much variety in the day-
to-day direction and strength of almost all individual currents. Drift
currents in particular are susceptible to wind variations and they are
liable to temporary local increase or decrease in strength or even to
reversal in direction at times. Even the Gulf Stream, which is the most
constant current, may occasionally be affected locally in this way. The
current roses depicted in the Ocean Current Atlases prepared in the
Meteorological Office illustrate this variability.
The maximum strength of currents likely to be experienced in different
parts of the main circulation in the open ocean varies quite a lot. In areas
where the current is fairly variable, about 1 knot is the probable
maximum, and in areas where it is relatively consistent, rates of 2–3
knots may be encountered. In the Gulf Stream, Kuro Shio and Agulhas
Current, a 5-knot rate is sometimes present. The record is between 6 and
7 knots off Socotra, in the NW Indian Ocean, in August and September.
The rate of currents usually lies between about 2 per cent and 4 per
cent of the wind strength, although the rate of the current depends to a
large extent on the duration of the blow.
In coastal waters, currents are often masked due to strong tidal streams.

GENERAL SURFACE CURRENT CIRCULATION

A picture of this is shown on the chart here. The following is a brief
summary:

North Atlantic
The cool south-going currents on the east flank of the mid-ocean
anticyclone merge into the wide band of west-bound current on the
equatorial side and most of this turns northwards on reaching the
Caribbean to form the warm Gulf Stream, while a small portion turns
east to help form the Caribbean Counter Current. On the northern flank
of the anticyclone, the Gulf Stream fans out into the North Atlantic Drift
Current, part of which eventually turns SE to complete the circulation
while the remainder swings NE as far as the north coast of Norway. The
flow of currents from and around the Arctic is a little complicated, as can
be seen from the chart.

North Pacific
In most of this ocean, the circulation is very similar to that of the North
Atlantic; a cool south-going current on the east side of the anticyclone, a
wide equatorial current flowing west on the south flank and the warm
north-going Kuro Shio in the west, similar to the Gulf Stream, while
there is an east-going current on the north side. On the extreme west of
this ocean, however, in the area of the China Sea, the currents flow NE or
SW in accordance with the monsoons. As in the North Atlantic, there is a
fairly diverse pattern of currents in the Arctic area.

North Indian Ocean

The surface currents here are governed entirely by the monsoons, so that
in the open ocean they flow eastwards during the summer (SW monsoon)
and westwards during the winter (NE monsoon). In the extreme southern
part of this ocean, close to the equator, the eastgoing Equatorial Counter
Current flows eastwards throughout the year. Close to the East African
coastline there is a northerly current in summer and a southerly one in
winter (the East African Coast Current, sometimes called the Somali
Current); the summer current here may have a rate as high as 7 knots.

Southern hemisphere
The surface currents of the South Atlantic, South Pacific and South
Indian
Ocean follow, in general, a regular pattern of anticlockwise circulation
round the periphery of the permanent anticyclone in each ocean.
Each of these oceans has on its eastern side a relatively cold north-
going current and a warmish south-going current on its western side; in
each there is a fairly steady west-going Equatorial Current and Counter
Current, but it is only in the South Indian Ocean that the Equatorial
Counter Current is found south of the equator. The outstanding feature of
the currents in this hemisphere is in the southern part of each ocean,
which combine to form what is called the ‘Southern Ocean’, where there
is a very wide band of permanent east-going current encircling the world.

MEDITERRANEAN CURRENTS
The general circulation of the surface water is counterclockwise. It enters
from the Atlantic, as a surface current, through the Strait of Gibraltar
being stronger on the African side. The surface current then flows along
the North African coast. Due to the high rate of evaporation throughout
the Mediterranean, the salinity of the surface water gradually increases
and it sinks.
Hence, the outflow of this denser water through the Strait of Gibraltar
to the Atlantic takes place below the surface inflow.

GLOBAL WARMING
Research suggests that global warming may have a significant effect
upon the ocean current circulation. In particular, the circulation in the
North Atlantic and formation of the Gulf Stream are likely to be affected.
If there is increased rainfall in the North Atlantic and melting of glaciers,
the sinking of cold salty seawater will be disrupted and this is a key
factor in generating the circulation.

OCEAN CURRENTS
The list of currents in the following table should be studied in
conjunction with the chart here, which portrays the general pattern of
ocean currents.
Note the change in direction with the change of the monsoon in the
Red Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and the China Sea. (See inset
on chart for NE monsoon.)
NOTE: Detailed general and local information about ocean currents is
given in the Admiralty Pilots and in the Ocean Current Atlases. Monthly
Admiralty Routeing Charts show clearly the predominant direction of sea
surface currents for each quarter of the year, as well as the percentage
constancy and the mean rate of current in knots in the predominant
direction.

OCEAN CURRENT OBSERVATIONS

These are asked for on a voluntary basis aboard selected ships of certain
nations. The method is to calculate the difference between an estimated
position with no current (ie DR position after making due allowance for
leeway) and a reliable fix. The result is the set and drift of the current
since the previous reliable fix. A variety of other methods are used for
oceanographic research into ocean currents.
 QUESTIONS

1 Explain the formation of

(a) wind-driven currents
(b) gradient currents
2 Describe the effect of the Earth’s rotation on surface currents.
3 Explain the terms ‘warm current’ and ‘surface current’ and give
examples of each in the South Atlantic.
4 Describe the general circulation of the surface currents in the
Mediterranean Sea.
5 Describe how upwelling is caused and give four examples of areas
where it occurs.
6 A drift bottle was thrown into the sea on a voyage from Durban to
Cape Town. It was eventually picked up on the north coast of Spain.
Describe the probable track it followed, naming the currents that
carried it to its final destination.
22
SEA ICE

Sea ice is partly a meteorological and partly an oceanographic

phenomenon. There are two kinds of floating ice encountered at sea: sea
ice, formed from sea water; and icebergs, which break off the seaward
end of glaciers or from shelf ice.
Sea ice is formed in all waters of the frigid zone in both hemispheres
and in parts of the temperate zone in winter, particularly in the Antarctic.
In springtime it breaks up and spreads into more temperate waters,
notably in the Antarctic and western North Atlantic. Icebergs are, in
general, born in the frigid zone in the North Atlantic area and in both the
frigid and temperate zone in the Antarctic. In the Antarctic and western
North Atlantic, they drift well into the temperate zone during springtime.

PHYSICS OF SEA ICE

The physics and development of sea ice are complicated. The freezing
point of salt water is lower than that of fresh water and is governed by its
salinity – the higher the salinity, the lower the freezing point. Thus, in the
open ocean, water with a salinity of 35 parts per thousand starts freezing
at about –2°C (28.5°F), while in the Baltic, where salinity of 5 parts per
thousand is common, the water starts to freeze at 0.3°C (32.5°F). Fresh
water starts to freeze at 0°C (32°F).
The density of sea water increases with salinity. It also increases with
cooling until a maximum density for the existing salinity is reached. The
higher the salinity, the lower the temperature of maximum density.
FORMATION OF SEA ICE
The cooling of surface water increases its density and it sinks, to be
replaced by warmer, less dense water from below. The process continues
until the whole column of water, from top to bottom, has attained its
maximum density and all convectional overturning ceases. Until this
stage is reached, ice cannot form. At sea, it forms more readily where the
water column is stratified into layers of different density. In this situation,
the cooling is confined to the topmost layer.
The maximum density of fresh water occurs at about 4°C (39°F). On
the other hand, sea water with a salinity of 24.7 per cent, has its
maximum density at its freezing point of about –1.5°C (29.5°F) and,
with higher salinity, the temperature of maximum density decreases
further. Therefore, the formation of sea ice can be a lengthy process,
especially in deep water with high salinity.
In some areas, despite very low temperatures, the winter is not long
enough for the process to be completed and sea ice does not form. Sea
ice first forms in shallow water where the delay due to convectional
sinking is least.

DEVELOPMENT OF SEA ICE

The development of sea ice begins with the formation of needle-shaped
crystals called frazil ice. These crystals tend to float with their long axes
vertical and they give the sea an oily appearance. The frazil ice crystals
then thicken and congeal to form a greasy or soupy layer on the sea
surface known as grease ice. Alternatively, falling snow crystals can
produce slush. In the next stage, shuga ice develops, consisting of
spongy lumps a few centimetres across. All the above are classified
generally as new ice. This is followed by pancake ice, consisting of flat
pieces, roughly circular in shape, often with a rim round the edge due to
rubbing against adjacent pieces. The pancakes gradually join to form a
more-or-less continuous ice sheet, called young ice; this can also be
broken up by wave action.
 Young ice eventually thickens and becomes field ice or pack ice,
which is a generic term for all fully developed sea ice floating on the
ocean and not attached to the shore; it varies in thickness from a few
centimetres to several metres. Individual pieces of pack ice more than
20m (66ft) across are called floes and the pack is termed ‘open’, ‘very
open’, ‘close’ or ‘very close’ depending on the distance between the
floes. Very close pack ice leaves little or no water visible. Pack ice
originating in Arctic or Antarctic waters may be several metres thick and
very uneven due to hummocking (piling up) by the waves. Detailed ice
terminology is given in the Mariner’s Handbook and it is important to
know something about these terms so as to interpret ice bulletins.

ICEBERGS
Arctic bergs are derived from the seaward end of glaciers; as the glacier
extends out over the water, the force of buoyancy breaks off pieces of ice
and icebergs are ‘calved’. These bergs are generally irregular in shape
and may contain rock and soil debris.
Antarctic bergs are sometimes calved from glaciers, but the majority
have broken away from the enormous ice shelf that fringes the continent.
It is thought that the pieces of ice shelf break off due to seismic activity.
These bergs are flat topped with steep sides and are known as tabular
bergs because of their shape. These bergs are often several miles in
extent and are a lustrous ‘plaster of Paris’ white due to trapped air.
Icebergs have only about one-eighth of their volume above the water
and are thus a menace to shipping. The term growler is used for small
bergs, less than 1m (3ft) in height above the waterline. Larger bergs with
1–5m (3–16ft) above the waterline are known as bergy bits, with the
term icebergs used for larger pieces of ice.

DISTRIBUTION OF SEA ICE AND ITS SEASONS

Figure 22.1 shows mean and extreme limits of sea ice in navigable
waters of the northern and southern hemisphere at different times of the
year. A brief description is given in the following paragraphs. Details are
in the relevant Admiralty Pilots. The season and intensity of all forms of
sea ice varies considerably from year to year, being influenced by wind
and weather in the relevant winter and spring and by ocean current
vagaries. It is anticipated that global warming will produce further
changes to the distribution of sea ice.

Grand Banks of Newfoundland

Pack ice may be encountered any time between February and May and
icebergs between April and August. The bergs that affect this area are
calved from glaciers on the Greenland coast during the previous summer.
Those from the east coast are taken by the East Greenland Current down
the coast, round Cape Farewell and up the west coast by the West
Greenland Current, where they spend the winter trapped in the pack ice.
The following spring they are swept, together with the bergs calved from
West Greenland glaciers, to the Grand Banks area by the Baffin Island
and Labrador Current. The ice in this region is particularly menacing to
shipping because of the high incidence of fog there in spring and
summer. When the bergs get south of the Grand Banks they melt fairly
rapidly in the warmer water.

Fig 22.1 Limits of sea ice.

Gulf of St Lawrence and River
Generally navigable from the end of April until the end of November.
There is often plenty of field ice during the early stages and icebreaker
help is needed sometimes. The only entry is through Cabot Strait until
about mid-June, when Belle Isle Strait also is open.

Hudson Bay
Usually open to navigation, with icebreaker help at times, from mid-June
until mid-October. There may be quite a lot of ice during the beginning
and end of the season.

Eastern Seaboard of North America

In winter, ice may be present in the harbours as far south as Chesapeake
Bay.

Denmark Strait
Pack ice may sometimes extend from Greenland to the Icelandic coast in
winter and early spring.

White Sea
Usually navigable from July to September; the north coast of Norway is
usually ice free, thanks to the effect of the North Atlantic Current.

Baltic Sea
There is much ice normally in the northern and eastern portion from
November to May; elsewhere, only the coast itself and the ports are
seriously affected, in midwinter and early spring.

Black Sea
Liable to have some field ice in midwinter; in most years, only the
northern coasts are affected.

North Pacific Ocean

In the area normally frequented by shipping, only the waters of the Japan
Sea and northern part of the Yellow Sea are affected, and only by field
ice, in winter months.

Southern Ocean
The coasts of Antarctica are generally surrounded by a mixture of pack
ice and icebergs throughout the year, impenetrable in winter and only
navigable in midsummer by specially strengthened vessels. The probable
mean limit of pack ice extends to about 55°S in places in midwinter, but
in midsummer it recedes well south of 65°S except off Grahamland in
the Weddell Sea area. The extreme limit extends north of 50°S in places
throughout the year but never approaches Cape Horn or Cape of Good
Hope.
The extreme limit of Antarctic icebergs reaches 35°S (between 30° and
40°W), while the mean limit is at a maximum of about 50°S in about
50°W. At all seasons, bergs have been sighted between Cape Horn and
Bahía Blanca. In the South Pacific, bergs may be seen in about 50°S
(between 120° and 180°W) and in the western Indian Ocean their mean
limit in February and March is about 43°S.

ICE WARNINGS
Provided that the ship is not in a specific cold sea surface current, sea
surface temperatures might indicate the vicinity of pack ice. Thus, a sea
temperature of 1°C (34°F) might warn of an ice edge within about
240km (150 miles); if the sea temperature were –0.5°C (31°F), the ice
edge could be within 80km (50 miles). Warning may be given by ice
blink caused by reflection from the ice giving a glare in the sky near the
horizon, mainly white if the sky is cloudy, and yellow if the sky is mostly
blue; it is sometimes visible at night. In fog, white patches indicate ice at
short distance. A noticeable reduction of sea and swell can warn of pack
ice to windward. There may sometimes be a fog bank along the edge of
pack ice. Small isolated chunks of floating ice may indicate field ice
nearby. There is no similar indication of bergs. In all cases, the only safe
rule is to keep a very good visual lookout during the ice season. Bergs
show up bright white on a clear, dark night but there is always risk of
growlers or bergy bits, which will probably not be seen till very close,
especially in high winds. Radar is not always reliable with an ice target –
particularly with bergy bits and growlers when there is any sea clutter.
On a foggy night, if there is risk of meeting ice, the safest action is to
stop the ship till the fog lifts or till daybreak. During the ice season in the
western North Atlantic, the International Ice Patrol, operated by the US
Coast Guard, keeps watch on the bergs and field ice and warns shipping
accordingly; satellites and aircraft are a major aid in this service.
Warnings are also issued in Canadian, Baltic, Icelandic and Russian
waters when necessary.

REPORTING OF SEA ICE BY SHIPPING

The International Convention of Safety of Life at Sea prescribes that the
master of every ship who sights dangerous ice must report it to other
ships and to shore authorities as soon as possible.

ICING ON DECK
The formation of ice on a vessel’s superstructure causes a number of
hazards. These include a reduction in the vessel’s freeboard and an
increased likelihood of capsize if the vessel is heeled by the action of
wind and waves. Antennae and lifesaving appliances are also adversely
affected by icing.
Freshwater ice accretion is due either to the freezing of liquid rain or
drizzle drops that come into contact with the vessel, or snowflakes
freezing on to the vessel. The weight of the ice added by these processes
is relatively small and so the effects of freshwater ice accretion are not
usually serious.
As the temperature is reduced below the freezing point of sea water
there is an increasingly high risk of wind-blown spray freezing on to the
vessel. For this process to produce a significant hazard the sea
temperature must be lower than 9°C (48°F) and the wind speed must be
at least Force 5.
 Diagrams that can assist in estimating the rate at which ice accretion is
likely to occur are printed in the Mariner’s Handbook.
Further information about floating ice can be found at the websites of
several organisations, such as the British Antarctic Survey,
www.bas.ac.uk/; the Canadian Ice Service,
www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate.../services/ice.../latest-
conditions.html and the International Ice Patrol, sites at
www.navcen.uscg.gov/?pageName=IIPHome and
https://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/.

QUESTIONS

1 (a) Describe the development and general appearance of each of the

following: frazil ice, grease ice, pancake ice, pack ice, ice floes.
(b) State where details of ice terminology can be found.
2 Compare the typical icebergs of the northern and southern
hemisphere with particular reference to formation, calving, shape
and size.
3 Describe the probable movement of an iceberg from the time of
calving until complete disintegration on the:
(a) east coast of Greenland
(b) west coast of Greenland
4 State where details of sea ice conditions and seasons can be found
for a particular locality.
5 (a) State the approximate limits of icebergs in the:
(i) North Atlantic
(ii) South Atlantic
(b) State the approximate limits of pack ice in the:
(i) North Atlantic
(ii) South Atlantic
6 State the action that should be taken by the master of a vessel on
sighting dangerous ice.
7 State the special precautions that should be taken when navigating
in areas where ice is likely to be encountered.
 8 Describe the warning signs of
(a) pack ice
(b) icebergs
9 Describe the limitations of radar for detecting ice on ocean voyages.
10 Define the following terms
(a) bergy bits
(b) growlers
23
WEATHER ROUTEING

Climatological weather routeing implies taking advantage of favourable

permanent and seasonal wind systems (eg Trade winds and monsoons or
prominent ocean currents), and this has been practised by shipmasters for
hundreds of years. The Indian Ocean, because of the reversal of direction
and differing characteristics of the NE and SW monsoon winds with their
resulting surface currents, has always been a fruitful area for
climatological weather routeing. Originally, this was practised by Arab
dhows, then by sailing vessels of western nations and then by power-
driven ships.
However, in other areas, such as middle latitudes, the variations in day-
to-day weather are much greater and the use of seasonal averages is
much less successful. As improvements in computing progressed, the
concept that synoptic forecasting could now offer ships a better service
arose. Since 1954, the US Navy have regularly routed their military sea
transport ships, while US commercial meteorologists have provided a
similar service to any merchant ships that pay for it. In 1960, a weather
routeing organisation was started by the Netherlands authorities and in
1968 by the British Meteorological Office.
Today, a great deal of weather information is at the master’s disposal,
showing actual and forecast wind direction and force, with fronts, isobars
and, in the North Atlantic and Pacific, wave heights. Armed with these,
the master is better able than ever before to decide upon a suitable route
and to take evasive action to avoid bad weather. The relatively high
speed of the modern ship makes this easier. However, due to other duties,
the master of a fast ship cannot always spend the considerable time
necessary to determine the best weather route before commencing a
voyage and so it is most common for vessels to be routed from the shore.
This synoptic weather routeing from the shore usually means that, at the
request of a ship owner, a meteorological service or commercial weather
routeing company will advise the master of the ship, before sailing, the
best initial route to take on the basis of the meteorological situation. This
advice is updated if and when necessary, as the voyage progresses.

PREPARATION OF A LEAST TIME TRACK

Originally, services providing weather routeing advice from the shore
used broadly similar methods. The service was designed to be tailor-
made for the ship concerned. The first essential step was to prepare
curves for each ship or class of ship that was to be routed, showing how
much the ship’s speed was reduced in waves of various heights at the
light and loaded draft. Specimen curves are shown in Figure 23.1. Such
curves can be quite approximate and, if not otherwise available, were
constructed from data in the ship’s logbook. In the case of a new ship, if
curves were not prepared in the experimental tank, those from a similar
class of ship might be used as a temporary measure. To route the ship,
the routeing service studied the performance curves against the
background of the forecast wind and waves along the ship’s intended
route from a study of the available forecast charts. An initial least time
track was then prepared for as far ahead as forecasts were considered to
be reliable. This could be anything between 24 and 72 hours depending
upon the complexity of the synoptic situation.
Using an appropriate chart, where the great circle was represented as a
straight line, the great circle between the departure and arrival points was
drawn on to the chart. The wave forecast chart for the initial period, eg
12 hours, was consulted and the distance the vessel would travel along
the great circle calculated. This potential position was then put on to the
chart.
Fig 23.1 Sample performance curve.

The process was repeated for several headings north and south of the
great circle and a series of possible positions that the vessel could
achieve in 12 hours produced. The calculations were then repeated for
the period 12 to 24 hours ahead using several of the possible positions
achievable in 12 hours as a starting point. This produced a series of
possible positions achievable 24 hours ahead. The whole process was
repeated for the period for which reasonably reliable forecasts were
available. The position closest to destination was found and the vessel
routed on the series of headings calculated to reach this point. The
process was then repeated when the next series of forecasts were
obtained, using the ship’s current position as the starting point.
An example of a least time track is at Figure 23.2, which shows some
48-hour least time track curves (plotted for 12-hour intervals) from Belle
Isle towards Bishop Rock. In this case, the advised track is the great
circle because it cuts that part of the curve that is nearest to the
destination. Obviously, the most adverse conditions are to the north-
eastward. The track could be modified in the light of other aspects, such
as surface currents, ice or estimated synoptic development during a
further 24- or 48-hour period.

Fig 23.2 Some 48-hour least time track curves for a ship eastbound from Belle Isle
towards Bishop Rock. Note: Intermediate meridians and parallels have been omitted
here for clarity.
Fig 23.3 Comparison between great circle and recommended route. Note: 00Z indicates
00.00hrs GMT (UTC)

The master of the ship was advised as to the recommended initial least
time track before sailing. This recommended route was amended as and
when necessary on the basis of further least time tracks prepared at 12-
hourly intervals as the voyage progressed. The ship being weather-routed
was required to send a weather message every six hours throughout the
passage so that the routeing authority could assess the vessel’s progress.
Upon completion, the voyage was analysed to compare the
recommended weather route with the climatic route or great circle in
order to assess the effectiveness of the weather routeing. It was generally
found that weather routeing was most successful for west-bound voyages
where the ship was meeting with head winds and head seas. These
services were advertised as being provided by a weather routeing team,
which included professional seafarers as advisors to the meteorologists.

PRACTICALITIES
Weather routeing may be provided either in-house by shipowners or,
more commonly, by firms separately established for the purpose. These
would normally comprise the expertise of both experienced
meteorologists and senior former seagoing staff. The criteria that will
guide them are given under the types listed below. The advice given will
obviously be carefully assessed, both for the benefit and safety of the
ship concerned and the reputation of the advisers. Historically, astro-
navigation was often described as being more of an art than an exact
science. Similarly, complex weather systems do not invariably move as
predicted – there are no absolute rules – and for these reasons masters
are given authority to deviate from a recommended route because of the
actual (usually severe) weather being experienced. Members of the
public ashore frequently complain when the weather experienced differs
from normally reliable sources. This highlights the unavoidable fact that
predicting complex weather systems exactly is difficult, particularly in
temperate latitudes. It has been observed that the UK ‘does not have
climate, only weather’. Hence, the working seafarer coping with very
difficult conditions in unpleasant and even dangerous circumstances,
may be critical of what had been predicted by the companies’ advisors.
However, this does not negate the fact that between 70 and 80 per cent of
ships’ managers now find it worthwhile to use weather routeing services,
either because of the owner’s policy or because it is required by
charterers. With further international co-operation and research it is
expected that there will be additional improvements, particularly with
respect to the accuracy of wind and wave forecasts.

TYPES OF WEATHER ROUTEING SERVICES

AVAILABLE
Many more commercial companies now offer weather routeing services
and a range of different types of route are available. These include:

• Least time. This provides a calculation of the fastest way to

get from one point to another. The great circle may offer the
shortest distance but if weather conditions are severe along
 this route the necessary reduction in speed means that a
diversion from this route may offer a speedier transit.
• Least damage. This can be useful to vessels that are carrying
animals or other sensitive cargoes.
• Fuel saving. As the price of bunkers rises, this type of routeing
becomes more important.
• Improvements to punctuality. This can be a condition of some
charters.

Many vessels are looking for a compromise route, where a least time
route is modified by a requirement for damage reduction; in effect, a
balance that minimises time for the voyage without exposing the vessel
to the risk of weather damage or crew injury
Specialised routeing is also provided for special operations, such as
towing. In this routeing, advice can be given about when and where the
vessels should take shelter.
Principal advertised claims for weather routeing frequently include the
following:

• the master is given informed route advice and assistance by

skilled marine meteorologists, with support available 24/7 by
email and phone
• there is less weather-related damage to the vessel
• there is less weather-related damage to the cargo
• an analysis of the voyage is provided that gives an accurate
insight into the vessel’s performance
• there is a reduction in environmental impacts and costs due to
more economical fuel consumption

In recent years, many commercial companies have developed software

and apps that can also provide weather routeing services for yachting.
 QUESTIONS

1 State the general principles that should be followed in climatological

weather routeing.
2 Describe modern methods of weather routeing, and the information
and facilities normally available on board a vessel to allow masters
to route a vessel themselves.
24
METEOROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF
RADAR

Under certain standard meteorological conditions, the range of merchant

ship radars slightly exceeds the distance of the observer’s visible
horizon; using the same height of eye. However, just as the eye’s range
of vision is reduced by conditions of low visibility and may be increased
by abnormal refraction, so also certain meteorological conditions affect
radar range.

METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA ON RADAR

Since clouds consist of water droplets, rain falling from them will appear
on a radar screen if it is sufficiently heavy. The larger the droplets, the
better the radar target it presents and the greater the interference it is
likely to cause. Fortunately, the droplets composing fog, mist and drizzle
are very small and cause little interference. Showers will appear as light
irregular shapes that are constantly changing, solid targets such as other
vessels will be more persistent within these. Cold fronts in particular
may show as a quite distinct formation. Heavy rain may temporarily
cause a reduction in the potential range.
The composition of snowflakes is such that they do not cause as much
trouble as heavy rain, but this again is governed by flake size, intensity
and extent of the snowfall. Solid particles, such as sand and dust, in the
atmosphere may also diminish radar range. All these attenuation effects
can, to some extent, be ameliorated by judicious use of gain control,
though this action is liable to weaken the echo strength of any solid
target, such as a ship.

WAVE CLUTTER
The presence of sea waves likely to cause clutter on the radar is obvious
to those on the bridge. This indirect meteorological effect on radar
performance is largely overcome by prudent manipulation of ‘swept
gain’. Nothing can prevent it, however, being a potential menace when
the detection of small targets such as growlers, boats or buoys is
concerned.
When heavy rain or some similar cause of interference is some distance
from the ship, only objects inside or beyond the interference area will be
liable to have their radar range diminished. The diffuse appearance of
these attenuating echoes on the radar screen is easily recognisable and
when remote from the ship their area has a hard edge. Very heavy rain
often extends to considerable height; this enables the central dangerous
area and eye of a tropical storm to be observed at extreme radar range (ie
up to about 130km (80 miles) or so) and thus helps the mariner to take
evasive action. (See Chapter 17.)
Note: Heavy rain can be penetrated by 10cm radar but not by 3cm
radar.

STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
Radar rays are affected by refraction when passing through atmospheric
layers of varying density, to a greater extent than are light rays, which
have a very much smaller wave length. The errors that can occur in
astronomical navigation due to this bending of light rays at various
altitudes are allowed for in navigation tables on the basis of ‘mean
refraction’. This assumes a uniform atmosphere with density decreasing
regularly with height. Variations from this idealised state are ignored,
except when a mirage shows abnormal refraction to be present, resulting
in accurate sightings being more or less impracticable.
 The effect of variations in refraction on a radar is to decrease or to
increase its range. Normal radar performance, giving ranges slightly
beyond the clear weather horizon at the radar’s height of eye, can be
expected in Standard Atmospheric Conditions (Standard Refractive
Index). This implies normal convection and:

• a pressure at sea level of 1,013hPa, decreasing with height at a

rate of 12hPa per 100m (330ft)
• a temperature at sea level of 15°C (59°F), decreasing with height
at a rate of 0.7°C (33°F) per 100m (330ft)
• a constant relative humidity of 60 per cent

These figures merely define Standard Refractive Index, which implies a

Standard Atmosphere and it is obvious that they cannot be checked by
the mariner. They represent a mean value for the whole world and should
not be considered as normal.
The refractive index, which indicates the degree of refraction in the
atmosphere at any given time, depends on the density of the air through
which the radar waves pass. Density, in turn, is governed by temperature,
pressure and relative humidity. The greater the density, the greater the
refraction and vice versa.

STANDARD PROPAGATION
In standard atmosphere, the distance from the transmitter to the radar
horizon is a little in excess of the optical distance. This distance is 2.21
√h miles, where ‘h’ is the height of the radar scanner above the waterline
in metres. Standard conditions exist mostly in temperate latitudes at sea
well away from the land and when good mixing of the air is indicated by
strong winds and cumulus clouds.

NON-STANDARD PROPAGATION
The effect of significant variations from standard conditions will either
decrease or increase the effective radar range, according to whether the
atmospheric density near the surface is less or greater than standard
respectively. It is important for the mariner to know some of the
meteorological conditions that are likely to affect radar propagation and
what sort of unusual performance he might expect from his radar. Non-
standard conditions are more commonly encountered in coastal areas
near large land masses. A change in air temperature and/or relative
humidity at any given height will cause a change in air density (and
refractive index) at that height. If, however, we consider atmospheric
changes that occur near the sea surface only, we can draw the following
conclusions:

• an increase in temperature (which is the dominating factor) will

cause a decrease in density and refractive index, which will
result in a reduction in radar range
• a fall in temperature will cause the density to increase, which
will result in an increase in radar range

SUB-REFRACTION
A cold air mass moving over a relatively warm sea rises in temperature
at or near the surface. The result is a decrease in air density and a
reduction in radar range. These circumstances imply a greater-than-
normal decrease in temperature with height (a steep lapse rate), giving
vigorous convection and an increase in relative humidity with height,
evidenced by a convective type of cloud formation. In extreme cases, the
radar lobe may be refracted into an upward curve, away from the sea
surface, and can cause a reduction of 30 per cent or more in radar range.
These conditions are most likely to be experienced in very high latitudes
or near large, very cold land masses in winter. Fortunately for the
mariner, visibility tends to be good when sub-refraction is present, except
when it is accompanied by heavy precipitation.
SUPER-REFRACTION
Warm, dry air moving over a relatively cold sea surface is cooled at or
near the surface, thereby increasing the atmospheric density, which, in
turn, causes an increase in refraction and radar range. When the sea is
very cold relative to the air mass, an inversion (see the Glossary) may be
formed. The resulting super-refraction may be further intensified if the
warm air is very dry and picks up moisture from the sea surface. These
conditions occur near large land masses in tropical latitudes and during
spring and summer months in the temperate zone. In circumstances
favourable for super-refraction, there is a risk that if surface conditions
are favourable, low visibility is liable to occur.

DUCT PROPAGATION
In extreme conditions of super-refraction, the path of the radar ray may
be refracted to such an extent that it assumes a downward curve that is
greater than the curvature of the Earth’s surface. On striking the sea
surface, the ray is reflected upwards and onwards, but is then refracted
downwards to strike the water surface again and again in a succession of
‘hops’. The energy is thus trapped in a ‘radar duct’ close to the surface
and can follow the curvature of the Earth for very considerable distances,
often causing echoes to occur on the second and third traces. Ranges of
up to 160km (100 miles) can be attained sometimes on conventional
targets. This phenomenon is somewhat similar to that which causes
mirages.
None of these refraction anomalies has a very serious practical effect
on radar performance from the navigator’s viewpoint; they merely
increase or decrease the extreme radar range, but it is useful to know
when they are likely to exist and to be on one’s guard against being taken
by surprise when they occur.

QUESTIONS

1 (a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘standard propagation’ in

relation to radar range.
 (b) Describe the regions and meteorological conditions where
standard propagation is most likely to occur.
2 Describe the meteorological conditions that can cause:
(a) sub-refraction
(b) super-refraction
3 State the effect on radar range of:
(a) sub-refraction
(b) super-refraction
4 (a) Describe the effect of each of the following on radar echoes:
(i) fog
(ii) drizzle
(iii) snow
(iv) heavy rain
(b) State how these effects can be reduced.
25
BRIEF NOTES ON OBSERVATIONS
AND INSTRUMENTS

THE IMPORTANCE OF BEING WEATHER

CONSCIOUS
Observing the weather is an essential part of the duties of a deck officer;
for when on watch, a part of the task of keeping a good lookout is to note
and record changes in wind, sea, cloud, visibility, etc. In a sailing ship
and in any small craft (such as fishing vessels), safety and progress
depend almost entirely upon the wind and weather; the same is true but
to a lesser degree aboard a power-driven ship. It is no exaggeration to
say that observing and recording the weather, and the intelligent use of
simple meteorological instruments, is a part of good seamanship.
The making of both instrumental and non-instrumental observations
and recording them at least every four hours in the ship’s logbook (and at
the times of any significant changes) are a normal part of an officer’s
watch-keeping duties. It is particularly important to remember this as so
many modern ships have totally enclosed bridges, which can tend to
isolate the mariner from the practical ‘feel’ of the weather.

INSTRUMENTAL OBSERVATIONS
Observations for the ship’s logbook include:
 • Barometric pressure reduced to sea level. The correction for
diurnal variation is only applied to readings of barometric
pressure for the master’s operational use and so this correction
should not be applied to the reading recorded in the ship’s
logbook
• Air temperature
• Sea surface temperature. The method of obtaining the sea surface
temperature should also be recorded

Observations by selected ships

If the vessel is a selected ship under the WMO voluntary observing
scheme, more detailed observations are made.
Selected ships’ reports include barometric pressure, barometric
tendency, air temperature, dew point (determined by table from
hygrometer readings) and temperature of the sea surface, for all of which
special instruments are supplied on loan to the ship by the Port
Meteorological Officer. In a few selected ships, distant reading
instruments are supplied and fitted for all temperature readings, the
recorders being sited on the bridge.

POINTS TO REMEMBER WHEN READING A

BAROMETER
Aneroid barometer
Tap gently, read, record and check. Correct only for index error and
height.

Precision aneroid barometer

Correct only for index error and height.
The correction for height above sea level is found from the table using
the height and temperature of the outside air, NOT the temperature inside
the chart room. The height and temperature is often referred to as
‘arguments’.

AN APPROXIMATE HEIGHT CORRECTION FOR

AN ANEROID BAROMETER
Hectopascals
Height in feet above sea level increased by 10 per cent and divided by 30
gives the correction in hectopascals to be added.
Example: Height of barometer = 30ft
Therefore increase = 30 + 3 = 33ft
Correction 33/30 = 1.1hPa

BAROGRAPH
A barograph is supplied by the Meteorological Office to each selected
ship. It produces a continuous graphical record of barometric pressure on
a chart called a barogram. Thus, it shows all fluctuations in pressure that
occur between the fixed times at which the barometer is read.
It consists of a series of flat circular sealed metal boxes that are
partially exhausted of air and are very sensitive to small changes in
atmospheric pressure, which either increase or decrease the volume of
the boxes. These movements are transmitted by an arrangement of levers
to the vertical movement of a pen arm. The pen draws an ink trace on the
barogram, which is fitted round a revolving drum. The drum revolves
about a vertical axis controlled by a clock, and one revolution takes one
week, during which time a continuous record of all pressure variations is
shown against GMT and date. The barogram is renewed every week
when the clock is rewound.
The instrument is contained in a glass case with a hinged lid for
winding the clock, renewing the graph, refilling the inkwell, etc.
The barometric tendencies read from the barogram are recorded in the
meteorological logbook and included in the coded weather reports for
synoptic hours. The barograph should be kept at Greenwich date and
time throughout the voyage.

HYGROMETER
The hygrometer is an instrument for measuring the humidity of the air.
One type used aboard ship (Mason’s Hygrometer) consists of two
ordinary thermometers mounted vertically inside a wooden box
(Stevenson’s
Screen), which is louvred on all four sides to protect the inside from
rain and sun, also to allow air to flow freely through the box. The
thermometers are exactly the same but one is ‘dry’ and is used for
finding the air temperature, while the other (the ‘wet’ bulb) has the bulb
wrapped in a single thickness of muslin, secured round the neck of the
bulb by a few strands of cotton wick, the lower ends of which are
immersed in a small reservoir of distilled water placed in the screen;
thus, the wet bulb is kept moist by capillary action.

How it works
The lower the humidity of the air (hence the drier the air), the faster the
evaporation from the muslin on the wet bulb, hence the greater the
difference between wet and dry bulb temperatures. Conversely, when
humidity is high, the rate of evaporation is slow and the difference in
readings between the two
thermometers, called ‘the depression of the wet bulb’, is very little.
The accuracy of the readings depends on the flow of air past the
thermometers, so the screen should be exposed on the weather side of the
bridge, well clear of warm air currents from deck, funnel, ventilators,
skylights, etc.
The data derived from the readings of the dry and wet bulb
thermometers are the relative humidity and dew point, which are
obtained from tables supplied with the instrument.

SEA THERMOMETERS
The sea surface temperature is an important observation for the
meteorologist as it is used for climatological work as well as for shorter-
term forecasting. A knowledge of the sea temperature is also useful for
the shipmaster; it must be considered in controlling cargo ventilation and
can assist in forecasting the onset of advection fog.

NON-INSTRUMENTAL OBSERVATIONS
These include:

• direction and force of wind

• direction and description of swell (the absence of swell should
also be recorded)
• visibility
• weather in general terms; eg fine, moderate rain, hail, etc
• state of sky; eg blue sky, cloudy, overcast, etc
• if the ship is taking spray or shipping ‘green seas’
• behaviour of ship; eg rolling heavily, pitching, pounding, engines
racing

In merchant ships, observations of wind direction and force, state of sea,

swell and visibility are all estimated.

WIND FORCE AND DIRECTION

Although some vessels are fitted with anemometers for measuring the
wind speed, these are difficult to site on a vessel as they should be kept
clear of all obstructions. The motion of the vessel also affects their
readings. The general method used is to observe the appearance of the
sea surface. This is then compared with a detailed description of the
probable state of the sea caused by winds of various forces as given in
the Beaufort scale. This sea criterion was prepared by the WMO. When
using this method, it is essential to take into account other factors that
might influence the sea state. These include such things as fetch, tides
and currents, depth and precipitation. (See the second set of colour
photographs in this book, illustrating the Beaufort Scale).

DIRECTION, PERIOD AND HEIGHT OF SEA AND

SWELL WAVES
These observations are difficult to make, but are important to the
meteorologist. Like wind force and direction, they are particularly
difficult to make on dark nights and depend largely on experience.
Despite the increased availability of wave height observations from
satellites, observations from merchant vessels are still valuable.

CLOUD OBSERVATIONS
The only way to become proficient in cloud identification is through
careful study of the cloud descriptions and photographs, combined with
much practice, for which every deck officer has plenty of opportunity
when on watch. Detailed observations are needed from selected ships.
(See Chapter 4.).

VISIBILITY
In selected ships, visibility is recorded in kilometres/nautical miles on a
scale of 0 to 9. When there is no target on the radar screen, this
observation is largely a matter of judgement, having in mind the
yardstick that the observer knows the distance from his ship to the
horizon, which can be mentally sub-divided. Although the horizon
method is commonly used for distances of more than 3.2km (2 miles), it
is not always reliable because of the possibility of abnormal refraction.
On a long ship, objects on board of known distances can be used when
visibility is low. At night, deteriorating visibility can be detected by a
loom around the ship’s navigation lights.
26
METEOROLOGY AND CARE OF
CARGO

One of the main tasks of the shipmaster is to deliver the ship’s cargo in
good condition at its port of destination. Provided that the cargo is
shipped in good condition, suitably packed and properly stowed, secured
and ventilated, its only real enemy in a well-found ship is a
meteorologically induced one. Violent waves and adverse winds may
delay the ship or so damage her that water gets into a hold, or her violent
motion may cause cargo to shift. Significant variations in the temperature
and humidity in the holds may cause sweat damage. Cargo carried on
deck is obviously vulnerable.
In this chapter, suggestions are made as to methods of dealing with
these dangers. The vast bulk of what was formerly general cargo is now
containerised and this has revolutionised the carriage of goods by sea,
but the advice given here applies in a general way to all types of cargo,
except liquids in bulk and other very specialised cargoes.

PURPOSE OF CONTROLLING VENTILATION

Cargo damage due to climatic conditions could produce such effects as
mould damage, germination of grain, corrosion of metals etc, arising
from condensation.
The object of ventilation would be either to cool or warm in order to
remove large differences of temperature between the cargo itself and that
of the surrounding atmosphere. Ships’ officers need to understand the
relatively simple principles involved.

HEAVY WEATHER
The size and strength of modern ships and the strength of hatch
coverings and design of ventilators are such that only with exceptionally
high waves is sea water likely to get into the holds. However, some
shifting of cargo may well be possible with heavy rolling and there is the
risk of deck cargo or even containers being swept overboard. The master
can, by some form of weather routeing, seek to avoid the worst of the
wind and waves throughout an ocean passage or in a particular weather
system. If a ship does get involved in violent weather, skilled seamanship
may be needed to nurse the ship.

CONTAINERS
The advent of containers has largely removed the concept of ventilation
of holds via a ship’s own built-in ventilators, formerly such an obvious
feature on the deck areas of cargo ships. The disposition of containers
(normally 8 x 20 or 40m) is usually determined by computers based in
the shipowner or ship manager’s offices and they will be loaded either in
the ship’s holds or on top of the closed hatches or on deck. Refrigerated
containers for foodstuffs will be located near to power connections.
A small number, usually 8 x 20m, may carry foods that do not require
refrigeration but will have their own ventilation systems built in.
It is still valuable for modern ship’s officers to have a concept of the
principles underlying the need for ventilation. These fall into the two
categories known as ‘cargo sweat’ and ‘ship’s sweat’.

CARGO SWEAT
This occurs when a ship has loaded in a cold area and then proceeds to a
relatively warm one. The ship’s steelwork temperature will rise with
increased temperature of sea water and atmosphere, and when the cargo
is cooler than the dew point of the warmer external air, condensation
could occur if the warmer air were allowed to enter the hold. To prevent
this, the hold should not be ventilated.

SHIP’S SWEAT
This occurs when the ship travels from a warm area to a relatively cold
one when the steelwork in the hold may cool and provide the condensing
surface.

HYGROSCOPIC CARGOES
Certain cargoes will have a chemical constituency such that they have a
natural tendency to contain, or even attract, moisture and are described
as being ‘hygroscopic’. Today, these are most likely to be those carried
on bulk carriers.
To prevent ship’s sweat, it is important that hygroscopic cargoes are
dry when they are loaded. There are all-too-frequent examples of cargoes
being stored on dock sides, uncovered and hence in a damp state when
loaded. This can result in expensive claims against charterers due to an
unsatisfactory condition of cargo or, more seriously, to spontaneous
combustion during the voyage. Such fires are extremely difficult and
dangerous to deal with while at sea and in certain cases have led to the
complete loss of a vessel and loss of life. It can best be anticipated by
carefully monitoring hold temperatures.
Fig 26.1 Cycle of temperature changes.
A METEOROLOGICAL GLOSSARY

Absolute humidity
(See also Humidity.) The water vapour content of air expressed in mass
per unit volume, usually in grammes per cubic metre.

Absolute temperature
Temperature expressed in degrees according to the Absolute (Kelvin)
temperature scale (freezing point 273K (0°C), boiling point 373K
(100°C)). Absolute temperature is obtained by adding 273 to any Celsius
scale temperature.

Adiabatic
Without gain or loss of heat – thermally insulated. When a body of air is
subjected to increased pressure it undergoes compressional heating;
similarly, if the same body of air is subjected to a decrease in pressure it
undergoes expansional cooling. In both cases, no interchange of heat
takes place between the body of air and the surrounding air
(environment); the temperature changes thus brought about are said to be
adiabatic changes. If a parcel of air rises through its environment it
undergoes a reduction in pressure and is cooled adiabatically.
Conversely, if it sinks, it undergoes an increase in pressure and is
warmed adiabatically.

Advection
The term generally refers to the horizontal movement of air, or the
transference of heat by horizontal motion.

Air mass
An extensive body of air within which the temperature and humidity are
more or less constant in a horizontal plane.

Anabatic wind
A local wind that blows up sloping ground that has been heated by the
sun’s rays. Favourable conditions are: little or no prevailing wind, strong
surface heating, barren slope directly facing the sun. (See also Katabatic
wind.)

Analogue
A past synoptic chart that closely depicts the current situation for which
the changes are to be forecast. Synoptic charts over a period of many
years have been preserved and classified according to their particular
patterns. Analogues are sometimes helpful as an aid to forecasting when
there is a lack of other information. Meteorological history often repeats
itself, and the developments that followed an analogue may sometimes
be a guide to the possible developments in the future.

Analysis
The process of positioning the fronts and drawing the isopleths (qv) on a
surface or upper air chart.

Anemometer
An instrument for measuring the speed of the wind.

Anticyclone (also called a high)

An area of relatively high pressure surrounded by an area of relatively
low pressure. Characterised on a synoptic chart by a system of closed
isobars, roughly circular or oval in shape. The wind blows clockwise
round an anticyclone in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in
the southern hemisphere.
Anticyclonic gloom
A condition of poor illumination by day resulting from a dense layer of
stratiform cloud below the subsidence inversion of an anticyclone. It is
most likely to occur during quiet winter weather in or near large
industrial areas where there may be some smoke pollution.

Anti-Trades
The prevailing upper winds which blow above and in the opposite
direction (polewards) to that of the Trade winds.

Anvil cloud
The anvil-shaped layer surmounting the top of a very well developed
cumulonimbus cloud. Usually composed of ice crystals.

Atmosphere
The layer of gases that surrounds a body. The Earth’s atmosphere is
composed of a mixture of gases and the density of the atmosphere
decreases with height. The atmosphere consists of a series of layers.
Most of the Earth’s ‘weather’ is confined to the lowest of the layers, the
troposphere.

Atmospheric pressure (See Pressure.)

Backing
The changing of the wind in a counterclockwise direction (eg from W to
SW). A clockwise change is termed a veer (eg from NE to E).

Baguio
The local term for a tropical cyclone in the Philippine Islands.

Bar
The unit of atmospheric pressure, being equal to a pressure of 1 x 105
pascals (1 x 105 newtons per square metre).
1 bar = 100 centibars = 1,000hPa, formerly isobars.

Baratic
The code word used in weather messages to indicate that the results of
surface analysis follow in figure code. The term is now more widely used
than this, however; a surface analysis chart broadcast by facsimile
apparatus is often called a baratic. The word prebaratic refers to the
surface forecast chart.

Barometric tendency
The change in barometric pressure that has taken place during a specified
period (usually three hours) before the time of observations.

Beaufort scale
A practical means of estimating the force of the wind from the
appearance of the sea. Ranges from a wind force of 0 ‘Calm’ to Force 12
‘Hurricane’ and is used both by meteorologists when issuing forecasts
and by seafarers when reporting on-the-spot conditions to shore stations.

Bise
A cold dry wind that blows from the north-east, north or north-west in
southern France during winter. The cold north-west wind, unlike the
Mistral, is accompanied by heavy cloud.

Black frost
A relatively dry air condition in which the ground temperature falls
below freezing point but remains above the dew point of the air. Thus, no
deposit of hoar frost occurs.

Black ice
The term usually refers to glazed frost that has formed on road surfaces.
When drizzle or light rain falls on to a surface, the temperature of which
is below 0°C (32°F), a thin sheet of clear ice forms.

Blizzard
Falling or drifting snow driven by an intensely cold high wind.

Blocking conditions
The normal west to east movement of weather systems in the temperate
latitudes is sometimes ‘blocked’, for a few days at least, by a large
stationary anticyclone whose circulation reaches to a high level. On the
western zone of this system the main flow of air is polewards and, on the
eastern zone, equatorwards. This blocking situation gives persistent
weather.

Bora
A cold, often dry, north-easterly to easterly wind that blows down the
slopes of the Dalmatian Mountains and off the eastern shores of the
Adriatic. It is partly katabatic (qv), strongest and most frequent in winter,
and sometimes attains gale force when the pressure distribution is
favourable and the pressure gradient strong. Often dangerous when it
arrives suddenly, with little warning, in the form of violent gusts.

Buys Ballot’s Law

If an observer stands with his back to the wind, the lower pressure is on
his left in the northern hemisphere, and on his right in the southern
hemisphere. Mariners usually say ‘face the wind, and lower pressure is
on your right in the northern hemisphere, and on your left in the southern
hemisphere’.

Chinook
A warm and dry south-west wind blowing down the eastern slopes of the
Rocky Mountains in the USA and Canada. Its onset is usually sudden
and the Föhn effect very pronounced, especially in winter, when it causes
rapid melting of the snow. (See Föhn.)

Clear ice (See Black ice.)

Climate
The prevailing and characteristic meteorological conditions of a locality,
as opposed to weather, which is the state of the atmosphere at a given
time. The climate of a locality is governed mainly by: (a) latitude; (b)
position in relation to large land masses, oceans and temperature of
ocean currents; (c) prevailing large-scale wind circulations; (d) local
topography; and (e) altitude.

Cloud base
The level at which rising unsaturated air reaches its dew-point
temperature.
Further ascent above this level results in the condensation of excess
water vapour, forming cloud. Height of cloud base is reported as height
above ground level.

Coalescence
Process by which small cloud droplets collide and combine to produce a
large drop.

Col
An atmospheric pressure distribution located between two highs and two
lows arranged alternately. Associated with light variable winds; inclined
to be thundery in summer and dull or foggy in winter.

Cold anticyclone
One in which the air temperature at the surface and in the lower
troposphere is, level for level, colder than in the air surrounding the
whole system. In this type, the high pressure is caused mainly by the low
temperature and consequent high density of the air. Probably the best
example of a cold anticyclone is the winter high of Siberia. A transitory
cold high may sometimes build up in the polar air in the rear of a family
of depressions; usually, they soon collapse, but sometimes persist and,
due to a long period of continued subsidence, slowly change into a warm
anticyclone.

Cold front
The line of discontinuity (at the surface or at upper level) along which an
advancing cold air mass is overtaking and undercutting a warmer air
mass.
Cold sector
That area of a depression occupied by cold air at the surface. It
comprises the whole depression after the occluding process has been
completed.

Cold wall
The sudden line of demarcation separating the Gulf Stream from the
Labrador
Current.

Cold wave
A period of low temperatures (below the average for the season and
locality) that lasts for 24 hours or longer, particularly during the cold
season.

Condensation level
The height at which rising unsaturated air becomes saturated. Further
ascent causes condensation of excess water vapour, forming cloud.

Conduction
The transmission or flow of heat by direct contact.

Confluence
The convergent flow and merging of adjacent airstreams.

Convection
The transference of heat within a gas (or liquid) by movement of the gas
containing it. In meteorology, it is broadly understood as the vertical
movement of air within the environment, providing vertical exchange of
heat and water vapour.

Convergence
An area of convergence is one in which the horizontal inflow of air
exceeds the horizontal outflow at the same level. In this condition, the
excess air escapes vertically, Except in arid regions, convergence at
surface level is usually associated with much cloud and precipitation;
typical examples are fronts and centres of depressions.

Cordonazos
The local name for a tropical cyclone on the west coast of North
America.

Coriolis force (See Geostrophic force.)

Crachin
A weather condition that occurs between January and April in the China
Sea and coastal areas from Shanghai to Cape Cambodia. The polar
maritime air flowing down from the north interacts with Trade wind and
tropical maritime air, giving low stratus and drizzle with mist or fog.

Cyclogenesis
The process whereby a new cyclone or depression is formed, or an
existing one is strengthened.

Cyclolysis
The disappearance or weakening of an existing cyclone or depression.

Cyclone
A relatively very low pressure centre surrounded by an area of higher
pressure. The wind circulates counterclockwise round the centre in
northern latitudes and clockwise in southern latitudes. The term usually
refers only to tropical cyclones that are limited to definite regions, in
many of which they are given local names. Cyclones of the temperate
latitudes are called ‘depressions’.

Cyclostrophic force
A centrifugal force that affects wind speed. It exists only when the
isobars are curved and acts radially outwards at 90 degrees to the isobars.
Thus, in a cyclonic circulation it acts against the pressure force and so
makes the gradient wind speed a little less than the geostrophic speed.
The reverse is true for anticyclonic circulation, in which the
cyclostrophic and pressure forces both act in the same direction.

Depression (or low)

A central region of relatively low pressure surrounded by an area of
higher pressure. The wind circulates anticlockwise round the centre of
the low in the northern hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern
hemisphere. The weather associated with a depression is, typically,
unsettled with strong or gale-force winds, much cloud and precipitation.
The area covered by the system varies from about 160–3,200km (100–
2,000 miles) in diameter. The term ‘depression’ usually refers only to
depressions of middle or high latitudes, and ‘cyclone’ to tropical
revolving storms. (See Cyclone.)

Dew
A deposit of water formed by condensation on surfaces that have been
cooled by radiation to a temperature below that of the dew point of the
air. Favourable conditions are a calm night with a clear sky and high
relative humidity.

Dew point
The temperature to which unsaturated air must be cooled, at constant
pressure and constant water vapour content, in order to become
saturated. Any further cooling usually results in condensation of the
excess water vapour. (See Frost point.)

Diurnal variation
Changes that occur during a day, such as the variations in pressure and
temperature.

Divergence
An area of divergence is one from which the horizontal outflow of air
exceeds the horizontal inflow at the same level; the deficiency of air is
restored by vertical movement (subsidence, when divergence is at
surface level). Usually associated with quiet settled conditions. The
central area of an intense anticyclone is a good example.

Doldrums
Oceanic regions between the NE and SE Trade winds, and within which
are light variable winds and calms accompanied by heavy rains,
thunderstorms and squalls. They move north and south, following the
sun, about 5° either side of their mean positions.

Drizzle
Liquid precipitation in the form of very small water drops (between 0.2
and 0.5mm in diameter) falling slowly and gently from low-based stratus
cloud in conditions of high relative humidity at the surface.

Dust storms
Occur mainly in sandy deserts and semi-desert regions in the dry season,
when there is an adequate supply of fine dust. The sudden arrival of a
strong wind in very unstable air will carry dust to great heights and
reduce visibility to less than 100m (330ft) over a considerable area. Dust
may be carried by the wind for great distances over the sea, causing ‘dust
fog’ (or haze) to extend many miles from the coast.

Elements (meteorological)
The physical forces of nature that together determine the weather: wind,
rain, mist, etc.

Etesians
This is the Greek name for the winds that blow, at times, from a direction
between north-east and north-west in the Aegean Sea from May to
October. The weather is usually fine and clear. These seasonal winds
temper the summer heat. They are called the Meltemi by the Turks.

Evaporation
In meteorology, the process of changing liquid water into water vapour.

Eye
The central part of a hurricane.

Fax
A method of transmitting and receiving charts by radio or telephone line.
Abbreviation for facsimile.

Fetch
The distance that the wind has travelled over a water surface in nearly
the same direction.

Fog
A condition of atmospheric obscurity caused by either water droplets,
smoke particles, dust particles, or any combination thereof in suspension,
in which the visibility is less than 1,000m (1,100 yards).

Föhn
A warm, dry wind blowing down the leeward slopes of a mountain
range. When moist air ascends the weather slopes to heights well above
the condensation level, much of its original moisture may become
trapped on the high ground, or deposited there by precipitation. Thus, the
air descending the lee slopes has a much lower moisture content;
evaporation commences at a higher level than that at which condensation
began. Below the ‘evaporation level’, warming takes place at the dry
adiabatic lapse rate (1°C per 100m) and the air finishes its descent
relatively warm and dry. The Föhn is a local name that originated in the
Swiss Alps, but the effect is experienced anywhere where the conditions
are suitable. A notable example is the ‘Chinook’ (qv).

Free atmosphere
The atmosphere above the friction layer, ie above 600m (2,000ft) above
ground level, where the air motion is considered to be free from the
effects of surface friction.

Freezing fog
Supercooled (qv) water droplets of fog that freeze on impact with solid
objects, forming rime.

Freezing drizzle or freezing rain

Supercooled water drops of drizzle or rain that freeze on impact with
solid objects to form glazed frost.

Freezing level
The height above sea level of the 0°C (32°F) isotherm.

Friction layer
The layer of the atmosphere extending from ground level up to about
600m (2,000ft) within which the effects of surface friction on air motion
is appreciable.

Front
The line separating warm and cold air masses. A surface front is the line
along which the sloping frontal surface meets the Earth’s surface.
Although represented by a line on a synoptic chart, it is, in fact, a narrow
zone of transition.

Frontal fog
Occurs at or near a front or occlusion. Caused by the evaporation of
relatively warm rain drops falling through the cooler air below the
frontal surface, thus increasing its moisture content and causing it to
become saturated. (See also Mixing fog.)

Frontogenesis
The development of a front or the marked intensification of an existing
one. Convergence or confluence, or both (qv), are the most effective
factors.

Frontolysis
The disappearance or marked weakening of a front. Horizontal
divergence is the most effective factor.
Frost
Air frost occurs when the temperature of the air at screen level (about
1.2m (4ft) above the ground) falls below 0°C (32°F). When only the air
that is in contact with the ground falls below this temperature, the term
ground frost is used.

Frost point
The lowest temperature to which moist air at freezing temperatures can
be cooled without deposition of ice from water vapour, when the
pressure is kept constant. At the frost point, the vapour is just saturated
with respect to ice. With further cooling, the vapour may be deposited on
solid objects, including other ice surfaces, as hoar frost. (See Dew point
and Hoar frost.)

Gale
A wind having a speed of between 34 and 40 knots – Force 8 on the
Beaufort scale.

Gale warning
Gale warnings are issued only when winds of Force 8 or above are
expected. The terms severe gale, or gale becoming severe, indicate that
winds of Force 9 or above are expected. The terms imminent, soon and
later indicate within 6 hours, between 6 and 12 hours, and more than 12
hours, respectively.

Geostrophic force
A deflecting force caused by the Earth’s rotation. It acts on any moving
body, always in a direction at 90 degrees to its existing line of motion. It
tends to deflect to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in
the southern hemisphere. This force is not effective in latitudes within 5°
of the equator.

Geostrophic wind
A hypothetical wind in the free atmosphere that would flow parallel to
straight equidistant isobars if they were stationary. It moves under the
influence of two balanced forces – the horizontal pressure force and the
geostrophic force (qv).

Gradient wind
A hypothetical wind in the free atmosphere that would flow parallel to
curved equidistant isobars if they were stationary. (See also
Cyclostrophic force for its effects on the speed of the gradient wind.)

Gregale
A strong NE wind experienced in the central and western Mediterranean.
It is capable of raising heavy seas, which affect harbours having a
northerly aspect in Malta and the east coast of Sicily. It occurs mainly in
winter when pressure is high to the north or north-west and low to the
south. Usually lasts for one or two days and occasionally for five days.

Ground frost (See Frost.)

Gust
A sudden increase in the strength of the wind. Its duration is very brief,
being much shorter than that of a squall. At sea, gusts have no
appreciable effect in raising waves, but squalls may last long enough to
raise a group of waves, which move along with the squall.

Haar
A wet sea fog that invades eastern Scotland and parts of eastern England,
especially during summer.

Hail
Small balls or pellets of ice, usually formed in cumulonimbus clouds.

Harmattan
A dry and comparatively cool easterly wind that blows over north-west
Africa during the dry season (November to March). It carries with it
much dust from the Sahara, and reduces visibility for many miles to
seaward. The period of the Harmattan decreases southwards.
Haze
Atmospheric obscurity caused by the presence of dust or smoke
particles. The term is limited to conditions of visibility in which objects
are visible at distances greater than 1km (⅔ mile), but less than 2km (1¼
miles).

Hectopascal
This is the appropriate SI unit for the expression of atmospheric pressure.
Equivalent numerically to the millibar, abbreviated to hPa.

Hoar frost
A deposit of thin ice crystals or frozen dew upon surfaces whose
temperatures have fallen below both dew point and 0°C (32°F).

Horse latitudes
The regions of light variable winds, calms and fine weather of the
subtropical anticyclones between latitudes about 30° to 40°. These belts
fluctuate slightly north and south with the sun.

Humidity
Absolute humidity is the water vapour content of the air expressed in
mass per unit volume, usually in grammes per cubic metre. Relative
humidity is the ratio of the existing absolute humidity to its saturation
value at the same temperature, expressed as a percentage.

Hurricane
The term applied to tropical revolving storms that occur in the regions of
the
West Indies and Gulf of Mexico. Any wind of Force 12 (64–71 knots) on
the Beaufort scale is termed hurricane.

Hurricane wave (or storm wave)

The raising of the level of the sea surface, by something in the nature of
3–7m (10–23ft), in a confined region near the centre of a tropical
revolving storm.
Hygrometer
Instrument used to measure humidity or dew point.

Hygroscopic nuclei
Very minute particles of chemical substances that tend to absorb
moisture. They are always present in the atmosphere in varying amounts,
and act as nuclei on which condensation of water vapour may take place,
forming cloud and fog. They consist mainly of salt from sea spray and
other solid constituents in smoke from industrial and domestic fires.

Icelandic low
A large area of mean low pressure centred between Greenland and
Iceland. In January, the mean surface pressure is about 994hPa.
Depressions frequently develop in this region but they are less intense
during the summer months.

Indraft angle
The angle between the surface wind and the isobars.

Insolation
Energy received at the Earth’s surface by short-wave solar radiation.

Instability (See Stability.)

Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)

A narrow belt in low latitudes separating two convergent air masses that
originate in different hemispheres. (Formerly known as the intertropical
front, but as it bears little resemblance to fronts of the temperate
latitudes, the term is now seldom used.) The zone fluctuates seasonally
north and south with the sun, its range of movement being small over the
oceans and large over the continents. Its mean position lies north of the
equator for most of its length. Areas of horizontal convergence along this
belt vary from day to day in both position and activity, but are generally
associated with much cloud and convectional rain; for example, the
doldrums of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
Intertropical front (See Intertropical Convergence Zone.)

Inversion (of temperature)

An inversion, or negative lapse rate, is said to occur at a place when
atmospheric temperature increases with increasing height through a
layer. A surface inversion may be caused through radiation cooling of a
land surface at night, or by horizontal movement of warm air over a
relatively cool surface. An inversion at height may be caused by the
subsidence and compressional warming of dry air from upper levels. In
all cases, it indicates very stable conditions, upward movement of air
being arrested at the level of the inversion.

Isallobar
A line on a synoptic chart joining all points of equal barometric
tendency. Isallobaric charts are used mainly to assist in forecasting the
movements of pressure systems; for example, all depressions tend to
move from areas of rising tendencies towards areas of falling tendencies
(from isallobaric high towards isallobaric low).

Isobar
A line of constant atmospheric pressure – expressed in hectopascals
(hPa).

Isogram (See Isopleth.)

Isopleth or isogram
A line drawn on a map or chart and passing through all points at which
the value of any particular element (such as temperature, dew point,
barometric pressure, etc) is the same, eg isotherm, isobar.

Isotherm
A line of constant temperature.

Isothermal layer
A layer of the atmosphere in which the temperature lapse rate is zero.
Jet stream
A very fast-moving current of air located near the tropopause (qv);
usually in the nature of 1,600km (1,000 miles) in length, 160–480km
(100–300 miles) in width, and having a depth of more than 5km (3
miles). Speed at the centre of the ‘tube’ is often around 100 knots, and
may sometimes reach 200 knots. Speed falls off very rapidly with
departure from the central core of the stream. Jet streams are associated
with a strong horizontal temperature gradient and they flow with both
high temperature and high pressure (at upper level) on the right in the
northern hemisphere, and on the left in the southern hemisphere.
In temperate latitudes, polar front jet streams flow in the warm air near to
the frontal surface. They occur over a wide range of latitude but an
individual jet stream usually persists for several days, sometimes more
than a week, with little change of position.
Subtropical jet streams occur at a height of around 14,000m (46,000ft) in
latitudes 25°–30° in winter, and 40°–50° in summer. During a season,
they are fairly constant in position; they are very persistent in winter, and
speeds exceeding 200 knots are not uncommon.

Kata front
A front where the warm air is sinking down relative to the frontal
surface.

Katabatic wind
On a ‘quiet’ night with a slack pressure gradient and clear skies, a
surface inversion resulting from radiation cooling may be formed. On
sloping ground, the air in contact with the surface becomes colder and
denser than the air at the same horizontal level away from the ground.
The denser air then gravitates down the slope, forming a ‘down-slope’
wind. In this case, the cooling by contact overcomes adiabatic warming.
The effect may be intensified considerably in winter months on mountain
slopes where the descent over a snow-clad surface is long; the resulting
katabatic wind may then persist throughout the hours of daylight. Many
local winds, such as the Bora and Mistral, are greatly strengthened by
katabatic drainage. (See also Anabatic wind).

Kaus
South-easterly winds that prevail in winter in the Persian Gulf. They are
most frequent between December and April. Sometimes, they are
followed by a very strong south-westerly wind, called Suahili, which is
dangerous to small craft.

Khamsin
A hot, dry, dust-laden southerly wind in the eastern Mediterranean
blowing in front of depressions as they move eastwards along the
Mediterranean or North
Africa. They are most frequent from February to June. Gales in the Red
Sea from south or south-west are also called Khamsin.

Kharif
A strong south-westerly wind that, during the south-west monsoon,
blows daily from about 22.00 until the following noon in the Gulf of
Aden. It frequently attains gale force during June, July and August.

Land and sea breezes

The diurnal variation in sea surface temperature is usually very small
when compared to that of the adjacent land. During the day, under the
influence of solar radiation, the land becomes warmer than the sea. This
inequality produces a pressure gradient near the coastline, and causes an
onshore breeze (sea breeze) that is strongest during the mid or late
afternoon. At night, the process is reversed; terrestrial radiation cools the
land to a temperature below that of the sea surface, and the result is an
offshore breeze (land breeze) that is usually weaker than the sea breeze,
as the effect of surface friction is greater over the land.
Sea breezes may extend 24km (15 miles) on either side of the coastline;
they rarely exceed Force 3 in temperate latitudes but may reach Force 5
in the tropics. Favourable conditions are clear skies and a slight pressure
gradient. These winds, being local and transitory, do not conform to the
general flow of surface isobars. If the general pressure gradient is strong,
the land and sea breezes may be completely masked.

Lapse rate
The fall in atmospheric temperature per increase in height. The average
lapse rate within the troposphere is about 0.6°C per 100m (33°F per
330ft), but the actual lapse rate varies considerably from day to day and
from place to place. Lapse rate is sometimes negative, ie temperature
increases with height. This is called an inversion (qv).
Unsaturated air, when displaced vertically upwards through its
environment, will cool at the dry adiabatic lapse rate of 1°C per 100m
(33.8°F per 330ft). Saturated air will cool at the saturated adiabatic lapse
rate, which varies according to temperature and pressure, but averages
about half of the dry adiabatic lapse rate.

Latent heat
The quantity of heat absorbed or emitted without change of temperature
during a change of state of unit mass of a material.
Water may be changed to the vapour state by evaporation at any
temperature but a supply of heat is required to affect the process. Since
the temperature does not change while evaporation is taking place, the
heat used is said to become latent and is stored in the vapour. The same
quantity of latent heat is required irrespective of the temperature at
which the change takes place. When evaporation takes place into the
atmosphere, heat is drawn from the surroundings or from the evaporating
surface and can be transported from one level to another, or from one
region to another. Much of the heat supplied to sea and land surface by
solar radiation is used in the process of evaporation and contained in the
atmosphere as latent heat; later cooling by ascent or by transportation
into cooler latitudes may cause condensation and release of latent heat,
thus raising the temperature of the upper air, or effecting transfer of heat
from tropical to temperate latitudes.

Leste
A hot, dry, southerly wind occurring between Madeira and Gibraltar and
along the north African coast in front of an advancing depression.

Levanter
An easterly wind in the Straits of Gibraltar, bringing excessive moisture,
local cloud, heavy dews, poor or bad visibility, and sometimes rain. It
can occur at any time of the year, but is most frequent in March and from
July to October. The Levanter is generally associated with high pressure
over western Europe and low pressure to the south-west of Gibraltar or
to the south over Morocco. It is usually light or moderate in force, and a
banner cloud extends for a mile or so to leeward of the Rock. On
occasions, when it blows fresh or strong, dangerous eddies are formed in
the lee of the Rock.

Leveche
A hot, dry, sand-and-dust-laden southerly wind that blows on the south-
east coast of Spain. It occurs in front of an advancing depression and its
approach is often heralded by a belt of brownish cloud moving up from
the south. (See also Scirocco.)

Libeccio
The predominating westerly or south-westerly wind in north Corsica. It
often causes high seas and may be accompanied by violent squalls. It is
most persistent during summer months. In winter, it alternates with
winds from the north or north-east. (See Tramontana.)

Line squall
A very well marked, particularly active cold front in the form of a V-
shaped trough. Its approach and passage are characterised by an arc or
line of low black cloud (often ‘roll’ cloud) preceding the front. A sudden
freshening and slight backing of the wind, followed by a veer of perhaps
90 degrees or more as it passes, together with a hard squall or squalls,
often heavy rain or hail with thunder and lightning; it is also marked by a
sudden fall in temperature. The barometer commences to rise rapidly
immediately the trough has passed, the wind moderates quickly and
tends to back a little before settling to a steady direction. A line squall
generally lasts for about 15 minutes and occasionally for half an hour.
(See Pampero and Southerly buster.)

Long wave (Rossby waves)

A smooth wave-like pattern on an upper air contour chart, which shows
the flow of westerly winds right round the Arctic low. These long waves
vary considerably in amplitude and length, and may extend for 3,200km
(2,000 miles) or more from crest to crest. There are generally four or five
of such waves to be seen on a contour chart of a complete hemisphere.
The position and shape of long waves are of special importance in
forecasting.

Long-wave radiation (terrestrial radiation)

The ground is cooled at night by outward (long-wave) radiation in excess
of incoming radiation. Conditions favourable for nocturnal cooling are: a
cloudless sky, low absolute humidity and absence of wind. Dew and hoar
frost (qv) are indications of effective long-wave radiation.

Loom
The glow of a light that is below the horizon, caused by reflection, such
as from low cloud.

Looming

1 An apparent elevation of distant terrestrial objects by abnormal

refraction; objects below the horizon may become visible. Associated
with a strong inversion. (See Mirage.)
2 Term used when land or objects are seen indistinctly through poor
visibility, darkness or distance.

Maestro
A fresh north-westerly wind that blows in the Adriatic in summer. It is
accompanied by fine weather.

Marin
A strong south-easterly wind in the Gulf of Lions. It is associated with
depressions moving north-east or east from northern Spain or southern
France. Usually, it brings warm cloudy weather with rain.

Meltemi (See Etesians.)

Mirage
An optical phenomenon in which objects appear to be raised, lowered,
magnified, distorted, inverted or multiplied due to unusual and sharp
variations in density of atmospheric layers close to the Earth’s surface.

Mirage, inferior
Occurs when the surface air is strongly heated by contact with hot, fairly
level ground, and so becomes less dense than the air immediately above.
Rays of light from the clear sky are refracted upwards towards the
observer; the illusion produced is that of an expanse of shimmering
bright water.

Mirage, superior
When the surface is much colder than the air above and the wind is very
light, a strong temperature inversion is formed. In this case, the light rays
from an object are bent downwards towards the observer, and objects
below the horizon may become visible. Sometimes, an inverted image is
seen above the real object and occasionally, an upright image over the
inverted one. Superior image occurs more often in high latitudes.
(Beware of the effects of abnormal or subnormal refraction when finding
distance off a ‘rising’ or ‘dipping’ light.)

Mist
A condition of atmospheric obscurity caused by the presence of
suspended minute water droplets. The term is limited to conditions in
which objects are visible at distances greater than 1km, but less than 2km
(1,100–2,200 yards).

Mistral
A cold, dry, strong N or NW wind blowing over the north-west coasts of
the Mediterranean. It occurs usually when there is high pressure to the
north-west, over France, and low to the south-east. It often attains gale
force, especially in winter, when the flow of air over the Gulf of Lions is
reinforced by katabatic drainage from the French Maritime Alps and also
from the funnelling of the Rhone Valley.

Mixing fog
Forms along the boundary (mixing zone) between two air masses of
widely differing temperatures, both of which are nearly saturated.
Sometimes called frontal fog because it is often experienced during the
passage of a front.

Mizzle (See Scotch mist.)

Monsoon
A seasonal wind blowing from a large land mass towards the ocean in
winter, and in the reverse direction in the summer. Caused by the unequal
surface heating of large land and sea areas. In the summer, low surface
pressure develops over the relatively hot land; in winter, high pressure
builds up over the relatively cold land. Monsoons occur in many parts of
the world but those of the Indian Ocean and China Sea are the best
known.

Norther
A strong, cool, dry northerly wind that blows over the Gulf of Mexico,
Central
America and the western Caribbean. It is most frequent in the colder
months of the year, and is associated with intense anticyclones over
western North America and a depression over the Caribbean. Northers
sometimes attain gale force.

Numerical forecast
A forecast produced using a computer model of the atmosphere.
Occlusion
Within a frontal depression, the cold front moves faster than the warm
front and eventually overtakes it. Thus, advancing polar air at the rear of
the cold front overtakes retreating polar air ahead of the warm front, and
the tropical air of the warm sector is lifted off the ground. When these
two polar air masses come together, their differing characteristics (due to
recent history) will cause the overtaking air to override or undercut the
retreating air; in both cases, the process is called an occlusion (warm or
cold).

Okta
Unit used in reporting cloud amount; it is equal to an area of one-eighth
of the area of the sky.

Orographic cloud
Orographic cloud is formed when an airstream, on meeting a barrier of
high ground, is deflected upwards and the consequent adiabatic cooling
brings the temperature below the dew point of the rising air.

Ozone layer
The layer of the atmosphere where the concentration of atmospheric
ozone is greatest. The maximum concentration occurs between 20–25km
(12½–15½ miles) above the Earth’s surface.

Pampero
The name given to a severe line squall in the Argentine and Uruguay.
(See Line squall.) Most frequent between June and September.

Polar front
The line of separation between the principal polar and tropical air masses
in the temperate latitudes. Most of the travelling depressions of these
latitudes are formed on bends or waves on the polar front. It often
extends as an unbroken line for thousands of miles.

Prebaratic
Term used for a forecast chart showing positions of surface isobars and
fronts.

Precipitation
The term includes rain, drizzle, sleet, snow, hail, dew, hoar frost, rime
and glazed frost. Cloud, fog and mist are not classed as precipitation.
‘Wet fog’, however, which deposits water on the surfaces with which it
comes in contact, is classified as precipitation.

Pressure
Force per unit area exerted on a surface by the liquid or gas in contact
with it.
Atmospheric pressure at any level is produced by the weight of the air
that lies above that level; hence, atmospheric pressure decreases as
height increases.

Pressure gradient (horizontal)

The change in pressure per unit distance measured at right angles to the
isobars. It is generally termed steep when the isobars are close together,
and slight, slack or flat when they are widely spaced. The steeper the
pressure gradient, the greater the wind speed. In the middle latitudes, a
gradient of 1hPa in 48km (30 miles) gives a geostrophic wind speed of
approximately 30 knots (surface wind speed at sea about 24 knots).

Pressure tendency
The rate of change of pressure with time. In practice, it usually refers to
the change in pressure during the period of three hours prior to the time
of observation. Of great practical value in forecasting. (See Isallobar.)

Prognostic chart
An alternative name for a forecast chart..

Quasi-stationary front
A front whose position shows little or no movement on successive
synoptic charts. Subject to wave-like disturbances, which bring increased
frontal activity and the likelihood of the formation of a new depression.

Radiation (solar)
The transfer of heat from one body to another by electromagnetic waves.
The heat of the sun is radiated through empty space to the Earth; this is
short-wave radiation. The Earth radiates its heat into space in the form of
long-wave radiation. By day, the incoming radiation from the sun
exceeds the outgoing radiation and the Earth’s surface becomes warmer.
At night, there is no incoming radiation and the surface undergoes
cooling throughout the period of darkness.

Radiation inversion (surface inversion)

A layer in which temperature increases with height, extending upwards
from the ground. A temperature inversion extending upwards from the
ground and resulting from a period of nocturnal radiation cooling.
Favourable conditions are: a clear sky at night, and little or no wind. The
inversion will be greatly strengthened if the period of darkness is long, as
in winter months.

Radiosonde
A small, compact radio transmitter, attached to a free balloon for the
purpose of obtaining upper air observations: usually pressure,
temperature and humidity. Wind velocities can also be obtained, either
by tracking the balloon with a radiotheodolite, or by radar echoes from a
radar target (reflector) carried by the balloon.

Relative humidity
(See also Humidity.) The ratio of the existing absolute humidity to its
saturation value at the same temperature, expressed as a percentage.

Ridge
A ridge (or wedge) of high pressure is a tongue-like extension of an
anticyclone or high-pressure area. It is generally associated with fair
weather, similar to that of an anticyclone. Ridges travelling eastwards
between two temperate latitude depressions are usually fast-moving, and
the fair periods that they often bring are brief. Ridges extending from
continental highs in winter, or from subtropical highs, are slower in
movement and sometimes remain in one area for several days.

Rime
When supercooled water droplets of fog strike solid objects such as trees,
telephone wires, ship’s masts, rigging and superstructure at temperatures
below 0°C (32°F) they freeze on impact, forming a deposit of white ice
crystals. The deposit is rough in appearance and grows out to windward
of the object.

Roaring Forties
The prevailing westerly winds of the southern hemisphere that blow over
the oceans in the temperate latitudes, on the poleward side of the 40th
parallel.

Rossby wave (See Long wave.)

Satellites (meteorological)
Geostationary artificial satellites, operating at a height of 35,400km
(22,000 miles), regularly observe and transmit meteorological
information to Earth. This information includes air temperatures, water
vapour content, radiation data, cloud disposition (which depicts the
shape of depressions, fronts and other weather systems) and also, when
the sky is clear, sea ice and sea temperature.
These satellites are especially useful in observing conditions over ocean
areas and those land areas where observations are sparse. They are of
vital use in giving advance warning of tropical cyclones. The
information they provide is shared internationally.

Saturation
Air is said to be saturated when its relative humidity is 100 per cent. It
should be noted that, at sub-freezing temperatures, the absolute humidity
at which water vapour can condense to form water is higher than the
absolute humidity at which water vapour can change state and become
ice. Air that is only just saturated with respect to water is supersaturated
with respect to ice.

Scirocco
The local name for a southerly wind in the Mediterranean. Originating in
the desert regions of North Africa, it crosses the African coast as a hot,
dry wind and often carries much dust. Blowing over the relatively cool
water surface, it picks up moisture and tends to become stable; thus, it
reaches the northern coasts as a warm, unpleasantly humid wind, often
with fog or low stratus.

Scotch mist
A combination of drizzle and thick mist; most common in the uplands of
Scotland, whence it derives its name. Also frequent in Devon and
Cornwall, where it is known as ‘mizzle’.

Scud (stratus fractus)

Ragged-looking low clouds of bad weather, which appear to move
rapidly below rain cloud (nimbostratus) in strong winds.

Sea breeze (See Land and sea breezes.)

Sea smoke (Arctic sea smoke, frost smoke, steam fog, warm water
fog, or water smoke)
When cold air flows over a relatively very warm sea surface, intense
evaporation takes place into the air at the surface, so that its vapour
pressure becomes greater than the saturation vapour pressure of the air
immediately above. As convection carries the warmed surface air
upwards into the colder air, the excess water vapour is condensed and
gives the appearance of steam or smoke rising from the sea surface.
Occurs mainly in high latitudes (eg with cold air blowing over gaps in
the ice pack), off eastern coasts of cold continents in winter, and over
inland seas, lakes and waterways in autumn.

Secondary cold front

A trough of low pressure in the polar air following the first cold front of
a depression. It marks the advance of fresh polar air, which, due to recent
history, is colder than the polar air immediately behind the primary front.

Secondary depression
A small low that forms within the area covered by the closed circulation
of a larger (primary) depression. It generally moves round its parent low
in a cyclonic direction, following the main flow of isobars, and often
develops sufficiently to completely absorb the primary depression.
Secondaries often form on a frontal wave and sometimes at the tip of the
warm sector of a partly occluded depression. Non-frontal secondaries
may form within an unstable polar air mass.

Shamal
A prevailing NW wind that blows over Iraq, the Persian Gulf and Gulf of
Oman. Most frequent in summer, when the monsoon low is established
over NW India. Generally hot, very dry and associated with cloudless
skies, it carries quantities of dust and fine sand from the desert, causing
bad visibility. In the early summer, it may persist for several weeks at a
time. Seldom exceeds Force 7, except in winter when it sometimes
reaches Force 9, and may be accompanied by rain squalls, thunder and
lightning. The onset of a Shamal is not usually preceded by any marked
barometric tendency.

Showers
Rain, hail or snow falling from isolated convection clouds and usually of
short duration. The term shower in weather reports distinguishes it from
intermittent or continuous precipitation from layer cloud.

Sleet
In British terminology: ‘Snow and rain falling together or snow which
melts as it falls.’
In United States Weather Bureau terminology: ‘Frozen precipitation
consisting of transparent, rounded, hard, raindrop-sized grains of ice that
rebound as they strike a hard surface. Also called ice pellets.’ In US
popular terminology: ‘A smooth coating of ice deposited by freezing
rain; glaze.’

Smog
Fog that is thickened and darkened by smoke pollution. In large
industrial areas, a normal white or grey water fog is often changed into
brown smog by smoke from furnaces and domestic fires. With the
introduction of legislation requiring the use of cleaner fuels, this is now
all too frequently primarily caused by traffic exhaust gases.

Solano
An easterly or south-easterly wind that brings rain to the Straits of
Gibraltar and the south-east coast of Spain.

Solar radiation (See Radiation.)

Sounding (meteorological)
Observations of atmospheric properties by means of such devices as
satellites, balloons or rockets.

Southerly buster
The local name for the sudden squally onset of cold air that marks the
passage of a well-defined, active cold front on the south and south-east
coast of Australia. The NW wind in advance of the trough is light, warm
and oppressive. The arrival of the SW wind is usually marked by a line
of cloud, and sometimes by thunder and lightning; it commences as a
sudden violent squall, and often blows with gale force for several hours
before moderating. There is a large and rapid fall in temperature as the
front passes. Similar to the Pampero of South America.

Specific heat capacity

The specific heat of a substance is the number of joules required to raise
the temperature of 1kg of that substance by 1°C. The specific heat of
water is higher than that of any other common substance; hence the gain
or loss of a given quantity of heat brings about a smaller change in
temperature of the sea than of the land.

Squall
A sudden, very marked increase in wind speed, which lasts for a few
minutes and then suddenly dies down. It is of longer duration than a gust
(qv).
When using the Beaufort scale for the estimation of wind speed, the
following criteria should be used for the reporting of squalls: ‘A sudden
increase of wind speed by at least 3 stages of the Beaufort scale, the
speed rising to Force 6 or more, and lasting for at least one minute.’

Stability (atmospheric)
Stable air offers resistance to vertical displacement. In unstable air,
vertical movement is stimulated. If, in a stable atmosphere, a parcel of
air is displaced upwards or downwards, it will tend to return to its
original level immediately the displacing force is removed. In an
unstable atmosphere, the parcel will continue to move in the same
direction after the initial displacing force has ceased to act. Lapse rate is
the governing factor that determines whether the atmosphere is stable or
unstable.
Unsaturated air is stable when its lapse rate is less than the dry adiabatic
lapse rate (DALR), and unstable when its lapse rate exceeds the DALR.
Saturated air is stable when its lapse rate is less than the saturated
adiabatic lapse rate (SALR), and unstable when its lapse rate exceeds the
SALR. (See Lapse rate and Adiabatic.)
The air is conditionally unstable when the environmental lapse rate
(ELR) lies between the DALR and SALR. The degree of stability or
instability depends not only on the ELR, but also on the height of the
condensation level, which is governed by the dew point of the surface
air.
In general, atmospheric stability is favoured by small lapse rates, and
atmospheric instability by large lapse rates. Layer type cloud is
associated with stable atmosphere; cumuliform cloud of great vertical
extent is associated with unstable atmosphere.

Standing wave
An air wave that is stationary or nearly stationary in relation to the
Earth’s surface. Usually associated with the flow of air over high ground
or other obstructions.

Steam fog (See Sea smoke.)

Stratopause
The upper boundary of the stratosphere. It is located at an approximate
height of 50km (31 miles).

Stratosphere
The region of the atmosphere contained between the tropopause (at an
average height of 9km (5⅔ miles) at the poles and 17km (10½ miles) at
the equator) and the stratopause (height about 50–51km (31–31⅔
miles)).
Within this region, temperature does not decrease with height, but
remains practically constant in the lower levels, and increases with
height in the upper levels. Temperature in the stratosphere is not
governed by convection or transference of latent heat, but it is increased
in the higher levels by absorption of solar radiation by ozone.

Sublimation
A direct change from water vapour to ice or from ice to water vapour.

Subsidence
The slow downward motion of air that is warmed adiabatically during
descent. In an anticyclone, the deficiency of surface air due to divergence
is restored by subsidence, which brings about great stability and an
anticyclone inversion. (See Adiabatic.)

Sumatras
Violent thundery squalls that occur in the Malacca Strait, usually at
night, during the SW monsoon period. They are initiated by katabatic
winds; the sudden shift of wind from a southerly direction and an
increase in force is accompanied by heavy cumulonimbus cloud, heavy
rain and a marked fall in temperature.

Supercooled water droplets

Water droplets can exist as liquid below 0°C (32°F) if conditions are not
right for freezing to occur. Water droplets in the liquid state at
temperatures below 0°C (32°F) are said to be supercooled.

Supersaturation
When the absolute humidity of an air sample exceeds its saturation value
at its existing temperature, the sample is said to be supersaturated and its
relative humidity is greater than 100 per cent. Condensation nuclei are
always present in the atmosphere, and so supersaturation can very rarely
occur to any marked degree.

Synoptic chart
A weather map drawn at a fixed time.

Synoptic station
A place where weather observations are made at fixed times in order that
a synoptic chart can be produced.

Tendencies (See Barometric tendency.)

Terrestrial radiation (See long-wave radiation.)

Thermal depression (thermal low)

A surface depression, the formation of which is caused by unequal
heating of adjacent areas. Strong surface heating over islands and
peninsulas in summer, or inland seas and lakes in winter. Monsoon lows
are large-scale thermal depressions.

Thermal wind
The wind at upper levels can be resolved into two components: the lower
(geostrophic) wind and the thermal wind. The latter is the effect of
horizontal temperature distribution.
The thermal wind increases with increasing height and flows along the
isotherms of mean temperature with higher temperature on the right in
the northern hemisphere and on the left in the southern hemisphere. Its
speed is proportional to the temperature gradient.

Thickness
The vertical separation between pairs of standard pressure levels; eg 500
and 1,000hPa. At any given point, the value of thickness is governed
entirely by the mean temperature of the air column separating the two
levels; thus, the thickness in a region where the layer is warm will be
greater than in a region where the layer is cold and dense.
Thickness charts show isopleths (qv) of equal thickness (called
‘thickness lines’). Areas of ‘high’ or ‘low’ thickness may be enclosed by
thickness lines indicating areas of high or low mean temperature for the
layer concerned.

Tidal surge
An appreciable increase in the height of the tide, above the predicted
level, at the corresponding time and place, caused mainly by strong
and/or persistent winds, especially those with a long fetch. At HW spring
tides it can cause severe flooding in low-lying sites.

Tornado
An exceptionally violent whirl of air that moves over land, causing great
devastation along a very narrow path. The diameters average only a few
hundred feet, and the paths anything from 275m to 475km (300 yards to
300 miles), but usually less than 24km (15 miles). They form in hot,
moist thundery conditions and are associated with very violent
convection in cumulonimbus cloud. Often accompanied by deluges of
rain, hail, thunder and lightning. Although experienced in many parts of
the world, they occur most frequently in the USA, in the plains to the
east of the Rockies.
 Very severe damage is caused by:
(a) The very powerful updraft, which can lift heavy objects into the
air.
(b) Exceptionally low pressure in the centre of the funnel, which
causes buildings to explode when ‘struck’ by its arrival.
(c) Wind speed of such ferocity that small objects become missiles
with high penetration, and heavier objects become huge battering
rams. Wind speeds are believed sometimes to exceed 200 knots.

Tramontana
A cold, dry, northerly or north-easterly wind on the west coast of Italy
and off northern Corsica. It is associated with a depression over the
Adriatic in winter but does not often reach gale force.

Trigger action
The initial disturbance that brings about convection in unstable (or
conditionally unstable) air, eg orographic uplift of air, uplift at a cold
front or the heating of air by contact with a warm surface.

Tropopause
The boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere. Its height
varies from about 8km (5 miles) at the poles to about 16km (10 miles)
over the equator.

Troposphere
The lower layers of the atmosphere bounded by the tropopause.
Characterised by a positive lapse rate, convection currents, cloud and
precipitation. It is the layer within which most weather is experienced.

Tsunami
Sometimes mistakenly called tidal waves, these are waves caused by
sub-sea earthquakes or other sudden changes in the sea floor. The
displaced water produces waves that propagate away from the
disturbance at great speed. These waves can be very destructive. Details
of recent events can be found at the NOAA website
www.tsunami.noaa.gov/.

Turbulence
Disturbed motion of the atmosphere.

Typhoon
The local name for a tropical revolving storm in the China Sea.

Vapour pressure
The atmosphere is made up of a mixture of gases. Each gas exerts a
pressure proportional to its density. Atmospheric pressure is the sum
total of the individual pressures of these gases. That part of atmospheric
pressure that is due to water vapour only is called vapour pressure.

Veering
A clockwise changing of the wind direction. The term backing is used to
describe changing in an anticlockwise direction.

Vendavales
Strong SW winds off the east coast of Spain, and in the Straits of
Gibraltar. Associated with advancing depressions from late autumn to
early spring. Often accompanied by violent squalls, heavy rain and
thunderstorms.

Vertex of a TRS path

The most westerly point on the path of the storm’s centre.

Virga
Precipitation falling below cloud that does not reach the Earth’s surface.

Vortex
A whirlpool or eddy that tends to draw bodies towards its centre; eg the
centre of a tropical cyclone, tornado or waterspout.

V-shaped trough
A sharply defined cold front, with isobars in the form of a ‘V’. (See Line
squall.)

Warm anticyclone
One in which the air temperature, level for level, is warmer than in the
air surrounding the whole system. It is the most stable, persistent and
slow-moving of all pressure systems. The sub-tropical highs are warm
anticyclones.
A temporary cold anticyclone may sometimes change into a temporary
warm one due to continued subsidence. This occurs when a temporary
cold high remains stationary for a long period. A warm high gives quiet,
settled conditions, often dry, fine, sunny and warm.

Waterspout
The localised result of exceptionally strong convective instability over
the sea. It forms under a very heavy cumulonimbus cloud, from the base
of which a funnel-shaped cloud descends and reaches down towards the
sea which is whirled into violent commotion, causing a cloud of spray to
rise immediately below the funnel. Some waterspouts may develop no
further than this but with others the end of the spout reaches down into
the spray cloud and forms a writhing column between the sea and cloud.
The upper part of the spout usually travels along at a different speed to
the part near the surface. Thus, after a few minutes, the column assumes
a slant, becomes less active, and breaks at about one-third of its height
from the surface; it then disappears quickly. The life cycle of a
waterspout usually lasts from 10 to 30 minutes. Diameters vary from 6–
60m (20–200ft) but are usually less than 30m (100ft). Speed of
movement is very slow.
Waterspouts are the ocean counterpart of tornados and, although
generally much less violent, they are a hazard to shipping and a serious
danger to any small craft. Their occurrence is more frequent in the
tropics than in temperate latitudes.

Wave clouds
Clouds that form in the crests of standing waves. (See also Standing
wave.)

Wave depression
A depression that forms at the crest of a wave on a front.

Weather
The term generally refers to meteorological conditions (such as cloud,
precipitation, mist, fog, sunshine, etc) at a given time, as opposed to
climate, which is the prevailing meteorological condition of a place or
region.

Wedge
A wedge (or ridge) of high pressure is an outward extension from an
anticyclone, usually between two lows. The associated weather is similar
to that of an anticyclone, but is short-lived when the wedge moves along
between two travelling depressions. A broad wedge extending from a
large intense anticyclone may sometimes persist for many days.

Wind chill factor

The air may feel significantly colder than its actual temperature when
there is a strong wind. The wind chill factor is often expressed in terms
of an equivalent effective temperature.
UNITS AND EQUIVALENT VALUES

Inches – Hectopascals
29in = 982.1hPa
Nin = (982.1N ÷ 29)hPa
NhPa = (29N ÷ 982.1)in

Temperature conversations
C = degrees Celsius (Centigrade)
F = degrees Fahrenheit
K = degrees Kelvin

C = (F – 32) x 5/9 F = (C x 9/5) + 32

K = C + 273 C = K – 273

Some useful equivalents

Distance

1 international nautical mile = 6076.12ft

= 1852m
= 1.852km
1km = 0.53996 nautical miles
1ft = 0.3048m
1m = 3.2808ft
1 fathom = 1.8288m
1m = 0.5468 fathoms

Speeds
1m/s = 1.943 knots
1 knot = 0.515m/s

Liquids
1l = 1,000ml
= 1.76 pints
1 pint = 0.568l
1 gallon = 4.544l

Pressure
1,000hPa = 29.53in
1hPa = 0.02953in
1in = 33.864hPa
1lb/in2 = 70.3g/cm2

CAUTION: When entering a barometric pressure in the log, or when

including it in a radio weather report, the correction for diurnal variation
must not be applied.
INDEX

absolute humidity here, here

absolute temperature here
adiabatic here, here
heating and cooling here, here, here
lapse rates here, here
Admiralty Ocean Routeing Charts here, here
advection here
advection fog here
age of air mass here
air masses here, here
boundaries here
details of specific types here
general classifications here
source regions here
weather here
air temperature here
air uplift here
altocumulus cloud here, here, here
altostratus cloud here, here, here
anabatic wind here, here
analogue here
analysis here
anemometers here, here
aneroid barometers here
Antarctic air here, here
anti-trade winds here
anticyclones (or highs) here, here, here
assessing movement of here
 formation of here
general properties here
types of here
anticyclonic gloom here, here
anvil clouds here
Arctic air here, here, here
Arctic front here
Arctic sea smoke here, here
Atlantic ocean currents here
atmosphere here, here, here
atmosphere, free here
atmospheric pressure here, here, here
variations with height here
and wind here
atmospheric stability and instability here, here

backing here
bad visibility here, here
Baguio here, here
see also tropical revolving storms (TRS)
bar here
baratic here
barographs/barograms here
barometers here, here
barometric pressure, units of here, here
barometric tendency here, here, here
Beaufort wind scale here, here, here
bergy bits here
Bise here, here
black frost here, here
black ice here, here
blizzards here
blocking conditions here, here
Bora here, here
boundaries, air mass here
breezes, land and sea here, here
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) here
Buys Ballot’s Law here, here

calving of icebergs here

cargo care here
cargo sweat here
 containers here
controlling ventilation here
heavy weather here
hygroscopic cargoes here
ship’s sweat here
Chinook here
cirrocumulus cloud here, here, here
cirrostratus cloud here, here, here
cirrus cloud here, here, here, here
clear ice (black ice) here, here
climate here
climate change see global warming
climatological information/Admiralty Pilots here
cloud base here
clouds here, here, here, here
absorption of radiation here
classification and description of here
formation of here
global warming here
height here
orographic here, here
tropical storm sequence here
weather associated with types here
see also precipitation
coalescence here
coastal thunderstorms here
col here, here
cold anticyclones here, here
cold fronts here, here, here, here, here
cold occlusions here, here, here
cold sectors here
cold walls here
cold waves here
condensation levels here, here
conditionally unstable air here
conduction here, here
confluence here
containers here
contours/contour charts here
convection here, here, here, here, here, here
convection currents here, here, here
convectional rain here, here
convergence here, here, here
Cordonazos here
Coriolis force here, here, here
see also geostrophic force
Crachin here
cumulonimbus cloud here, here, here, here, here, here
cumulus cloud here, here, here, here
currents, ocean here
Atlantic here
causes of ocean currents here
characteristics of here
general surface current circulation here
global warming here
Indian ocean here
Mediterranean currents here
Pacific ocean here
voluntary current observations here
cyclogenesis here
cyclolysis here
cyclones here, here, here
see also tropical revolving storms (TRS)
cyclostrophic force here

dangerous semi-circle of a TRS here, here, here

depressions (or lows) here, here
assessing frontal here
‘family’ of depressions here
frontal theory of formation here
maturity and dissolution of here
movement of here, here
non-frontal here
occluding of a here
secondary depressions here, here
tropical here
wave here
dew here, here
dew point here, here, here, here
diurnal variation here
of pressure here
of surface temperature here
 of wind speed at the surface here
divergence, areas of here, here
Doldrums here, here, here, here
drift currents here
drizzle see rain and drizzle
dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) here
dry air here
dust and visibility here, here, here, here, here, here

elements, meteorological here

environmental lapse rate (ELR) here, here
Equatorial air here, here, here
Etesians/Meltemi here, here
evaporation, meteorological here, here, here, here, here
eye of tropical storm here, here, here
eyewall here

fallstreaks here
families of depressions here
fetch, wind here, here
field ice here
floes here
fog here, here, here, here
droplets here
formation of here, here
mixing here
sound signals here
types of fog here
use of radar here
Föhn wind here, here, here
forces
Coriolis/geostrophic here, here, here, here, here, here
pressure gradient here, here
forecasts, weather see weather forecasting
forked lightning here
fractostratus cloud here, here
fractus here
frazil ice here
freak waves here
free atmosphere here, here
freezing fog here
freezing level here
friction layer here
frontal depressions here, here
frontal/mixing fog here, here
frontal rain here
frontal thunderstorms here
frontal uplift here
frontal zones here
frontogenesis here
frontolysis here
fronts here, here, here, here, here
frost here, here, here, here, here
frost point here

gale warnings here

geostrophic wind here, here, here, here
see also Coriolis force
glazed frost here
Global Maritime Distress and Safety Systems (GMDSS) here, here
global warming here, here
good visibility here, here
gradient currents here, here
gradient wind here, here
grease ice here
greenhouse effect here, here
Gregale here
ground frost here
growler here
gusts, wind here

Haar here
hail here, here, here
Harmattan here, here
haze here, here, here
heat thunderstorms here
heat transfer here, here
hectopascals here, here
highs see anticyclones
hoar frost here, here
horse latitudes here
humidity, absolute here, here, here
humidity, relative here, here, here
hummocking here
hurricane waves (storm waves) here
hurricanes here, here, here
see also tropical revolving storms (TRS)
hydrometeors here
hygrometers here, here
hygroscopic cargoes here
hygroscopic nuclei here, here

ice, sea here

development of here
distribution of and seasons here
formation of here
ice warnings here
icebergs here
physics of here
shipping reports here
icebergs here
Icelandic low here
icing on deck here
Indian ocean currents here
indraft angle here
inferior mirages here
insolation here
instability depressions (polar depressions) here
instrumental observations here
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, UN (IPCC) here
International Maritime Organization (IMO) here
intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) here, here, here, here, here
inversion of temperature here, here, here
ionosphere here
isallobar here, here
isobaric patterns here
isobars here, here, here
isograms/isopleths here, here
isothermal layers here, here
isotherms here, here

jet stream here

kata front here

katabatic wind here, here
Kaus here, here
Khamsin here, here
Kharif here, here

land and sea breezes here, here

lapse rates here, here, here, here
latent heat here, here, here, here, here
least time track here
lee depressions here
lee tides here
Leste here
Levanter here
Leveche here
Libeccio here
lightning here
line squall here, here
local winds, list of here
long-wave radiation here, here, here
long waves (Rossby waves) here, here
loom here
looming here
lows see depressions
lower wind here

Maestro here
Marin here
Mediterranean currents here
Mediterranean front here
Meltemi here
meteorological services here
millibars ix, here
mirages here
mist here, here, here
Mistral here
mixing (frontal) fog here, here
monsoons here, here, here, here

navigable semi-circle of TRS here, here

Navtex here, here
new ice here
nimbostratus cloud here, here, here
nimbus cloud here
non-frontal depressions here
 formation of here
instability depressions (polar depressions) here
orographic/lee depressions here
thermal depressions here
North Atlantic current circulation here
North Indian Ocean current circulation here
North Pacific current circulation here
Norther here
numerical forecasts here

observations here
occlusions here, here, here, here
ocean currents here, here
Oceanographic Commission (IOC) here
Okta here
orographic cloud here
orographic depressions here
orographic rain here
orographic uplift here
ozone layer here, here, here

Pacific ocean currents here

pack ice here
Pampero here, here
pancake ice here
path of air mass here
path/track of TRS here
period of waves here
permanent warm anticyclones here
physics of sea ice here
planetary system, pressure and winds here
planning an ocean passage
general principles here
monthly Admiralty Routeing Charts here
recommended references here
polar air here, here, here
polar depressions here
polar front here, here, here
poor visibility here
prebaratic charts here
precipitation here, here
dew here
 glazed frost here
hail here, here
hoar frost here
rain and drizzle here
rime here
sea spray here
snow and sleet here
pressure, atmospheric here, here, here, here, here
pressure, diurnal variation of here
pressure gradient here, here
pressure tendency here, here, here
pressure, vapour here
pressure, variations with height here
prognostic/forecast charts here

quasi-stationary front here

radar here, here, here

radiation fog here
radiation, solar here, here
radiation, terrestrial here, here
radiation/surface inversion here, here
radio communications here, here
radiosonde here
rain and drizzle here
classification of here
formation here
freezing here
glazed frost here
thunderstorms here
refraction here
relative humidity here, here, here
returning polar maritime air here
ridge of high pressure here, here, here, here
rime here, here
Roaring Forties here, here, here
Rossby waves here, here
routeing, weather here

salinity of sea water here

sand storms here
satellites, weather/meteorological here, here
saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR) here
saturated air here, here, here, here
Scirocco here
Scotch mist/mizzle here
scud (fractostraus) here, here
sea breeze see land and sea breezes
sea criteria for Beaufort scale here
sea fog here
sea ice see ice, sea
sea smoke here, here
sea spray here, here, here
sea surface temperature here, here, here, here, here, here, here
sea thermometers here
seasons here, here, here, here
secondary cold fronts here
secondary depressions here, here, here
Shamal here
sheet lightning here
shipping and climate change here
shipping forecasts, special here
ship’s sweat here
shoaling water, ocean waves in here
showers here
shuga ice here
sleet here, here
slush here
smog here
snow and sleet here, here
Solano here
solar radiation here, here
diurnal range of surface area here
factors effecting heat from here
sound signals in fog here
sounding, meteorological here
source regions, air mass here
Southerly buster here, here
Southern hemisphere, current circulation in the here
specific heat capacity here, here, here
squall here
stable air here, here
standing waves here
Stevenson screen here
storm tides here
storm warnings here
stratocumulus cloud here, here, here
stratopause here
stratosphere here, here
stratus here, here, here, here
sub-refraction here, here
sublimation here
subsidence here, here
Sumatras here
super cooled water drops here, here
super-refraction here, here
superior mirages here
supersaturation here
surface pressure and temperature here
swell here, here, here, here, here
synoptic charts here, here
synoptic stations here

telex here
temperature, diurnal variation here
temperature and surface pressure here
temperature, inversion here, here, here
temperature, sea here, here, here, here, here, here, here
temperature, variation with height here, here
temporary warm anticyclones here
tendency, barometric here, here, here
terrestrial radiation here, here
thermal depressions here, here
thermal high here
thermal uplift here
thermal wind here, here
thermometers, sea here
thermometers, wet and dry see hygrometers
thickness here
thunderstorms here, here
causes here
lightning here
types of here
tidal races here
tidal streams here
tidal surges here
tidal waves here
tornadoes here, here
Trade Winds here, here, here
Tramontana here
transitory cold anticyclones here
trigger action here
trochoids, wave here
tropical air here, here, here
tropical cyclones see tropical revolving storms (TRS)
tropical depressions here
tropical revolving storms (TRS) here, here, here
Arabian sea here
Bay of Bengal here
birth and life of here
cloud sequence here
Eastern North Pacific here
formation of here
movement here, here
North-west Australia here
pressure here
seasons here
size of here
South Indian Ocean here
South Pacific here
storm tides here
weather here
West Indies and North Atlantic here
Western North Pacific and China Sea here
wind force and direction here
tropical revolving storms (TRS), avoidance of here
appearance of the sky here
barometers here
local peculiarities here
master’s actions to take here
Northern hemisphere here
practical rules here
radio warnings here
ships in harbour here
Southern hemisphere here
 swell here
use of safety sectors here
warning signs here
tropopause here, here
troposphere here, here, here
trough of low pressure here, here
tsunamis here, here
turbulence here, here, here, here, here
typhoons here, here, here, here
see also tropical revolving storms (TRS)

unsaturated air here, here, here, here

unstable air here
upper air charts here
upper level winds here
upwelling here

v-shaped trough here

vapour pressure here
vapour, water here, here, here, here
veering here
Vendavales here, here
ventilation, controlling here
vertex here, here
VHF radio broadcasts here
virga here, here
visibility here, here, here
formation of fog here, here
tropical revolving storms here
types of fog here
Voluntary Observing Ship Scheme here
vortex here, here

warm anticyclones here, here

warm fronts here, here, here, here
warm occlusions here, here, here, here
warm polar maritime air here
water vapour here, here, here, here
see also condensation; precipitation
waterspouts here
wave characteristics here
wave clouds here
wave clutter here
wave depression here
wave dimensions here
wave groups here
wave trochoids here
waves, hurricane/storm here
waves in shoaling water, ocean here
waves, observing and recording here
waves, sea and swell here, here, here, here
weather forecasting here
assessing movement of weather systems here
on board here
global warming here
international co-operation here
shipping and climate change here
special shipping forecasts here
synoptic charts here
Voluntary Observing Ship Scheme here
weather satellites here
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) here
weather routeing here
practicalities here
preparation of a least time track here
services available here
weather tides here
wedge (or ridge) of high pressure here, here, here
wind, anabatic here, here
wind and atmospheric pressure here
wind as sign of TRS here
wind, cause of here
wind chill factor here
wind circulation on the Earth here
wind direction and isobars here
wind force and direction here
wind force and direction of TRS here
wind, geostrophic here, here, here, here
wind, gradient here, here
wind, katabatic here, here
wind, lower here
wind names, local here
wind rose here
wind speed, diurnal variation of here
wind, thermal here
wind, variation with height of here
winds, convergent here
winds, prevailing here, here
winds, temperate zone here
Winds, Trade here, here, here
winds, upper level here
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) here, here, here, here, here

young ice here

PLATES
Photo 1 Cirrus
These long thread-like streaks of cloud are composed of tiny ice crystals. ‘Mares’
tails’ is a common name because they look like the hairs of a horse’s tail. When these
clouds move quickly across the sky, becoming more dense, they may herald the
approach of a depression. Watch how your barometer behaves from now on. Photo by
Mrs M I Holmes
Photo 2 Cirrostratus
This cloud layer, visible in the upper part of the picture, is composed of ice crystals
and sometimes appears in patches associated with other types of cirrus. When
cirrostratus covers the sun or moon, a ring of light called a ‘halo’ is often visible. If
cirrostratus increases to cover the whole sky it may foretell the approach of a
depression. Watch for the appearance of altostratus with lowering base and falling
barometer. Photo by C S Broomfield
Photo 3 Cirrocumulus
This variety of cloud is not unlike altocumulus but the cloudlets are much higher,
smaller and gleam whiter. The cloudlets often lie in ripples or lines and are then
commonly described as ‘Mackerel Sky’. Cirrocumulus is usually seen in association
with patches of cirrus from which it often develops. The associated weather is usually
fair and quiet and the cloud movement very slow. Photo by W S Pike
Photo 4 Altostratus (thin)
Here the sky is covered with a featureless layer of cloud at medium levels. The cloud
is thin enough for a watery sun or moon to be visible. When altostratus thickens to
windward it may indicate the approach of a depression and, if so, a period of
continuous rain soon begins. Watch your barometer. Photo by R K Pilsbury
Photo 5 Altocumulus and cirrocumulus in bands
This cloud comprises individual elements. Here they completely cover the sky. Photo
by S Jebson
Photo 6 Altocumulus (stratified)
Here the cloud elements are at medium level. Sometimes several layers of this cloud
type can be seen at different levels, one above the other. When altocumulus thickens
to windward and loses its rounded shapes, a spell of dull rainy weather is likely. Photo
by R K Pilsbury
Photo 7 Stratus (layer)
When this grey featureless layer of low cloud covers the sky it is difficult to estimate
the height of its base unless there are hills or cliffs nearby as in this case. Drizzle often
falls from this cloud. Photo by R K Pilsbury
Photo 8 Stratocumulus
This soft-looking layer of cloud shows rolls or rounded masses beneath. These rolls or
patches are often arranged in a fairly regular pattern of wavy lines or groups. Breaks
are often visible in the cloud layer. Occasional light rain or drizzle sometimes falls
from this cloud. Photo by W S Pike
Photo 9 Nimbostratus with stratus fractus
This low level rainbearing cloud is thick enough to obscure the sun. The stratus
fractus appears as ragged pieces of cloud below the main cloud layer. Nimbostratus is
frequently associated with fronts. Photo by C S Broomfield
Photo 10 Nimbostratus
Another example of this rain-bearing cloud linked with fronts. Photo by C S
Broomfield
Photo 11 Developing cumulus
These small, white, low clouds are developing in rising currents of air. If the clouds
remain small, fine weather is likely to continue. Photo by J F P Galvin
Photo 12 Cumulus
Small cumulus clouds sometimes continue to grow and develop into much larger
masses with many towers or turrets. Their flat bases look dark by comparison with
their gleaming white tops which are usually well rounded and often show a hard
outline against a clear blue sky.When the tops begin to lose their rounded cauliflower-
like appearance and become fibrous, showers can be expected. Cumulus clouds often
tend to flatten out or disperse at sunset when convection ceases. Photo by Cleo Irving
Photo 13 Cumulonimbus
Large cumulus clouds may develop further, extending from the base upwards to a
height above the freezing level, where their tops are fibrous in appearance. With still
further development their fibrous tops spread out like an anvil. Heavy showers of rain,
snow or hail fall from these clouds, often accompanied by thunderstorms. Sudden
hard squalls and a large change or reversal in wind direction may occur in the vicinity
of well-developed cumulonimbus clouds. Such clouds often cover a wide area,
especially when formed along a cold front. Photo © Crown
Photo 14 Sea fog
In this photo Arctic sea smoke can be clearly identified in Loch Linnhe. Photo by J F
P Galvin
Photo 15 Sea fog
This provides an excellent comparison with photo 14 as the sea smoke lifts. Photo by
J F P Galvin
Photo 16 Orographic cloud
These clouds are produced by the airflow over hills or mountains and are sometimes
referred to as wave clouds. The clouds in this picture resemble a pile of plates.
Orographic cloud is continuously forming at the windward edge and evaporating
downwind although it appears to be stationary. Photo by R B Tucker
FORCE 0 (CALM) Wind speed less than 1 knot
Sea like a mirror. Photo by N C Horner
FORCE 1 (LIGHT AIR) wind speed 1–3 knots: mean, 2 knots
Ripples with the appearance of scales are formed, but without foam crests. Photo by G
J Simpson
FORCE 2 (LIGHT BREEZE) Wind speed 4–6 knots: mean, 5 knots
Small wavelets, still short but more pronounced – crests have a glassy appearance and
do not break. Photo by G Bartlett
FORCE 3 (GENTLE BREEZE) wind speed 7–10 knots: mean, 9 knots
Large wavelets. Crests begin to break. Foam of glassy appearance. There is the
possibility of scattered white horses. Photo by G Bartlett
FORCE 4 (MODERATE BREEZE) Wind speed 11–16 knots: mean, 13 knots
Small waves, becoming longer; fairly frequent white horses. Photo by I G MacNeil
FORCE 5 (FRESH BREEZE) wind speed 17–21 knots: mean, 19 knots
Moderate waves, taking a more pronounced long form; many white horses are formed.
There is the chance of some spray. Photo by J F P Galvin
FORCE 6 (STRONG BREEZE) Wind speed 22–27 knots: mean, 24 knots
Large waves begin to form; the white foam crests are more extensive everywhere.
There is probably some spray. Photo by D Ogle
FORCE 7 (NEAR GALE) wind speed 28–33 knots: mean, 30 knots
Sea heaps up and white foam from breaking wave blown in streaks along the direction
of the wind. Photo by G J Simpson
FORCE 8 (GALE) wind speed 34–40 knots: mean, 37 knots
Moderately high waves of greater length; edges of crests begin to break into spindrift.
The foam is blown in well marked streaks along the direction of the wind. Photo by W
A E Smith
FORCE 9 (STRONG GALE) Wind speed 41–47 knots: mean, 44 knots
High waves. Dense streaks of foam along the direction of the wind. Crests of waves
begin to topple, tumble and roll over. Spray may affect visibility. Photo by: J P
Laycock
FORCE 10 (STORM) wind speed 48–55 knots: mean, 52 knots
Very high waves with long overhanging crests. The resulting foam, in great patches, is
blown in dense white streaks along the direction of the wind. On the whole, the
surface of the sea takes a white appearance. The tumbling of the sea becomes heavy
and shock-like. Visibility is affected. Photo by J P Laycock
FORCE 11 (VIOLENT STORM) wind speed 56-63 knots: mean, 60 knots
Exceptionally high waves. (Small and medium-sized ships might be for a time lost to
view behind the waves.) The sea is completely covered with long white patches of
foam lying along the direction of the wind. Everywhere the edges of the wave crests
are blown into froth. Visibility is affected. Photo © Crown
FORCE 12 (HURRICANE) wind speed greater than 63 knots
The air is filled with foam and spray. The sea is completely white with driving spray;
visibility is very seriously affected. Photo by J F Thomson
 REEDS
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BLOOMSBURY, REEDS, and the Reeds logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury
Publishing Plc
First published in Great Britain by Thomas Reed Publications
Second edition published 1997
Third edition published 2006 by Adlard Coles Nautical
Revised 2009
This electronic edition published 2019
Copyright © Maurice M Cornish and Elaine E Ives, 2019
Maurice M Cornish and Elaine E Ives have asserted their right under the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Author of this work
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