S.

3 CHEMISTRY NOTES

Chapter 1

CARBON IN LIFE

Carbon in life refers to the diversity of materials containing carbon in our

day-to-day life.

Qtn: What have you learned about carbon in the earlier topics in Chemistry
and Biology?

You learned about the carbon cycle in senior two and plastics in senior one.

You realize that life on earth would not be possible without carbon.

Carbon forms many important compounds that form the food of living
organisms, bodies living organisms, fuels and synthetic materials that we
use daily in our homes. However, man has discovered even more uses of
carbon compounds.

Compounds containing carbon that form long chains in their structure are
called organic compounds. These do not include compounds in which
carbon does not form long chains. Compounds like carbonates and oxides
are not organic compounds. Organic compounds are studied in a separate
branch of chemistry called organic chemistry.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon and its compounds.
Organic chemistry is a branch of chemistry dealing with compounds of
carbon except oxides of carbon, carbonates and carbides of metals. These
organic compounds contain carbon as the basic frame work and other
elements like hydrogen, nitrogen and chlorine are attached to it.
Carbon has a unique behavior in a chemical sense because:
1. It can form a very long chain of carbon atoms which can be up to 2000
atoms.

These compounds consisting of chains of carbon atoms are called

aliphatic compounds. These compounds can be saturated (if all the
carbon atoms are joined to each other by a single covalent bond e.g.
ethane, ) or unsaturated
(if it contains multiple covalent bonds i.e. either double or triple e.g.
ethene,

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 and ethyne, )
2. It can form a ring of carbon atom. The compounds that form rings of
carbon atoms are alicyclic compounds.

These compounds can also be saturated

e.g. cyclohexane or unsaturated e.g. benzene

Because of these two unique behaviors, carbon can form very many and
complex compounds which has made it necessary for its study under a
separate branch called organic chemistry. However, for historical and
conventional reasons some simpler compounds such as carbon dioxide
(CO2) and sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) are usually studied under non-carbon
compound in inorganic chemistry.
Classification of organic compounds
Organic compounds can be classified into several groups. The simplest of
the organic compounds are hydrocarbons. Other groups include: alcohols,
esters, carboxylic acids, amines, ketones, alcohols and ethers.
These groups are differentiated from each other by functional groups.
Functional groups are groups of atoms that are common to a given
homologous series and are responsible for chemical reactions. Examples of
functional groups include:
-OH for alcohols e.g. ethanol, CH3CH2OH; methanol, CH3OH
-COOH for carboxylic acids e.g. Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH; methanoic acid
HCOOH
-NH2 for amines e.g. amino ethane, CH3CH2NH2, amino propane,
CH3CH2CH2NH2
Homologous series
This is a series of organic compounds related to each other by the same
functional group. Characteristics of homologous series include:
i) All members conform to a general molecular formula e.g.
CnH2n+2 for alkanes. If n=2, C2H6(ethane); if n=4, C4H10
(butane)

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 CnH2n for alkenes. If n=2, C2H4 (ethene); if n=3, C3H6 (propene) ii)
Members of the same homologous series have the same chemical
properties (though varying in vigour/speed)
iii) The physical properties of the members change gradually with
increase in molecular mass. E.g. boiling point, melting point and
density increase with increase in molecular mass; there is a gradual
change in state down the group (methane is a gas, pentane is a liquid
and decane is a solid); solubility decreases down the group as
molecular mass increases.
iv) Members in each homologous series differ from the next by –CH 2
group (methylene group).
v) Members have the same general method of preparation

HYDROCARBONS
These are compounds consisting of only hydrogen and carbon atoms. They
have a general formula of CxHy where x and y can be any numerical whole
numbers.
Hydrocarbons are classified into three main groups as alkanes, alkenes and
alkynes. These three are differentiated by the following functional groups.

Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes,

Alkanes
These are saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula of CnH2n+2.
Where n is the number of carbon atoms. Alkane members are referred to as
the paraffin i.e. they have little affinity to react.
Sources of alkanes
The main sources of alkanes include:
(i) Natural gas.
This contains mainly methane with small amounts of other gases like
propane and butane. Methane is formed by anaerobic decomposition of
organic matter and it is found in swamps, stagnant ponds and marshes.
ii) Petroleum. This contains a wide range of alkanes ranging from
molecular gases to high molecular waxy solids (C2-C40). Petroleum is
formed by anaerobic decomposition of sea plants and animals. The

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 components of petroleum are separated by fractional distillation, a
process known as refining.
Nomenclature of alkanes
According to IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry),
all members of alkanes have their names ending with the suffix –ane.

Value of n Formula Name

1 CH4 Methane
2 C2H6 Ethane
3 C3H8 Propane
4 C4H10 Butane
5 C5H12 Pentane

Straight chain alkanes have a prefix n before the normal name e.g.
CH3CH2CH2CH3 n-butane
In branched chains, the branch may be a hydrocarbon or other atoms like
chlorine, and bromine.
The hydrocarbon side chains have one hydrogen less the parent alkanes
and are generally referred to as alkyl groups. The alkyl groups derive
their names from respective parent alkanes e.g.-CH3 (methyl); -CH2CH3
(ethyl); -CH2CH2CH3 (propyl); CH2CH2CH2CH3 (butyl).

For branched alkanes e.g.

i) Name the longest unbranched carbon chain.i.e. the longest carbon

chain
consists of 5-carbon atoms, it is therefore a derivative of pentane
ii) Give number showing the position of the branch. Count from the side
that will give the branch the lowest possible number. E.g. the branch
is on the 2nd carbon atom (the branch replaces hydrogen on the 2 nd
carbon)

iii) Name the branch (substituent group) i.e. methyl group

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So, write the name of the alkane starting with the carbon position on which
the branch is located (2); put a dash (-); write the name of the
branch/substituent group (methyl) followed by the name of the longest
straight carbon chain.
The above compound is therefore 2-methylpentane.
vi) If the branches of side chains are more than one and are similar, di,
tri, etc are used.

CH3CHCH2CHCH2CH3 2,4-dimethylhexane

CH3 CH3

2,2-dimethylpentane

3,3-dimethyl hexane

vii) If the side chains are different, naming follows alphabetical order

3-chloro,3-methylhexane

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Note: the longest unbranched chain has 6-C atoms, it’s therefore a
derivative of hexane.
Molecular and structural formulae
Molecular formula shows the number of each kind of atoms present in one
molecule of a compound. It does not show the arrangement of atoms in the
molecule.
Structural formula (graphical formula) shows the arrangement of atoms in
one molecule of a compound.
Alkanes like other hydrocarbons and other organic compounds have
covalent bonds between the atoms. In alkanes, the carbon atoms use all the
four outer most electrons to form covalent bonds by sharing with other
carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms. Because all the electrons are used up in
the formation of covalent bonds, they are called saturated hydrocarbons.

Compound Molecular formula Structural formula

Methane CH4

Ethane C2H6

Propane C3H8

Butane C4H10

Isomerism
This is the existence of a compound with the same molecular formula but
different structural formula.
Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different
structural formula.

All hydrocarbons
with four or more carbon
atoms per molecule posses
isomers. E.g. butane (C4H10)

n-butane 2-methyl propane

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Hexane (C6H14)

2-methyl pentane n-
hexane

2,2 -dimethylbutane 3-methylpentane

Properties of alkanes
Alkanes are not so reactive and under go combustion and chlorination
reactions only.
1. Combustion
Alkanes under go complete combustion in plenty of oxygen to form carbon
dioxide and water vapour. For example, methane explodes in air/ oxygen on
application of flame
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + Heat.
Incomplete combustion of alkanes in limited supply of oxygen produces
carbon monoxide, and sometimes carbon and water vapour.
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO(g) + 4H2O(g) + Heat.
Or
CH4(g) + O2(g) C(s) + 2H2O(g) + Heat.

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The combustion of alkanes produces considerable amount of heat. This
explains why they are used as fuel for domestic and industrial uses.
The in complete combustion of carbon occurs in cylinders of petrol engines
that results in to release of poisonous carbon monoxide and sometimes
even carbon. It is therefore dangerous to run a car engine in a garage
where there is no free air circulation.
2. Chlorination
Alkanes undergo substitution reaction with halogens. A substitution
reaction is reaction in which an atom or a group of atoms in a compound
is/are replaced by other atoms.

For the case of alkanes, this is only possible with halogens e.g. when
sunlight shines on a mixture of methane and chlorine, the chlorine replaces
hydrogen in a chain reaction i.e. substitution reaction occurs as follows:

This reaction occurs rapidly in bright sunlight and when chlorine is in

excess.
2.Petroleum (Crude oil)
Petroleum is formed by anaerobic decomposition of sea plants and animals.
It is oil consisting of different alkanes normally ranging from C 5H12 to
C43H88. The oil deposits are usually found with sand and brine.
Refining fuel
The different alkanes that make up petrol can be separated by fractional
distillation. This is based on the boiling points of the different components.
After the removal of impurities mainly sulphur compounds, it is heated
until when most of it vaporizes. The vapour is passed into the bottom of a
tall fractionating tower. The fractionating tower is divided into several
compartments each cooler than the one below it.
During fractional distillation, the fraction of petroleum that is most volatile
settles at the top and the non-volatile heavy oil runs out and the bottom of
the column.
Fractionating tower

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Crude oil is separated into the following fractions
Fraction Distilling Number of uses
temperature carbon
atoms
Natural gas e.g Below 40 C C1-C4 Fuel for lighting and
methane,ethane,propa heating purposes
ne
Petrol + naphthalene 40 C to 175 C5-C10 Fuel; solvent for grease,
C paints and
stain;vanish,dry cleaning
Paraffin C10-C14 Fuel
C
Diesel + gas oil 275 C to 350 C14-C18 Fuel
C
Lubricating Above 350 C C18-C40 and Lubrication, making
oil+paraffin above candle, making Vaseline.
Wax+vaseline

The gas oil fraction is cracked to yield more petrol.

Cracking of gas oil

Fractional distillation of crude oil above only yields 20% of the petrol. More
petrol is produced by the cracking process.
Cracking is the breaking down of large complex hydrocarbons into smaller
molecules (of short carbon chain) by use of heat or catalyst. Heavy alkanes

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are cracked to produce useful alkenes and fuel of high quality (relatively
smaller alkanes). E.g.
C10H22 C7H16 +C3H6
Cracking can be classified in to:
i) Thermal cracking: this involves heating of large hydrocarbons at
high pressures to break them into smaller molecules.
ii) Catalytic cracking: this involves the use of a catalyst to break
down large and complex hydrocarbons in to simpler ones. Catalysts
commonly used are silicon(IV) oxide and aluminium oxide. Catalytic
cracking takes place at a relatively low temperature and pressure.

ALKENES
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with a general formula of CnH2n.
where n=2 or more. They are characterized by possession of a double bond
between carbon atoms.
Nomenclature and structure
Alkenes are named as alkanes except that their names end with suffix –ene.
Consider the table below.
N Molecular Name Structural formula
formula
2 C2H4 Ethene
or
CH2=CH2
3 C3H6 Propene

or
CH2=CHCH3
4 C4H8 Butene

or
CH2=CHCH2CH3

Isomerism
Isomerism in alkenes begins when n=4 i.e from butene. Isomers of butane
are:

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 But-1-ene But-2-ene 2-methylpropene
3. Biogas production
Biogas is a gas with a high methane content which is produced by microbial
fermentation of organic wastes.
Biogas is formed by bacterial activities on animal and vegetable wastes. It
consists of mainly methane and others gases like; ammonia, hydrogen
sulphide, carbon dioxide e.t.c.
A simple biogas generator consists of a container in which animal and
vegetable wastes are mixed with a correct (limited) amount of water and
then covered to prevent atmospheric oxides.
A temperature of about 25˚C to 30˚C is maintained. The bacteria present in
the wastes break down (decompose) the waste to form biogas.
The quality of biogas produced depends on the type of waste used. For
instance, a mixture of cow dung, human excreta and bean stalks produce
high quality biogas.
The biogas produced is mainly used as fuel for cooking purposes and
lighting.
Advantages related to biogas production
 Biogas is easy and cheap to produce
 Sewage materials can be converted to biogas
 The solid waste from a biogas plant can be used as an organic
fertilizer since it contains a high percentage of nitrogen.
 Forests and wild life would be conserved if institutions and rural
communities used biogas instead of wood and charcoal for their
fuel needs.
Disadvantage of biogas production
Some of the gases contained in biogas are air pollutants. When bio gas is
burnt, Sulphur dioxide is formed by oxidation of hydrogen sulphide.
2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) 2H 2O(g) + 2SO2(g)
Sulphur dioxide leads to the formation of acid rain which results in damage
of plants and aquatic organisms.
However, the main disadvantage related to biogas production is the release
of gases such as sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide which pollute the air.

MANUFACTURE OF BIOGAS

Raw material
Organic waste
Water
Process of production
 Bio-degradable organic materials (plant and animal wastes) are collected
and used for anaerobic digestion or fermentation.

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 Anaerobic digestion is the decomposition of plants and animal waste
products by bacteria in absence of oxygen to produce biogas.
 The materials are fed into a bio-digester tank where it is broken by
bacteria in the absence of oxygen.
 This produces biogas a renewable natural gas) which is cleaned,
compresses and sent to the tank
 It also produces a digestate (bio-slurry) which can be used as a composite
or bio fertilizer.

Side effects of the process of production

 Fire outbreaks during pipe leakage which may lead to damage of

property and loss of lives.
 Poisonous fumes in case of any pipe leakages which result in air pollution
which may result in health threats in the areas.

Mitigation

 By sealing off all pipes

 Maintain tap closed when not in use
 Proper use of personal protective equipment

Social benefits of the process of production

 Bio-slurry is used as an organic fertilizer and animal feed to improve on
crop productivity.
 Manufacturing plants are source of revenue to the government hence
improved infrastructures for example health facilities, roads etc.
 Source of employment opportunities, earn better income, and afford basic
needs of life thus improved standards of living of the people.
 Development of infrastructure such as road network, easy transport of
materials and movement of people

Schools and hospitals built, literacy and medical healthy facilities improved
thus better health and improved standards of living
Assignment
Describe the manufacture of biogas

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Ethene
This is the simplest alkene with molecular formula, C 2H4.
Laboratory preparation
Ethene is prepared by dehydration of ethanol using excess concentrated
sulphuric acid. Set up

Procedure
- To 50cm3 of ethanol, add 100cm3 of concentrated sulphuric acid slowly
while shaking under a tap
- The apparatus is set as above and the mixture heated with care to
180˚C. Ethene is evolved and is collected over water.
Note; The wash bottle of alkali solution removes sulphur dioxide produced
in small quantity as ethanol reduces sulphuric acid slightly. The alkali also
removes fumes of the acid.
CH3CH2OH(l) Excess Conc. H2SO4
C2H4(g) + H2O(g)
170˚C-180˚C
Sometimes aluminium sulphate is added to the reaction to reduce frothing.
Ethane can also be prepared by catalytic dehydration of ethanol. Here,
ethanol vapor is passed over a heated catalyst to produce ethane.
Properties of ethene
Physical properties
 Is a colorless gas with a faint sweet smell
 It is insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents eg benzene and
methylbenzene
 It is slightly less dense than air
Chemical properties
Alkenes are generally more reactive than corresponding alkanes. They
undergo the following reactions a) Combustion

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Ethane burns in excess oxygen with a smoky flame since it contains a
relatively high percentage of carbon forming carbon dioxide and water
vapor

(g)

b) Addition reaction of ethene

Ethene and other unsaturated compounds undergo addition reactions an
addition reaction is one in which a molecule adds to an unsaturated
compound by breaking the double bond or triple bond
Examples; -
i) When ethene gas is bubbled through bromine water, bromine water
changes from red brown to colorless i.e. bromine water is decolorized or
the red brown color of bromine is discharged

Or
CH2=CH2(g) + Br2(l) CH2BrCH2Br(l)
This is the common test for unsaturation. ii) Acidified potassium
manganate (VII) solution (purple) is decolorized if ethene is bubbled
through the solution

The above is alternative test for unsaturation.

When chlorine gas is mixed with ethane and the mixture left in sunlight,
the two combine forming a colorless oily liquid called 1,2-dichloroethane

c) Hydrogenation (addition of hydrogen)

When hydrogen and ethane mixture is passed over a finely divided nickel
catalyst which is heated to about 2000C ethane is formed
CH2=CH2(g) + H2(g) CH3CH3(g)
d) Reaction with sulphuric acid
Ethene undergoes an addition reaction with fuming concentrated sulphuric
acid to form an oily liquid called ethyl hydrogen sulphate

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CH2=CH2(g) + H2SO4(l) CH 3CH2HSO4(l)
When the liquid formed above is boiled with water, ethanol is produced
CH3CH2HSO4 (l) + H2O(l) CH3CH2OH(l) + H2SO4(l)
e) Polymerization
Ethene under a very high pressure becomes a liquid. When this liquid is
strongly heated to about 2000C in the presences of a little oxygen catalyst,
a white waxy solid (polyethene) is obtained.
nCH2=CH2 CH 2CH2 n

Uses of ethene
 It is used in the manufacture of ethanol
 It is used in the ripening of fruits
 It is used in the manufacture of plastics (synthetic polymers e.g.
polythene)
 It is also used in preparing other solvents

Polymerization
This is the combination of many molecules of the same compound with
relatively small molecular masses to form one complex molecule with very
large molecular mass.
The complex molecule with a large molecular mass formed by the
combination of many molecules of relatively small molecular masses is
called the polymer. The small molecules from which a polymer is built are
called monomers
Types of polymerization
These are mainly two i.e. addition and condensation
Addition polymerization
This is a combination of many small but unsaturated molecules to form a
large molecule without any other product. In this case, the polymer
possesses the same empirical formula as the monomer. E.g. in the
formation of polyethene
nCH2=CH2 CH 2CH2 n

(Monomer-ethene) (Polymer-polyethene)

Condensation polymerization
In the condensation polymerization, two different molecules combine to
form one large molecule with consequent loss of simple molecules like
water, hydrogen chloride etc. so the empirical formula of the monomer and
the polymer are not the same e.g.

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formation of starch from glucose and formation nylon 6,6
Types of polymers
Polymers can broadly be divided into two types namely natural polymers
and synthetic polymers
Natural polymers

Polymer Monomer Use

Starch Glucose Source of energy
Proteins Amino acids Repair of worn out
tissues
Cellulose Glucose Cell walls
Glycogen Glucose Source of energy
Lipids (fats and oil) Fatty acids and Source of energy,
glycerol
Natural rubber Isoprene Making foot wears

Synthetic (artificial) polymers

Polymer Monomer Use

Polyethene ethene -Making containers, eg plastics
bowls and dust bins
-used as wrapping materials

Polyvinyl chloride Chloro ethene -Making rain coats

(PVC) -Electrical insulation
-making pipes and films
Polystyrene styrene -making packing materials
- making house hold items such as
combs, plastic cups and a common
lining in refrigerators

Classes of addition polymers

There are two main classes of addition polymers i.e. plastics and rubber.

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Plastics
A plastic is a substance which when soft can be formed into different
shapes Plastics are minor products formed by cracking of crude oil e.g.
poly ethene. Polyvinyl chloride. Melamine
All synthetic polymers are plastics in nature
Advantages of plastics
 They are good thermal and electrical insulators
 They can easily be shaped and molded (they are ductile)
 They resistant to acids and alkalis and they do not rust
 Plastics can be colored when they are being manufactured and they
do not need repainting
 They are light and therefore portable
 They are cheap
Disadvantages
 Produce poisonous fumes when they are burnt
 They are non-biodegradable i.e they do not decay naturally
 Where serious fire hazards occur, molten plastics can inflict very
severe burn

Types of plastics
Plastics can be put into two types depending on their behavior upon
heating i.e thermo- softening plastics and thermo-setting plastics
a) Thermo- softening plastics (Thermo-plastics)
These are plastics that soften or melt when heated and can be therefore be
moulded into any shape while they are still soft. The plastics only harden
when they cool.
Structure of thermo-plastics
The long polymer chains in thermoplastics lie alongside each other. They
may be entwined on each other but the polymer chains are not linked (not
bonded to each other). When heated, the chains slide over each other
making them soft and runny.

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Examples of thermoplastics
1. Polythene
Polythene is a polymer of ethene. There are two types of polythene i.e. low
density polyethene and high density polythene.
i) Low density polythene
This is made by polymerizing ethene at a high pressure of 1000-2000
atmospheres and temperature of 200˚C. Oxygen is used as a catalyst. It has
a lower softening temperature of 105˚C-120˚C. The low density is due to
poor packing of the branched polymer chains.
The low density polythene is soft, light and flexible
Uses:
For making polythene bags; insulation of electric cables because they can
withstand bad weather conditions; making of squeeze bottles such as wash
bottles; making plastic bags. Disadvantage:
At boiling water temperature, they become soft so much that they become
flappy and lose shape.
ii) High density polythene
It is made by polymerizing ethene at low pressure (5-25 atmospheres) and
low temperature (20-50˚C) in the presence of a Ziegler catalyst. It has a
higher softening temperature of about 140˚C. The high density is due to
the close packing of the unbranched polymer chains. Very few of these
polymers may be branched. They are much harder and stiff and do not lose
shape at boiling water temperature.
Uses
For making crates e.g. of beer and sodas, bowls, toys, buckets, food boxes,
e.t.c.
2. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)/Polychloroethene
PVC is made by polymerization of vinyl chloride (chloroethene).
nCH2=CHCl CH 2CHCl n

(Monomer-chloroethene) (Polymer-
polychloroethene)

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PVC are more rigid than polyethene and are used for making water pipes,
light switches and sockets, insulation for electric cables, carpets, plastic
rain coats e.t.c.
3. Polypropene
This is made by polymerizing propene at a high pressure in the presence of
a Ziegler catalyst.

It is used for making rope and for packaging.

b) Thermosetting plastics
These are plastics which do not soften or melt on heating and therefore
cannot be remoulded into different shapes once they are set. They simply
decompose upon heating. Thermosetting plastics have polymer chains
which are bonded/ linked to each other. This is called cross linking.
Structure

Examples of thermosetting plastics include: Bakelite (used for making

electric plugs, sauce pan handler, switches); melamine (used for making
cups and children dishes).
Natural rubber
Natural rubber is obtained from a rubber tree as a milky liquid called latex.
Latex can be coagulated by addition of a little ethanoic acid to form a solid
of high molecular weight.
The monomer of rubber is isoprene (2-methylbuta-1,3-diene)
Vulcanization of rubber
Rubber in its natural state is not strong or elastic enough and it is made
more strong and useful by vulcanization which involves heating the rubber
with sulphur. The sulphur combines with rubber forming cross linkages
between natural rubber chains.

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Vulcanized rubber is stronger, more elastic and more durable.
Uses of vulcanized rubber
 It is used in the manufacture of tyres
 Used in the manufacture of foot wears
Condensation polymers
Fibres
These are polymers which can be drawn into threads. This is because, the
forces of attraction between the linear molecules are weak but those
between individual atoms are strong.
Classification of fibres

Advantages of synthetic/artificial polymers

 Relatively low production cost compared to the cost of extracting
natural polymers.
 They are usually stronger and more resistant to corrosive substances
like acids compared to natural polymers.
 They can easily be modified depending on the purpose for which the
polymer is required unlike natural polymers which are hard to modify.
As well their quality can easily be improved in terms of appearance,
strength e.t.c.

Disadvantages of synthetic polymers

 Many are non-biodegradable causing pollution to the environment.
 When burnt, they produce toxic gases like hydrogen cyanide (from
polypropenenitrile) thus endangering lives of the people working in
the factories.

ALCOHOLS/ALKANOLS
These are organic compounds with hydroxyl (-OH) group attached to the
hydro carbon. Alcohols have a general formula of CnH2n+1OH.
Members of the series

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N Molecular Structural Name
formula formula
1 Methanol

2 Ethanol

3 Propanol

Alcohols are named by placing –ol in the place of –e in the corresponding

alkane members.
Ethanol
Physical properties
 It is a colourless liquid with a strong characteristic smell
 It is a volatile liquid and boils at 78˚C
 It is very soluble in water

Chemical properties
1. Combustion
Ethanol burns completely in air with a blue non-luminous flame producing
carbon dioxide and water vapour.
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
2. Dehydration
When a little concentrated sulphuric acid is added to ethanol, an oily liquid
called ethyl hydrogensulphate is produced and the reaction is exothermic.
C2H5OH(l) + H2SO4(l) C2H5HSO4(l) + H2O(l) + Heat
When concentrated sulphuric acid is heated with ethanol, it produces
ethene.
CH3CH2OH(l) Conc. H2SO4
C2H4(g) + H2O(g)
Preparation of ethanol
Ethanol is manufactured/ prepared by the process of fermentation of
carbohydrates such as starch and sugars.
Fermentation
This is a process in which carbohydrates like starch and sugars are
converted to alcohol by enzymes. The enzymatic break down of glucose
yields simple compounds like ethanol and carbon dioxide. Some heat is as

21
well generated. Fermentation takes place in the absence of oxygen
(anaerobic process).
Preparation from starch
Starch is heated with malt at a temperature of 60˚C. Malt contains an
enzyme diastase which hydrolyses starch to maltose.
2C6H10O5(aq) + H2O(l) C12H22O11(aq)
(Starch) (Maltose)
Yeast is added at room temperature to the mixture and left to ferment for
2-3 days. Yeast contains two enzymes, maltase and zymase. Maltase
catalyses the hydrolysis of maltose to glucose as below.
C12H22O11(aq) + H2O(l) 2C6H12O6
(Maltose) (Glucose)
Zymase catalyses the breakdown of glucose into ethanol, carbon dioxide,
producing heat in the process.
C6H12O6(aq) 2C 2H5OH(l) + 2CO2(g) + Heat
(Glucose) (Ethanol)
The crude ethanol produced can then be concentrated or purified by
fractional distillation.
Manufacture of Ethanol from Bananas

Raw material:
Bananas,
Sorghum
Water
Process of production

The bananas are covered after harvesting for about a week to ripen. The
carbohydrates are converted into maltose by means of enzymes diastase.

The ripe bananas are put in a wooden trough and then squeezed between
spear grass to extract the juice from them while adding water.

The mixture is filtered to obtain juice

Sorghum which has been roasted is added to the filtered juice and the
mixture is stored.

22
The mixture is then covered in a warm place to cut off oxygen supply to
allow fermentation to occur.

Yeast from sorghum provides maltase enzyme which catalyses

hydrolysis of maltose to glucose Zymase enzyme from yeast
catalyses the decomposition of glucose to ethanol which is crude
The crude ethanol is purified by fractional distillation to obtain
pure ethanol.

Side effects of the process of production

 Bursting of distilling tanks, causing wounds and even death to

the workers, mitigated by regular inspection and maintenance of
the distilling tank

Social benefits of the process of production

 Source of employment resulting into improved income hence,

better standards of living.
 Provision of market for goods of the community members, hence
generating income, leading to better lives
 Provision of ethanol to the community members or use as a
sanitizer and disinfector hence living a better health
Uses of ethanol
 It is used as an alcoholic beverage e.g. beers, wines and spirits
 It is used as a solvent for paints, varnishes etc.
 It is used as a fuel
 It is used as a preservative and for sterilization
 It is used as a thermometric liquid especially in minimum and
maximum thermometers.
NOTE; look elsewhere in this book for industrial manufacture of
ethanol from different raw materials.

SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

Soap
Soap is a sodium or potassium salt of a long chain carboxylic acid known as
sodium or potassium stearate.
Manufacture of soap
The process of making soap using an alkali and fat/oil (ester) is known as
saponification.
Boil vegetable oil (from coconut, ground nuts, cotton e.t.c) or animal fat
(from cattle or sheep) with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution until a

23
 uniform solution is obtained. Allow the solution to cool. Concentrated
solution of sodium chloride (brine) is added to precipitate the soap which
floats on the surface. The process of precipitating the soap is known as
―salting out. The soap is then removed and treated further to produce
pure soap.
Perfumes may, dyes and disinfectants may be added to make toilet soap
e.g. Geisha
General equation
RCOOR1 + NaOH RCOONa + R 1OH
Fat/oil + Alkali Soap + Glycerol
Note
1. Potassium hydroxide can be used instead of sodium hydroxide.
Potassium soaps are normally milder and therefore used mainly as toilet
soaps.
2. Oils are liquid esters at room temperature whereas fats are solids at
room temperature.

Manufacture of Soapy Detergents

Raw materials;

Vegetable oil

Concentrated sodium hydroxide solution

Concentrated sodium chloride solution

Process of production;

Vegetable is mixed with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution (or

potassium hydroxide solution) in a non aluminium tank and the
mixture boiled while stirring until no further change occurs, and
allowed to cool.
Concentrated sodium chloride solution is added into the mixture to
precipitate (salt out) soap from the solution. Solid soap is skimmed off,
washed and dried.

Side effects of the process of production

 Discharge of wastewater containing surfactants solvents,

phosphates and other chemicals into water bodies can cause

24
 contamination or pollution, harming aquatic life and affecting
water quality, mitigated by treatment of the wastes
 Accidental spills or leaks of raw materials and finished products
can lead to contamination or pollution, affecting soil fertility and
hence plant growth, mitigated by use of proper storage and handling
procedures for raw materials and chemicals.
Social benefits of the process of production

 Source of revenue to the government through taxes, hence, improved

infrastructures for example; health facilities, roads etc hence
improvement in the other sectors such as health and transport
resulting into living a better life.
 Source of employment resulting into improved income hence,
better standards of living.
 Provision of market for goods of the community members, hence
generating income, leading to better lives
OR
Raw material

 Concentrated sodium hydroxide solution

 Concentrated sodium chloride solution
 Vegetable oil/animal fat

Process of production

 Soap is manufactured through a process called saponification.

 A mixture of vegetable oil or animal fat and concentrated sodium
hydroxide solution is boiled while stirring for some time until
frothing stops/no more reaction occurs in a boiler/non aluminium
tank.
 The resulted soap solution is cooled
 Concentrated sodium chloride solution is added to soap solution to
precipitate out soap.
 Soap floats and it is skimmed off
 Additives like perfumes and dyes may be added

Side effects of the process of production

 Air pollution, soap production involves mixing and heating chemicals

which can release volatile organic compounds and particulate matter
into the air. This can lead to respiratory problems for nearby residents
and the workers.

25
  Water pollution; soap production requires water for various processes
which can lead to waste water discharge containing chemicals and
detergents which can harm aquatic life.
 Soil contamination; chemical spills or leaks can contaminate the soil
leading to ground water pollution and soil degradation.
 Exposure to hot concentrated chemicals by workers and residents
may lead to skin irritation and allergic reactions, respiratory
problems, long term health effects e.g. cancer. This is can be
mitigated by; wearing PPE like gloves, Lab coats and masks for
workers in the working environment
 Machinery noise, soap production involves various machinery which
can generate noise pollution leading to disturbances to nearby
residents, sleep disruptions, increased stress levels. This can be
mitigated by implementing noise reduction measures e.g.
soundproofing, noise barriers, schedule noisy operations during less
busy times, providing hearing protection gears for workers.

Social benefits of the process of production

 Source of employment opportunities where people earn income, afford

basic needs thus better and improved standards of living for the
people.
 Development of infrastructure e.g. electricity lines, roads, hospitals,
schools etc. improved road network will facilitate trade hence
improved income and better standards of living.
 Increased government revenue, soap production plant generate tax
revenue for local government which can be used to fund public
services and infrastructure projects which result in improved
standards of living.

Cleaning action of soap

Soaps and detergents act in a similar way to facilitate the cleaning process.
They act by lowering the surface tension of water and thus enable the
water to spread and wet more effectively i.e.to break up and disperse
grease particles.
Dirt is fixed on objects by oil films. Soap has two parts i.e. the long hydro
carbon tail that is soluble in oil but insoluble in water (hydrophobic tail)
and a carboxylic acid head that is soluble in water (hydrophilic head) but
insoluble in oil.

26
During washing, the hydrophobic tail dissolves in the oil film and the
hydrophilic head remains in water, this crates tension making the grease
particles to split up into tiny globules which are carried away by water. The
dirt particles get suspended in water, a process known as emulsification
How it works?
Detergent molecule works by lowering the surface tension between dirt and
water. The molecule consists of two parts: the hydrophilic (polar) part,
which is water soluble and the hydrophobic (non-polar) part which is fat
soluble. During washing, the polar part dissolves the dirt, while the
hydrophilic part is attracted and dissolves in water.
Due to constant agitation, the dirt is removed from the cloth and is
suspended in water. The cloth is rinsed several times with clean water and
dried.

Soapless (synthetic) detergents

A detergent is any substance that facilitates the cleaning process. This
means that soap is also a detergent although the name is used for other
substitutes of soap like Omo, Nomi, Ariel, Toss etc.
The synthetic detergents function in the same way as soap but they are
more soluble than soap and therefore clean more effectively. Even when
hard water is used, they do not form scum but soap does.
The soapless detergents are made from concentrated sulphuric acid and
hydrocarbons obtained from petrol refining.
Laboratory preparation of a soapless detergent from castor
oil
Procedure
 Add 1cm3 of castor oil into a test tube, then carefully add 2cm 3 of
concentrated sulphuric acid while stirring with a glass rod
 Gently warm the mixture and add about 10cm 3 of 4M sodium
hydroxide and stir. The mixture gets hot, viscous and dark.
 Add 5cm3 of distilled water and stir. Then decant to separate the
liquid from the solids. The solid is the soapless detergent which is
then washed with distilled water.

Manufacture of soapless detergent

Raw materials:

27
Concentrated sulphuric acid

Long chain of alkyl benzene

Sodium hydroxide solution

Process of production

A long chain of alkyl benzene is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid in

a reactor vessel to form alkyl benzene sulphonate, which is then cooled
and then reacted with sodium hydroxide solution to form alkyl benzene
sodium sulphonate which is then purified by evaporation, evaporated
and cooled to obtain the soapless detergent.

Side effects of the process of production

When the non-biodegradable soapless detergents leak to water, they

pollute it causing death of aquatic organisms, mitigated by, not
pouring water containing soapless detergents near water bodies.

Social benefits of the process of production

• Source of revenue to the government through taxes, hence, improved

infrastructures for example; health facilities, roads etc. hence
improvement in the other sectors such as health and transport resulting
into living a better life.
• Source of employment resulting into improved income hence, better
standards of living.
• Provision of market for goods of the community members, hence
generating income, leading to better lives
OR
Raw material

 Benzene, concentrated sulphuric acid and concentrated sodium

hydroxide solution

Process of production

 Benzene is reacted with a long chain alkene in the presence of

concentrated sulphuric acid in a plastic container forming alkyl
benzene.
 The alkyl benzene is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid and
concentrated sodium hydroxide solution added to the resulted solution
forming a detergent.

28
  This can be added to minimum volumes of water to form liquid
detergents.
 Some additives such as whitening agents, biological enzymes,
fragrances, stabilizers may be added during the process.

Side effects of the process of production

 Acid spills on surfaces that cause falls/accidents to the workers

 Burns from acids when in contact with the skin

Mitigation can be done

 Wearing proper personal protective gears like face masks, gloves

etc.

Social benefits of the process of production

 Source of employment opportunities where people earn income,

afford basic needs thus better and improved standards of living for
the people.
 Development of infrastructure e.g. electricity lines, roads,
hospitals, schools etc. improved road network will facilitate trade
hence improved income and better standards of living.
 Increased government revenue, soap production plant generates
tax revenue for local government which can be used to fund public
services and infrastructure projects which result in improved
standards of living.

OR
Raw material

 Benzene, concentrated sulphuric acid and concentrated sodium

hydroxide solution

Process of production

 Benzene is reacted with a long chain alkene in the presence of

concentrated sulphuric acid in a plastic container forming alkyl
benzene.
 The alkyl benzene is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid and
concentrated sodium hydroxide solution added to the resulted solution
forming a detergent.
 This can be added to minimum volumes of water to form liquid
detergents.

29
  Some additives such as whitening agents, biological enzymes,
fragrances, stabilizers may be added during the process.

Side effects of the process of production

 Acid spills on surfaces that cause falls/accidents to the workers

 Burns from acids when in contact with the skin

Mitigation can be done

 Wearing proper personal protective gears like face masks, gloves

etc.

Social benefits of the process of production

 Source of employment opportunities where people earn income,

afford basic needs thus better and improved standards of living for
the people.
 Development of infrastructure e.g. electricity lines, roads,
hospitals, schools etc. improved road network will facilitate trade
hence improved income and better standards of living.
 Increased government revenue, soap production plant generates
tax revenue for local government which can be used to fund public
services and infrastructure projects which result in improved
standards of living.

From an Alcohol;

Raw material

Duodecan-1-ol, concentrated sulphuric acid and concentrated sodium

hydroxide solution

Process of production

Duodecan-1-ol is reacted with cold concentrated sulphuric acid in a

plastic container forming duo decyl hydrogen sulphate which is reacted
with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution to form a detergent. This
mixture can be added to minimum volumes of water to form liquid for a
detergent.

Some additives such as whitening agents, biological enzymes,

fragrances, fillers, stabilizers may be added during the process.

Similarities between soap and detergents

• Both are effective cleansing agents in soft water
• Both are salts of organic acids of long chain

30
 • Both have same cleansing action
• Both are surfactants
Differences between soap and detergents
Soap (soapy detergents) Detergents (soapless
detergents)
Forms scum with hard water Does not form scum with hard
water
Biodegradable Non-biodegradable
Sodium salt of long chain carboxylic Sodium salt of long chain alkyl
acid benzene sulphonic acid
Made from natural ingredients Made from synthetic ingredients
Takes long to form lather Forms lather immediately after
adding it to water

Dangers/side effects of using soap and detergents and mitigation

• Soap contains chemicals that cause skin burns, blisters or
irritation which may result into pain or cancer; mitigated by
washing affected areas with plenty of cold water.
• Chemicals in soap if they land into the eyes cause eye redness and
pain which may cause loss of vision; mitigated by washing eyes
with plenty of water.
• Soapless detergents contain phosphates result into nutrient
enrichment in the water, resulting into algal blooms leading to
water pollution; mitigated by gazzeting particular areas for
disposing the detergents.

Advantages of soapless detergents

 They are more soluble in water than soap and therefore clean more
effectively.
 They do not form scum with hard water therefore can be used with
both hard and soft water. Soap forms scum with hard water.

Disadvantages of soapless detergents

 It is more expensive than soap
 Some soapless detergents are non-biodegradable and therefore
accumulate in the environment. Soap is biodegradable.
 The phosphates from soapless detergents when washed in to water
bodies causes eutrophication. This leads to pollution of water bodies.

Manufacture of Sugar

Raw material

Sugar can/sugar beet

31
 Process of production

 The sugarcane is cut into small pieces, then crushed and squeezed to force
out the juice which contains mainly sucrose.
 A little lime is added to prevent the sucrose from hydrolyzing into simple
sugars like glucose.
 The mixture is filtered and the clear filtrate obtained is diluted with correct
amount of water.
 The diluted filtrate is then concentrated by evaporation to crystal formation
point. The solution is then allowed to cool as sugar crystals form. This forms
brown sugar crystals.
 To obtain white sugar crystals, the brown sugar is dissolved in water and
the solution boiled with animal charcoal.
 The mixture is filtered to remove the charcoal and the filtrate evaporated
as before to form white sugar crystals.
Side effects of the process of production of sugar
 Water pollution; release of chemicals and wastes into water bodies.
 Noise pollution; noise from machinery and transportation which may lead to
hearing problems.
 Loss of biodiversity; habitat destruction and impact on wild life
 Soil degradation; overuse of land, soil erosion and nutrient depletion which
result in low crop production.
Social benefits of the process of production of sugar
 Source of employment opportunities where people earn income, afford basic
needs thus better and improved standards of living for the people.
 Development of infrastructure e.g. electricity lines, roads, hospitals, schools
etc. improved road network will facilitate trade hence improved income and
better standards of living.
 Increased government revenue, soap production plant generates tax
revenue for local government which can be used to fund public services and
infrastructure projects which result in improved standards of living.

Chapter 2

32
 BONDING AND STRUCTURE

BONDING

Bonding is the chemical combination of atoms or elements to form

compounds. The force of attraction holding atoms or elements together in
a molecule/crystal is referred to as a chemical bond. Chemical bonding
/combination occurs mainly in four forms as:
1. Ionic/electrovalent bonding-this involves transfer of electrons from a
metal atom to a non-metal atom. It occurs between metals and non-
metals.
2. Covalent bonding-this involves sharing of electrons between two or
more non-metal atoms/elements. The atoms/elements involved
contribute to the bonding electrons.
3. Metallic bonding-this occurs between atoms of metal elements.

Electrovalent/ ionic bonding

This involves transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal. The

number of electrons lost by the metal atom or gained by non-metal atom is
equivalent to its valency. The loss of electrons from a metal atom leads to
formation of a positively charged ion (cation) and the gain of electrons by
a non-metal atom leads to the formation of a negatively charged ion
(anion). The positively charged ion and the negatively charged ion are
attracted to each other and the force of attraction holding them together
is known as electrovalent/ionic bond. The compounds formed are referred
to as ionic/ electrovalent compounds. Metal atoms lose electrons so as
to gain stable electronic configuration of noble gases and non-metal atoms
also gain electrons to become stable.
Formation of some ionic compounds
Sodium chloride
When sodium burns in chlorine to form sodium chloride, the sodium atom
loses an electron and forms a positively charged sodium ion(Na+) while the
chlorine atom gains the electron and forms a negatively charged chloride
ion ( ).
Illustration +
–

(2:8)
(2:8:8)
Na (2:8:1) Cl (2:8:7)

33
The positively charged sodium ion and negatively charged chlorine ion are
attracted to each other by a strong force called ionic bond.

Magnesium oxide
Magnesium atom loses two electrons to the oxygen atom and forms a
positively charged magnesium ion ( ) while the oxygen atom forms a
negatively charged oxide ion ( ). These two oppositely charged ions are
then attracted to each other. Illustration
2+ 2–

(2:8) (2:8)
Mg (2:8:2) O (2:6)

Calcium chloride
During the formation of calcium chloride, calcium atom loses two
electrons which are gained by two chlorine atoms. This leads to the
formation of and two which are then attracted to each other.
Illustration

2+

Cl (2:8:7)

(2:8:8)
Ca(2:8:8:2)
Cl (2:8:7) 2 (2:8:8)

Covalent bonding
This type of bonding occurs between non-metal elements/ atoms to form
compounds. Covalent bonding involves mutual sharing of electrons
between elements in which each of the atoms involved gives equal number
of electrons to be shared. On sharing the electrons, the atoms attain stable

34
electronic structure of noble gases. The compound formed are called
covalent compounds. Covalent bonds may by classified as single, double,
triple or quadruple depending on the number of electrons shared.

a) Single covalent bond: this is formed when one pair of electron is

shared. Each of the atoms involved contribute an electron for the bond
formation.
Example
i) Hydrogen molecule (H2)

H H H–H or H
2

Covalent bond

ii) Water molecule (H2O)

O
H O or H2O
H H
iii) Ammonia (NH3)

N or NH

H H H
N

3H

35
 iv) Methane (CH4)

C or CH4

C H H H

4H
N.B. The pair of electron on the outer most energy level that does not take
part in bonding is the lone pair or non-bonded pair.
b) Double covalent bond
This is formed when two pairs of electrons are shared between two
bonded atoms. Example

i) Oxygen (O 2)

O=O or O2

O
O

ii) Carbon dioxide (CO2)

O=C=O or CO2
C

2O

c) Triple covalent bond

This involves sharing of three pairs of electrons between atoms.
Example

36
 i) Nitrogen molecule (N 2)

NΞN or N2

ii) Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)

H–CΞN

d) Quadruple covalent bond

This is formed by sharing four pairs of electrons. It occurs between carbon
atoms. Illustration

Metallic bonding
This is the type of bonding in metals due to the attraction between metal
ions and the valency electrons within the structure of the metal (metal
lattice). In the structure of a metal, the loosely held valency electrons
(electrons in the outer mos energy level) are released in to a general pool
and the atoms become positively charged. These electrons move freely
around the ions formed and are termed as mobile/delocalized electrons.
The ions formed and the electrons attract each other forming metallic
bond.
The strength of metallic bond increases with increase in the number of
electrons released in to the electron cloud. Thus the bond is very strong in
metals like iron and aluminum that release up to three electrons each to
the electron pool and weak in metals like sodium and potassium that only
release one electron each to the electron pool. Illustration

37
 Moving electrons

Positively charged ion

Exercise
1. Draw diagrams to show the arrangement of electrons in the following
compounds
a) KCl
b) Na2O
c) MgCl2
d) CS2
2. Draw diagrams to show the arrangement of electrons in the energy
levels of atoms in the following molecules. Use only the outer most
electrons to illustrate.
a) Ethane (C2H4)
b) Ethyne (C2H2)

STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF

COMPOUNDS/SUBSTANCES

Different types of binds give rise to different types of structures. This is

illustrated in the table below.

Bonding Structure
Ionic/ electrovalent Giant ionic structure
Covalent Simple molecular structure
Giant molecular structure
Metallic Giant metallic

Giant ionic structure

This is a giant structure consisting of a regular arrangement of a large

number of oppositely charged ions resulting into a three dimensional

38
crystal. Each ion is surrounded by a number of oppositely charged ions
and they are held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction. The
number of ions surrounding a given oppositely charged ion is known as
the co-ordination number. The examples of structures include: sodium
chloride and magnesium chloride.

Each sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions and each chloride ion
is also surrounded by six sodium ions. The co-ordination number is
therefore 6:6.
Properties of ionic compounds
 They are solids with a regular shape. This is because of the strong
electrostatic forces of attraction keeping the ions closely packed.
 They have high melting points. This is due to the strong electrostatic
force af attraction between oppositely charged ions.
 They do not conduct electricity in solid states but do conduct in their
molten states or solution form. This is because in solid states, the
ions are localized and the electrons are not mobile but in molten
form, the ions and electrons are free to move (electrons become
delocalized) and thus conduct electricity.
 They have high density as the ions are closely packed.
 Ionic compounds are soluble in water and other polar solvents but
they are insoluble in organic solvents like benzene. Ionic compounds
dissolve in polar solvents like water as the ions are attracted by the
polar molecule.

A polar compound is a covalent compound in which charge separation

exist between atoms. This is due to the differences in electro negativity
between the atoms.
Electro negativity is the tendency of an atom to attract bonding electron
towards itself. Electro positivity is the tendency of an atom to push away
bonding electrons from itself.
For example, in a water molecule oxygen is more electro negative and
attracts the bonding electrons towards itself giving it a partial negative
charge. Hydrogen attains a partial positive charge.
Structure of a water molecule

δ-
O
δ+ δ+
H H

39
NB Most metals are malleable and ductile. This is because, since the
bonding agent in a metal is a moving electron cloud, the ions of the metal;
usually slide relative to one another under stress (without shattering the
lattice and produce a new position of stability).
Simple molecular structures

The structure consists of simple independent molecules joined together by

weak intermolecular forces of attraction. E.g. Vander Waal‘s force of
attraction. The atoms in the molecule are held together by strong covalent
bond. Compounds with this structure exist as gases, liquids or solids with
low melting points. Examples include iodine, carbon dioxide, ammonia and
water.
Structure of iodine
I–I-----------I–I------------I–I

Strong covalent bond holding iodine atoms together

Weak Vander Waal‘s force holding iodine molecules together

Illustration of weak hydrogen bond in water

Properties of simple molecular structures

1. They have low melting and boiling points because the molecules are
held by weak intermolecular forces of attraction.
2. They are non-conductors of electricity because they do not have mobile
electrons/ ions.
3. Most of them are gases and liquids. Very few are solids.
4. They have low densities as the molecules are not closely packed.
5. They dissolve in organic solvents.
Giant atomic/molecular structure

Compounds with such structures consist of molecules /atoms linked

together by strong covalent bonds resulting into a giant three dimensional
or three dimensional structures like in graphite and diamond respectively
(see details under Carbon and its compounds)

40
Properties of giant molecular structures
1. They have high melting and boiling pints because of great energy
needed to break the bonds.
2. They do not conduct electricity except graphite which has delocalized
electrons.
3. They are insoluble in water.
Giant metallic structure
Giant metallic structure consists of very many metal ions surrounded by a
sea /cloud of electrons. These electrons are released by metal atoms.
Properties of giant metallic structures
1. They are solids with high melting and boiling points except mercury
which is a liquid.
2. They conduct electricity in both liquid and solid states due to the
presence of mobile electrons.

41
Chapter 3

FORMULAE, STOICHIOMETRY AND MOLE CONCEPT

CHEMICAL FORMULAE

A chemical formula is a representation showing the proportions of

elements present in a chemical compound using symbols.
Important concepts about chemical formulae

1. In a chemical formula, the number written as a subscript after the

symbol of an element indicates the number of atoms of that element
chemically combined.

Consider examples of the chemical formulae below.

In water, H2O-the two (2) represents the number of hydrogen
atoms chemically combined. Therefore, water consist of two (2)
hydrogen atoms and one (1) oxygen atom chemically combined
together.
In sulphuric acid (H2SO4)- there are 2 atoms of hydrogen, 1 atom of
sulphur and 4 atoms of oxygen chemically combined together.
CaCO3 is the chemical formula of calcium carbonate (chalk), which
consists of 1 atom of calcium, 1 atom of carbon and 3 atoms of
oxygen chemically combined.
2. For groups of atoms (radicals), a bracket is used showing that they are
being considered under the same valency.
Examples
In calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2, the 2 indicates that there are 2
nitrate radicals (NO3). Both nitrogen and oxygen in nitrate are
being considered under the same valency.
In aluminium sulphate, Al2(SO4)3, -the 3 shows that there are 2
sulphate radical (SO4), both the sulphur and oxygen in the
sulphate are being considered under the same valency.
Therefore, Al2(SO4)3 consists of 2 atoms of aluminium and 3
sulphate radicals.
3. A number put infront of the formula of a compound indicates the
number of molecules of the compound. For example
2H2SO4 this means two molecules of sulphuric acid
8HNO3 means eight molecules of nitric acid
3CO2 means three molecules of carbondioxide

42
 H2O means one molecule of water
4. To be able to write a chemical formula, one has to know the symbol
and valency of the atoms or radicals.
Steps taken in writing chemical formulae

1. Identify from the name of the compound, the elements and radicals
present e.g. in sodium chloride, there is sodium and chloride radical.
2. Write the symbol of the element or the formula of the radical
separately, beginning with the one of a metal or ammonium radial
followed by a non-metal or radical.
Na Cl
3. Write the valencies as superscripts to the right of the symbols written
separately.
Na1 Cl1
Compare the valencies and if the valencies are;
i) If the valencies are the same, counsel them out and write
the symbols/formula close to each other.
Na1 Cl1
NaCl
ii) If the valencies are not the same, but have a common
factor, reduce them to the simplest ratio then interchange
the valencies and write them as subscripts to the right of
the symbol or formula of the radical. e..g. in Lead (IV) oxide
Pb42 O21
P
b2
O1
Pb1O2 the 1 is usually ignored and the formula is written as
PbO2.
iii) If the valencies are not the same and have no common
factor, interchange them and write them as subscripts to
the right of the symbol or formulae of radical. e.g. in
aluminium oxide

Al3 O2
Al3 O2
Al2O3

43
N.B. If the formula of the radical consists of more than one symbol,
the formula must be put in brackets before the subscript is written
e.g. in ammonium sulphate
NH4 1 SO42

(NH4)2SO4

Example
Write the formulae of the following compounds
a) Sodium chloride b) sodium sulpate c) Iron(III) oxide
Solution
a) Sodium Chloride
Na Cl
Na1 Cl1
NaCl
b) Sodium Sulphate
Na SO 4
Na1 (SO4)2
Na2SO4

c) Iron(III) Oxide
Fe O
Fe3 O2
Fe3 O2
Fe2O3
Exercise
Write the formula of the following compounds
a) Potassium hydroxide
b) Zinc carbonate
c) magnesium sulphate
d) ammonium phosphate

44
e) copper(II) oxide
f) potassium permanganate
g) calcium hydroxide.
h) ammonium carbonate
i) calcium phosphate

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

This is the representation of a chemical change (chemical

reaction) by means of symbols and formulae. So, when chemical
equations are written, symbols and formulae are normally used.
Word equations are not significant and not commonly used. A
chemical reaction consists of reactants and products.
Consider the example below for illustration
Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to produce water vapor

Word equation: Hydrogen + water vapor

Oxygen 2 H 2 O(g)

Symbol equation: 2H2(g) + O2(g)

Reactants Product

Components of a chemical equation

a) Formulae of reactants and products. These represent compounds

reacting and compounds being formed during a chemical reaction
respectively.
b) State symbols. A state symbol is one small letter or two small letters
that represent the physical state of a compound. They are written
after the formulae and enclosed in brackets. There are four state
symbols used. These are aqueous solution (aq); liquid (l); solid
state(s) and gaseous state (g).
c) The plus (+) sign. The plus sign on the left hand side of the
equation means ‗react with‘ and the one at the right hand side of the
equation means ‗and‘ .

45
d) The arrow. This means to produce and the arrow head points to the
products.

Interpretation of equations
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(g)
This means 2 molecules of solid magnesium reacts with 1 molecule of
oxygen gas to produce 2 molecules of solid magnesium oxide.
2H2O2(aq) 2H20(l) + O2(g)
2 molecules of aqueous hydrogen peroxide produce 2 molecules of liquid
water and gaseous oxygen.
For an equation to be considered correct, it must have correct
formulae of reactants and products; correct state symbols and must
be balanced.

Balancing is the process of making each kind of atoms on both

the reactant and product sides equal. A balanced equation
therefore has equal numbers of each kind of atoms on both the
reactant and product sides.
N.B. When balancing a chemical equation, the formula of the
compound is not altered but rather it is the number of molecules
that is adjusted.
Steps in writing chemical equations
1. Write the correct formulae of the reactants on the left hand
side and the correct formulae of products on the right hand
side of the equation. The reactants and products are
separated by an arrow pointing to the produncts.
e.g. consider the reaction calcium and hydrochloric acid producing
calcium chloride and hydrogen gas.
Ca + HCl CaCl2 + H2
2. Write the state symbol after each formula or symbol and
enclose them in brackets.
Ca(s) + HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
3. Balance the equation by making the number of each kind of
atoms on both reactant and product side equal. Adjust the
number of molecules of the reactants and products to balance
the number of atoms.

Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)

46
Exercise
1. Complete and balance the following equations.
a) Pb(s) + O2(g)
b) H2(g) + O2(g)
c) Na(s) + H2O(l)
d) Mg(s)+ CO2(g)
e) Fe(s) + HCl(aq)

ATOMICITY
Atomicity is the number of atoms in a molecule or compound.
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or compound that can
exist on its own (i.e. in a free and separate state).
A molecule with one atom is referred to as a monoatomic molecule e.g.
Helium(He); argon(Ar); sodium(Na) etc.
A molecule containing two atoms is referred to as a diatomic molecule e.g.
Oxygen(O2); hydrogen(H2); Chlorine(Cl2) etc.
A molecule containing three atoms is said to be triatomic
e.g. Ozone (O3) A molecule containing four atoms is said to
be tetraatomic e.g. Phosphorus (P4) A molecule containing
many atoms is said to be polyatomic e.g. Sulphr (S8).
Example
Find the atomicity of the following elements
in the compound. a) 4CO2 b) 5H2O c)
Zn(NO3)2
Solutions
a) Carbon atoms =4, oxygen
atoms ,4x2=8 Total number of atoms
=4+8=12.
b) Hydrogen atoms, 5x2=10atoms,
oxygen atoms =5 Total number of
atoms =10+5=15 atoms.
c) Zinc atoms=1, nitrogen atoms =2,
and oxygen atoms,3x2=6
Total number of atoms= 1+2+6=9 atoms
Exercise
Find the number of atoms of each element present in the
following compounds.
a) MgCO3
b) Pb(OH)4

47
c) Ca3(PO4)2
d) (NH4)2CO3
e) 2H2SO4

MOLE CONCEPT
Introduction

Mole concept deals with determining or counting the number of particles.

Since the number of particles is in large quantities, it becomes very difficult
to deal with large numbers; therefore, these particles are placed in groups
called moles. One mole of a substance has 6.02×1023 particles. The
particles of substances grouped into moles can be molecules, atoms, ions,
electrons, radicals, protons or any other specified particles. For example, 1
mole of magnesium atoms contains 6.02×1023 atoms, 1 mole of magnesium
ions contains 6.02×1023 ions, 1 mole of H2SO4(aq) molecules contains
6.02×1023 molecules of H2SO4(aq).
A mole is the amount of substance which contains 6.02×1023 particles. Or
A mole is the amount of substance that contains the same number of
particles as the number of particles in 12grams of carbon-12.
The number 6.02×1023 is called Avogadro ‘s number or constant and it is
denoted by letter L.
Molar Mass
Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance. It is equal to the
relative atomic mass expressed in grams. The relative atomic masses of all
elements have already been established. Examples are given below.

Atoms Relative atomic mass Molar mass

Hydrogen 1 1g
Carbon 12 12g
Oxygen 16 16g
Sodium 23 23g
Magnesium 24 24g
Sulphur 32 32g
Aluminium 27 27g
Copper 64 64g
Silver 108 108g
Lead 207 207g
Chlorine 35.5 35.5g

48
 Calcium 40 40g
Potassium 39 39g
Tin 119 119g
Zinc 65 65g
Nickel 59 59g
Nitrogen 14 14g
Iron 56 56g
Phosphorus 31 31g

FORMULA MASS OR MOLECULAR MASS

This is the mass of one mole of a compound. It is obtained by adding the
relative atomic masses of the atoms present in a compound. The formula
mass of a compound is equal to the relative formula mass expressed in
grams.
Examples
Calculate the formula masses of the following compounds.
a) Water ,H2O (H=1,O=16)
=(1x2) + 16
=18g
b) Oxygen molecule, O2 (0=16)
=2x16
=32g
c) Sodium sulphate, Na2SO4 (Na=23,S=32,0=16)
=(2x23)+32+(4x16)
=46+32+64
=142g
d) Copper (II) sulphate crystals, CuSO4.5H2O (Cu=64,S=32,O=16,H=1)
=64+32+(4x16)+5(2x1+16)
=250g
Exercise
Calculate the relative formula masses of the following compounds.
a) FeSO4.7H2O (Fe=56,S=32,O=16,H=1)
b) (NH4)2SO4 (N=14,H=1,S=32,O=16)
c) Al2O3 (Al=27,O=16)
d) Ca(HCO3)2 (Ca=40,H=1,C=12,O=16)

49
 CALCULATING NUMBER OF PARTICLES
This is based on the relationship that one mole of a substance contains
6.02×1023 particles.
Examples
1. Calculate the number of particles in the following compounds.
a) Water (H2O)
Number of molecules in 1 mole of H20 = 6.02×1023 molecules
1mole of H2O contains 2 moles of H atoms, therefore, number of H atoms in
1 mole of H2O = (2X6.02×1023) =12.04x1023 atoms.

Number of O atoms in 1 mole of H2O =6.02×1023.

b) 2 moles of oxygen molecules, (2O2)

1 mole of oxygen molecules contains 6.02×1023 molecules

2 moles of oxygen molecules contain (2x6.02×1023)= 12.04x1023 molecules

1 mole of oxygen molecule contains 2 moles of oxygen atoms

2 moles of oxygen molecules contains (2x2)= 4 moles of oxygen atoms
1 mole of oxygen atom contains 6.02×1023 atoms
4 moles of oxygen atoms contains (4x6.02×1023)= 24.08x1023 atoms.
c) Number of hydrogen ions in 2 moles of H2SO4
1 mole of H2SO4 contains 2 moles of H+
2 moles of H2SO4 contains (2x2)= 4 moles of H+
1 mole of H+ contains 6.02×1023 ions
4 moles of H+ contains (4x6.02×1023)= 24.08x1023 H+ ions
d) Total number of ions in 1 mole of (NH4)2SO4
(NH4)2SO4(aq) NH4+ (aq) + SO42-(aq)
1 mole of (NH4)2SO4 contains 3 moles of ions
1 mole of ion contains 6.02×1023 ions
3 moles of ions contains (3x6.02×1023)= 18.06x1023 ions
2. Calculate the number of atoms in the following
a) 0.25 moles of calcium
1 mole of calcium contains 6.02×1023 atoms
0.25 moles of calcium contains ( ) atoms

50
 =1.5x10 23 atoms
b) 8 moles of sulphur
1 mole of sulphur contains 6.02×1023 atoms
8 moles of sulphur contains ( ) atoms
=4.8x1023 atoms
c) O.4 g of oxygen atoms
1 mole of oxygen atom contains 6.02×1023 atoms
16g of oxygen contains 6.02×1023 atoms
1g of oxygen contains ( ) atoms
0.4g of oxygen contains ( ) atoms
=1.5 x 1024 atoms

Exercise

1. Calculate the following

(Al=27,H=1,O=16,S=32,Ca=40,Na=23,Hg=201,Cl=35.5)
a) Number of atoms in 2 moles of sodium
b) Number of molecules in 5 moles of hydrogen (H2)
c) Number of ions in 1 mole of Al2(SO4)3
d) Number of hydroxyl ions in 2 moles of Ca(OH)2
2. Calculate the number of particles in the following
a) 0.1 moles of sodium atoms
b) 0.5 moles of chlorine atoms
c) O.3 moles of calcium atoms
3. Use the value of 6.02×1023 mol-1 for the Avogadro constant to find the
number of atoms in
a) 2.0x 10-3g of calcium
b) 5.0x10-6g of argon
c) 1.00x10-10g of mercury

Converting number of particles to masses

Example
1. Calculate the mass of sodium with 1.5x1022 sodium atoms.
(Na=23, L=6.02×1023 atoms)
6.02×1023 atoms is contained in 1 mole of sodium
6.02×1023 atoms is contained in 23g of sodium

51
 1 atom is contained in( )g of sodium
1.5×1022 atoms is contained in ( )g of sodium
=0.575g of sodium

2. How many grams of calcium contain

a) atoms

6.02×1023 atoms is contained in 1 mole of calcium

6.02×1023 atoms is contained in 40g of calcium
1 atom is contained in ( )g of calcium
6.02×10 23
atoms is contained in ( )g of calcium
=40g of calcium
b) atoms

6.02×1023 atoms is contained in 1 mole of calcium

6.02×1023 atoms is contained in 40g of calcium
1 atom is contained in ( )g of calcium
1.5×10 23
atoms is contained in ( )g of calcium
=10g of calcium
c) atoms

6.02×1023 atoms is contained in 1 mole of calcium

6.02×1023 atoms is contained in 40g of calcium
1 atom is contained in ( )g of calcium
3.0×10 23
atoms is contained in ( )g of calcium
=20g of calcium
Converting masses to moles
Relationships
For atoms, 1 mole is equivalent to Relative atomic mass (RAM) in grams.
For example: 1 mole of Cu=64g; 1 mole of S = 32g; 1 mole of H= 1g.
For molecules, 1 mole is equivalent to relative molecular mass (RMM) or
relative formula mass (RFM). For example: 1 mole of H2O= 18g; 1 mole of
CaCO3= 100g; 1 mole of H2SO4= 98g.

52
 Examples
1. Calculate the number of moles of in;
a) 4g of oxygen molecule (O2)
(0=16, S=32)
RMM= (2X16) =32
32g is contained in 1 mole of O2

1 g is contained in ( ) moles of O2
4g is contained in ( ) moles of O2
=0.125 moles of O2
b) 160g of sulphur (S)
RAM= 32
32g is contained in 1 mole of S

1 g is contained in ( ) moles of S
160g is contained in ( ) moles of S
=5.0 moles of S
2. Calculate the number of moles in the following molecules
a) 2 g of Calcium oxide
RMM of CaO= 40+16 =56
56g is contained in 1 mole of CaO

1 g is contained in ( ) moles of CaO

2g is contained in ( ) moles of CaO
=0.036 moles of CaO
b) 4 g of sodium hydroxide

RMM of NaOH= 23+16+1 =40

40g is contained in 1 mole of NaOH

1 g is contained in ( ) moles of NaOH

2g is contained in ( ) moles of NaOH
=0.1 moles of NaOH
Summary

53
Number of moles = , for atoms

Number of moles , for molecules

Exercise
Given
(O=16,Ca=40,C=12,S=32,H=1,Cu=64,Ag=
108,Mg=24) Calculate the number of moles
in a) 21.6 g of silver
b) 12g of magnesium
c) 6g of ammonia
d) 88g of carbondioxide
e) 22.2g of calcium chloride

Converting moles to masses

Examples
Given (O=16,Ca=40,C=12,S=32,H=1,Cu=64)
Calculate the mass in
a) 0.23 moles of sodium
1 mole of sodium weighs
23g

0.23 moles of sodium weighs ( )g

=5.29g
b) 7.1 moles of chlorine molecules

RMM of Cl2
=35.5x2 =71
1 mole of chlorine weighs 71g

7.1 moles of chlorine weighs( )g

=504.1g of chlorine

c) 0.1 moles of potassium carbonate

RMM of K2CO3
=(39X2)+12+(16X3) =138

54
 1 mole of potassium carbonate weighs 138g

0.1 moles of chlorine weighs( )g

=13.8g of chlorine
Exercise
Calculate the mass of
a) 0.1 moles of sodium atom
b) 0.3 moles of chlorine molecules
c) 0.05 moles of calcium atoms
d) 0.05 moles of copper(II)carbonate
e) 0.2 moles of lead(IV)oxide

Calculations on percentage composition by mass

From the formula of a compound, we can calculate the percentage
by mass of each elements in a compound.

Percentage composition of an element x 100

Examples
Given
(O=16,Ca=40,C=12,S=32,H=1,Cu
=64) Calculate the percentage
composition by mass of a) Oxygen
in calcium carbonate
Formula mass of CaCO3 =40+12+(3x16) =100g
Mass of oxygen= (3x16) =48g

Percentage of oxygen=
=48%
b) Water in CuSO4.5H2O

Formula mass of CuSO4.5H2O =64+32+(4x16)+5(1x2+16)

=250g
Mass of water= 5(1x2+16) =90g

Percentage of oxygen=
=36%

55
c) Nitrogen in nitrogen dioxide

Formula mass of NO2 = 14+(2x16) =46g

Mass of nitrogen= 14g

Percentage of oxygen=
=30.4%
d) Oxygen in baking powder, NaHCO3

Formula mass of NaHCO3 =23+1+12+(3x16) =84g

Mass of oxygen= (3x16) =48g

Percentage of oxygen=
=57.14%
Exercise
1. Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in each of the following
a) Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)
b) Sodium nitrate (NaNO3)
c) Ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4
(N=14,H=1,Cl=35.5,Na=23,O=16,S=32)
2. Calculate the percentage of water of crystallization in sodium
carbonate crystals, Na2CO3.10H2O
3. A metal sulphate, X2(SO4)3 contains 28% by mass of metal X.
Determine the Relative Atomic Mass of X and the Relative
Molecular Mass of X2(SO4)3

(X=56, RMM= 390)

Empirical and Molecular formulae
Empirical formula
This is the simplest formula of a compound which expresses the
ratio in which different atoms present in one molecule exists.
Example of empirical and molecular formulae

Compound Molecular formula Empirical formula

Water H2O H2O
Ammonia NH3 NH3

56
Ethene C2H4 CH2
Benzene C6H6 CH
Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O

Steps in calculating empirical formulae

1. Write down the symbols of the elements present
2. Write down the percentage composition or composition by mass
below the symbols
3. Find the number of moles of each element by dividing the
percentage composition or mass by Relative Atomic Mass
4. Find the mole ratio of the elements by dividing the moles with
the smallest number
5. Write down the empirical number.
If the mole ratio is in fractions;
1. Round off to the nearest whole number if it is very close to the
whole number.
2. Multiply by a small number that converts the fraction to a whole
number if the fraction is not close to a whole number.

Molecular formula
Is a formula that shows the actual number of each atoms present in
one molecule of a compound. The molecular formula is a multiple of
the empirical formula, so, from the empirical formula, the molecular
formula can be determined.
Molecular formula= (Empirical formula) n =
Molecular mass n is number to be determined
Calculations on empirical and molecular formulae
Examples
1. a) Calculate the empirical formula of a compound containing 80%
carbon and 20% hydrogen.
b) If the molar mass of the compound is 30g, determine its
molecular formula.
Solution
a) Elements present C H

Percentage composition 80 20

57
 Number of moles
6.7
20

Divide by the smallest

Mole ratio
1 3
The empirical formula is CH3

b) (Empirical formula)n= Molar mass

(CH3)n=30
(12+3)n=30
15n=30 n=2
The molecular formula is therefore (CH3)2 = C2H6
2. Calculate the empirical formula of a compound containing 28% of iron,
24% sulphur and the rest being oxygen.(Fe=56,S=32,0=16)

Solution
Percentage composition of oxygen=100-(28+24)
=100-52
=48%
Elements present Fe S O

Percentage composition 28 24 48

Number of moles

0.5 0.75
3

Divide by the smallest

Mole ratio 1 1.5 6

2x (1 1.5 6)
2 3 12

58
 The empirical formula is Fe2S3012 or Fe2(SO4)3
3. A hydrocarbon contains 85.7% carbon and its relative molecular
mass is 28. Work out its molecular formula.
Solution
Percentage of hydrogen 100%-85.7% =14.3%
Elements present C
H
Percentage composition 85.7 14.3

Number of moles
7.14 14.3

Divide by the smallest

Mole ratio 1
2
The empirical formula is CH2
(Empirical formula)n= Molar mass
(CH2)n=28
(12+2)n=28
14
n
=2
8
n
=2
The molecular formula is therefore (CH2)2 = C2H4
4. Calculate the empirical formula of a compound that contains 52g of zinc,
9.6g of carbon and 38.4g of oxygen.(Zn=65,C=12,0=16)
Elements present Zn C O
Composition by mass 52 9.6 38.4
Number of moles

59
 0.8 0.8
2.4

Divide by the smallest

Mole ratio 1 1 3

The empirical formula is ZnCO3

Exercise
1. A compound X consists of carbon 40%, hydrogen 6.7% and the rest being
oxygen. If the RMM is 60, determine its molecular formula. (C=12,
H=1,0=16) (Ans. CH2O) 2. A hydrocarbon is made up of 92.3% carbon and
has molecular formula of 78g. Calculate its empirical and molecular
formula. (Answer CH)
3. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound formed when 1.8g of
carbon forms 2.4g of a hydrocarbon. (Answer CH4)
4. Calculate the molecular formula of a hydrocarbon with empirical formula
CH2 and molecular mass of 28g. (Answer C2H4)
5. Calculate the empirical formula of a salt with the following composition,
copper 25%, sulphur 12.8%, oxygen 25.6% and water 36.0% (Answer
CuSO4.5H2O)
6. Calculate the empirical formula of a hydrated salt with the following
composition, sodium 16.09%, carbon 9.20%, oxygen 16.78% and water
62.93% (Answer Na2C2O3.10H2O)
7. Find the empirical formulae of the compounds formed in the reactions
described below.
a) 10.800g magnesium form 18.000g of an oxide (Answer=MgO)
b) 3.400g calcium form 9.435g of a chloride (Answer=CaCl2)
c) 3.528g iron form 10.237g of a chloride. (Answer=FeCl3)
8. Calculate the empirical formulae of the compounds from which the
following analytical results were obtained.
a) 27.3%C, 72.7%O (Answer=CO2)
b) 53.0%C, 47.0%O (Answer=C3O2)
c) 29.1%Na, 40.5%S,30.4%O (Answer=Na2S2O3)
d) 32.4%Na, 22.5%S, 45.0%O (Answer=Na2SO4)
Item 8

A chemical company is investigating a compound containing calcium (Ca)

and chlorine (Cl). A 4.5 g sample of the compound contains 1.43 g of
calcium, with the rest being chlorine. The company asks you to determine
the empirical formula of the compound.

60
Task

As a leaner of chemistry;

a) Explain the category of the product.

b) Suggest the properties of the product

c) Determine the empirical formula of the product.

d) Explain the impacts of the product on the environment

Item 9
A group of students is studying a mysterious metal Y. They performed an
experiment in which 0.6 g of metal Y reacted with oxygen to form 1.0 g of
its oxide. After consulting the periodic table, the students found that metal
Y has an atomic number of 13 and a mass number of 27. The teacher asked
the students to determine the chemical formula of the metal oxide and its
environmental effects.
Task

As a student of chemistry help the

learners to;

a) Understand the nature of substance

b) Determine the formula of substance Y

c) Know the environmental consequences of the element.

Item 10
A group of learners discovered a metal Z and carried out a combustion
reaction with oxygen.
They started with 0.7 g of metal Z and after the reaction, the total mass of
the oxide was 1.1 g.
The learners contacted their teacher, who informed them that metal Z has
an atomic number of 20 and a mass number of 40. The learners want to
determine the formula of the metal oxide and understand its industrial and
environmental impacts.
Task

61
 As a student of chemistry help the

learners to;

a) Understand the nature of substance Z

b) Determine the formula of substance Z

c) Know the environmental consequences of the element.

Calculation of masses from equations

Moles and mole ratios can be used to calculate the amount of substances
reacting and products formed. This requires that a correctly balanced
equation is written. Such an equation is known as a stoichiometric
equation. Stoichiometry is the relationship between amounts of reactants
and products in a chemical reaction.
A stoichiometric equation is an equation in which the reactants and
products are correctly balanced.
Steps involved in the calculation
1. Write down a balanced equation for the reaction
2. Write down the moles of substances that concerns the question
3. Convert the moles into grammes

Examples
1. Calculate the mass of iron (II) sulphide formed by heating 64g of sulphur
with excess iron filling.(S=32,Fe=56)
Solution
Molecular mass of FeS= 56+32 =88g
Equation for reaction
Fe(s) + S(s) FeS(s)
1 mole of sulphur forms 1 mole of Iron (II)sulphide
32g of S forms 88g of FeS

1 g of S forms ( )g of FeS

64g of S forms ( )g of FeS

=176g of FeS
2. What is the mass of magnesium required to form 55g of magnesium
oxide.

62
 Solution
Molecular mass of MgO= 24+16 =40g
Equation for reaction
(2x40)g of MgO is formed by (2x24)g of Mg
2Mg(s) + O2(s) 2MgO(s)
2 moles of magnesium oxide is formed 2 mole of magnesium
(2x40)g of MgO is formed by (2x24)g of Mg
80g of MgO is formed by 48g of Mg

1 g of MgO is formed by ( )g of Mg

55g of MgO is formed by ( )g of Mg

=33g of Mg
3. a) Calculate the mass of copper formed when 3.2g of copper(II)oxide is
completely reduced to the metal by hydrogen gas.
b)How many grams of water was produced
c)Calculate the mass of hydrogen used in the experiment

Solution
a) CuO(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) +H 2O(l)
1 mole of CuO forms 1 mole of Cu
(64+16)g of CuO forms 64g of Cu
80g of CuO forms 64g of Cu

1 g of CuO forms ( )g of Cu

3.2g of CuO forms ( )g of Cu

=2.6g of Cu
b) 1 mole of CuO forms 1 mole of H2O
(64+16)g of CuO forms (1x2+16)g of H2O
80g of CuO forms 18g of H2O

1 g of CuO forms ( )g of H2O

3.2g of CuO forms ( )g of H2O

63
 =0.7g of H 2O
c) 1 mole of CuO reacts with 1 mole of H2
(64+16)g of CuO reacts with (1x2)g of H2
80g of CuO reacts with 2g of H2

1 g of CuO reacts with ( )g of H2

3.2g of CuO reacts with ( )g of H2
=0.08g of H 2
Exercise
1. A solution of 8.1g of NaOH was neutralized by hydrochloric acid. Calculate
the mass of sodium chloride produced when the solution was evaporated to
dryness.
(C=12, Na=23, O=16, H=1, Cl=35.5,) (Answer =11.85g)
2. Calculate the mass of residue left when 2.40g of sodium hydrogen
carbonate is decomposed by heat. (Answer =1.51g)
3. Calculate the loss in mass when 100g of calcium carbonate is heated to
constant mass. (Ca=40, C=12, 0=16) (Answer =44g)
4. 76.5g of calcium hydrogen carbonate was heated strongly. What was the
mass of carbon dioxide formed? (Answer =20.78g)
5. What mass of sodium oxide would be made from 1.5 g of sodium?
(Answer=2.02g)

AVOGADRO’S LAW
The law states that equal volume of gases at the same temperature and
pressure contains the same number of molecules.
Avogadro ‘s law gives an interpretation to Gay-Lussac ‘s law in terms of
molecules of gases. Consider the following examples
1. 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
2 volumes of hydrogen combine with 1 volume of oxygen to form 2 volumes
of steam
Is interpreted as
2 molecules of hydrogen combine with 1 molecule of oxygen to form 2
molecules of steam
2. H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)
1 volume of hydrogen combines with 1 volume of chlorine to form 2
volumes of hydrogen chloride gas
Is interpreted as

64
 1 molecule of hydrogen combines with 1 molecule of chlorine to form 2
molecules of hydrogen chloride gas
This law is quite important because it enables us to change from a
statement about volumes of gases to the same statement about moles of
gases and vise versa.
The relationship between vapor density and Relative Molecular Mass can
be deduced from Avogadro ‘s law and is expressed as
2 x Vapor Density= Relative Molecular Mass
I.e. Relative Molecular Mass is twice the value of vapor density.
It follows from Avogadro ‘s law that if equal volumes of gases contain equal
numbers of molecules then the volume occupied by one mole must be the
same for all gases. It is called the gas molar volume.
GAS MOLAR VOLUME

The molar gas volume is the volume occupied by one mole of a gas. It is the
same for all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure.
Values for molar gas volumes are given in the table below.

Condition Value for molar gas

volume
Standard temperature and 22.4l or 22.4dm3 or
pressure(stp) 22400cm3
Room temperature and pressure 24l or 24dm3 or 24000cm3
(rtp)

Example
1. Determine the number of moles in the following gaseous volumes at stp
a) 1.2 dm3 of nitrogen
b) 300cm3 of ammonia

Solution
a) 22.4 dm3 is occupied by 1 mole of nitrogen
1 dm3 is occupied by ( ) moles of nitrogen

1.2 dm3 is occupied by ( ) moles of nitrogen

= 0.05 moles of nitrogen at stp

b) 22400 cm3 is occupied by 1 mole of ammonia

65
 1 cm3 is occupied by ( ) moles of ammonia

300 cm3 is occupied by ( ) moles of ammonia

= 0.013 moles of ammonia at
stp
2. Determine at rtp the volume and mass of
a) 0.04 moles of hydrogen
b) 0.2 moles of carbondioxide
Solution
a) 1 mole of hydrogen occupies 24l at rtp
0.04 moles of hydrogen occupies ( ) l at rtp
=0.96 l of hydrogen at rtp

RMM for H2 =(1x2)= 2

1 mole of hydrogen weighs 2g

0.04 moles of hydrogen weighs ( )g

=0.08g of hyrogen
b) 1 mole of carbondioxide occupies 24l at rtp
0.2 moles of carbondioxide occupies ( ) l at rtp
=4.8 l of carbondioxide at rtp
RMM for CO2 =12+(16x2)= 44
1 mole of carbondioxide weighs 44g

0.2 moles of carbondioxide weighs ( )g

=8.8g of carbon dioxide
3. Calculate the RMM of Y given that 0.8 g of Y occupies 560cm 3 at stp.
Solution
560 cm3 of Y weighs 0.8g

1 cm3 of Y weighs ( ) moles of nitrogen

22400 cm3 of Y weighs ( ) moles of nitrogen

=32g

66
 The RMM of Y is 32.
CALCULATION OF MASSES AND VOLUMES
Examples
1. 0.2 moles of ammonia gas measured at stp were passed over
copper(II)oxide. The equation for the reaction is
2NH3(g) + 3CuO(s 3Cu(s) + N2(g) + 3H20(l)
Calculate
a) The number of moles of copper(II)oxide used
b) The mass of copper formed
c) The volume of ammonia used at stp
(Cu=64,O=16,N=14,H=1, 1 mole of a gas occupies 22.4 l at stp)
Solution
1.
a) From the equation,
2 moles of NH3 reacts with 3 moles of CuO

1 mole of NH3 reacts with ( ) moles of CuO

0.2 moles of NH3 reacts with ( ) moles of CuO

=0.3 moles of CuO
b) From the equation
2 moles of NH3 produce 3 moles of Cu
2 moles of NH3 produce (3x64)g of Cu

1 mole of NH3 produces ( ) moles of Cu

0.2 moles of NH3 produces ( ) moles of Cu

=19.2g of Cu
c) 1 mole of NH3 occupies 22.4l at stp
0.2 moles of NH3 occupies ( )l at stp
=4.48 l of NH 3 at stp
2. 2.5 g of CuCO3 were heated to constant mass. Determine
a) The mass of the residue
b) The volume of gas produced at stp
(Cu=64,O=16,C=12, 1 mole of a gas occupies 24 dm3 at stp)

67
 Solution
CuCO3(s) CuO(s) +
CO2(g)
a) From the equation
1 mole of CuCO3 produces 1 mole of CuO
(64+12+16x3)g of CuCO3 produces (64+16)g of CuO
124g of CuCO3 produces 80g of CuO

1 g of CuCO3 produces ( ) g of CuO

2.5g of CuCO3 produces ( ) g of CuO

=1.61g of CuO (residue)
b) From the equation
1 mole of CuCO3 produces 1 mole of CO2
(64+12+16x3)g of CuCO3 produces 24dm3 of CO2
124g of CuCO3 produces 24dm3 of CO2

1 g of CuCO3 produces ( ) dm3 of CO2

2.5 g of CuCO3 produces ( ) dm3 of CO2

=0.484 dm 3 of CO2
3. From the equation
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl 3(s)
Calculate the
a) Volume of chlorine at stp required to react with 8 g of iron
b) Mass of iron(III)chloride formed

Solution
a) From the equation
2 moles of Fe react with 3 moles of Cl2
(2x56)g of Fe react with (3x22.4)dm3 of Cl2
112g of Fe react with 67.2dm3 of Cl2

1 g of Fe react with( )dm3 of Cl2

68
 8 g of Fe react with( )dm3 of Cl2
=4.8 dm 3 of Cl2 at stp
b) From the equation
2 mole of Fe produce 2 mole of FeCl2
(2x56)g of Fe produces 2x(56+35.5x2)g of FeCl2
112g of Fe produces 325g of FeCl2

1 g of Fe produces ( ) g of FeCl2

8 g of Fe produces ( ) g of FeCl2
=23.01g of FeCl 2
Exercise
1. What volume of hydrogen at stp would be used if 40g of nitrogen combined
with it to form ammonia.
2. 0.1 mole of lead nitrate is completely decomposed on heating according to
the reaction
2Pb(NO3)2(s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
a) What volume at stp of nitrogen dioxide and oxygen were evolved
b) What was the mass of the residue left
3. 1.4 litres of ammonia gas measured at stp where passed over hot
copper(II)oxide. The equation for the reaction is
3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g) 3Cu(s) + N 2(s) + 3H2O(l)
Calculate
a) The number of moles of ammonia used
b) The number of moles of nitrogen gas used
c) The mass of copper formed
4. 3.1g of a carbonate XCO3 are heated to constant mass; 2.0g of the metal
oxide are formed. when heated in a stream of hydrogen for sufficient time,
the oxide is reduced to 1.6g of pure metal.
a) Give the equation for the two reactions
b) Calculate the minimum volume of hydrogen at stp needed to reduce the
oxide
c) Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide at stp produced when the carbonate
was completely decomposed.
5. Calculate the mass of sulphur deposited when 8.4 dm3 of chlorine oxidizes
hydrogen sulphide.
6. A friend uses calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) as a chalk ingredient for making
homemade paint. When calcium carbonate is heated to high temperatures,

69
 it decomposes to form calcium oxide (CaO) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) as
shown in the equation:
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO 2(g)
Your friend Letisha uses 200 g of calcium carbonate for a project and she
wants to know the amount of carbon dioxide produced during the
experiment. She has contacted you for help.
Task
a) As a chemistry student,
(i) explain the categories of products.
(ii) suggest the properties of the product that make it useful in daily life
iii) Calculate the volume of CO₂ gas produced if 1 mole of gas occupies 22.4
L at s.t.p. (Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16)
c) Explain the impact of one of the products on the environment.

Item 7
Charcoal is a common fuel used in many homes in Uganda. During its
combustion in excess oxygen supply, it produces carbon dioxide. Your friend
is using 80.5g of charcoal to cook food in a busy evening for guests. It burns
completely as shown in the equation below.
C(s) + O2 (g) CO 2 (g)
Task
As a learner of chemistry
a) Assess the product formed
b) Advise the friend on the appropriateness of the product formed.
c) Calculate the volume of the gas produced every busy evening. (1
mole of a gas occupies 22.4l at s.t.p, C = 12)
d) Help the friend understand the impact of the product in the
environment.
Item 8

70
 An industry wanted to produce lime for treatment of acidic soils. The
production of lime involves heating limestone strongly which results into its
decomposition according to the equation;
The industry is also interested to know how much gas is evolved during the
process since the gas is useful.
Before the production, an experiment was performed where 25g of
limestone were heated until there was no further change. You have been
contacted for help.

Task:

As a learner of Chemistry;

a) Explain the categories of the products

b) Suggest the properties of the gaseous product that make it useful in daily
life.
c) Calculate the volume of the gaseous product measured at s.t.p, that was
formed.
d) Explain the impact of one of the products on the environment.
Item 9
Doreen is part of a hospital’s environmental safety team and she is
responsible for managing acidic wastewater generated from laboratory
processes. This wastewater contains excess hydrochloric acid, which can
harm the environment if not neutralized before disposal. To safely manage
it, she plans to use sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) to neutralize the acid,
preventing environmental damage. She has contacted you for help.
Task
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Explain the categories of the products
b) Suggest the properties of the gaseous product that make it useful in
daily life.
c) If 300 cm³ of CO₂ at STP is released, calculate the mass of sodium
carbonate needed to neutralize the excess acid.
d) Calculate the Percentage of Acid Neutralized: If 5.0 g of sodium
carbonate was used,
e) Explain the impact of one of the products on the environment.
Item 10
Irene is part of a green architecture team exploring eco-friendly building
materials. One component you’re analyzing is gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O), which

71
is a major material in drywall production. Irene suspects that some gypsum
batches may contain impurities like calcium carbonate, which can increase
the material’s carbon footprint when processed. To verify, Irene treats a
sample with hydrochloric acid and measure the carbon dioxide gas
released.
Task
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Explain the categories of the products
b) Suggest the properties of the gaseous product that make it useful in
daily life.
c) Calculate the mass of calcium carbonate in the mixture if 112 cm³ of CO₂
at STP is released, calculate the mass of calcium carbonate in a 2.0 g
drywall sample.
d) Determine the percentage of calcium carbonate in the mixture.
e) Explain the impact of one of the products on the environment.
Item 11
In a mining operation, acidic waste from mineral processing is collected
before being discharged into local water systems. To neutralize the acidity,
the team uses calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), ensuring safe disposal without
harming aquatic ecosystems. Before implementation, you test the reaction
of a mixture containing calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid to
estimate how much CO₂ will be generated and assess its environmental
impact. The team has contacted you for help.
Task
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Explain the categories of the products
b) Suggest the properties of the solid product that make it useful in daily
life.
c) Calculate the Mass of Calcium Carbonate if 336 cm³ of CO₂ at STP is
produced, calculate the mass of calcium carbonate in a 3.0 g sample
used for neutralizing the waste.
d) Explain the impact of one of the products on the environment.
Item 12
In a dimly lit, state-of-the-art laboratory, a team of curious chemists
embarked on an intriguing experiment. Their mission was to unravel the
mysteries of a mixture containing calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) and calcium
sulphate (CaSO₄) when reacted with hydrochloric acid (HCl). The air was

72
 thick with anticipation as they carefully measured out 3.4 grams of the
mixture and prepared the apparatus for the reaction.
With a steady hand, one of the chemists slowly added excess hydrochloric
acid to the mixture. The room was filled with a faint hissing sound as the
acid reacted with the solids. The chemists watched intently as the reaction
vessels began to emit a gentle stream of colorless gas – carbon dioxide
(CO₂). The team measured the volume of CO₂ evolved at Standard
Temperature and Pressure (STP) to be 448 cm³. They have contacted you
for help.
Task
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Explain the categories of the products
b) Suggest the properties of the gaseous product that make it useful in
daily life.
c) Calculate the percentage of calcium carbonate in the mixture
d) Explain the impact of one of the products on the environment.
Item 13
A group of senior two students studied that aluminium can be used in
fireworks to produce attractive bright colour. They have picked 10g of
aluminium powder from the laboratory technician to carry out their
discovery. One of the students carefully burnt aluminium powder on a
spatula and noticed that bright flashes and white smoke were being
produced. The students were curious to know about the nature of the
product, properties, uses and its impact on the environment. They are stuck
and they have contacted you for help.
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Explain the category of the product.
b) Suggest the properties of the product that make it useful in daily life.
c) Calculate the mass of product formed when 10g of aluminium powder is
ignited
d) Explain the impact of the product on the environment.

Item 14
Emma heated a strip of magnesium ribbon in a Bunsen burner flame. The
magnesium burns with a bright white light, leaving behind a white powder
in the crucible. She is also interested to know the amount of the product
formed when 4 g of magnesium is burnt in excess oxygen. She is curious
about what she observed and seeks your guidance.

73
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Explain the category of the product.
b) Suggest the properties of the product.
c) Guide Emma on the possible uses of the product.
d) calculate the mass of the product.
e) Explain the environmental impact of the product.

Item 15
John heated a small piece of sulphur in a flame. The sulphur burned with a
pale blue flame, producing a pungent gas. He noticed a white solid residue
in the container and wanted to know more about it. She also interested to
know how much gas is produced when 15 g is heated in excess oxygen.
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Explain the category of the product.
b) Suggest the properties of the product.
c) Guide John on the possible uses of the product.
d) Calculate the volume of gaseous product measured at stp
e) Explain the environmental impact of the product.
Item 16
Sarah is part of a marine exploration team studying underwater volcanic
activity. During a recent dive, she discovers a source of chlorine gas venting
from the seabed. As part of an experiment, she needs to create a stable
compound that can help neutralize the chlorine gas in the surrounding
water to prevent harm to nearby marine life. She has contacted you for
help.
Task
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Explain the category of the product.
b) Suggest the uses of the product
c) Calculate the volume of chlorine gas needed (at STP) to react
completely with 0.6 g of magnesium to create the stable compound.
(Cl = 35.5, Mg = 24; 1 mole of a gas occupies 22400cm3 at s.t.p)
d) Explain the impact of the product on the environment.
Item 17
As part of a wildfire control team, Kizito need an effective way to control
flames and prevent future forest fires. Magnesium chloride is known for its

74
fire-retardant properties and ability to help reduce flammability in dry
forested areas. Kizito decides to manufacture magnesium chloride by
heating magnesium with chlorine. He has contacted you for help.
Task
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) explain the category of the product
b) Suggest the properties of the product that make it useful in daily life
c) Calculate the volume of chlorine required to react with 0.6g of
magnesium at STP. (Cl = 35.5, Mg = 24; 1 mole of a gas occupies
22400cm3 at s.t.p)
d) Explain the impact of the product on the environment.

Item 18
Timothy is part of an agricultural research team testing soil samples from
various farms to evaluate their suitability for crop growth. Due to prolonged
use, many soils have become acidic and contain compounds like magnesium
carbonate, which can affect nutrient availability for plants. To determine the
soil’s lime content, Timothy treat a sample with excess hydrochloric acid,
which releases carbon dioxide gas that he measures to assess the
magnesium carbonate concentration. He has contacted you for help.
Task
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Explain the categories of the products
b) Suggest the properties of the gaseous product that make it useful in
daily life.
c) If 560 cm³ of CO₂ at STP is released from the reaction, calculate the
percentage of magnesium carbonate in a 4.0 g soil sample.
d) Explain the impact of one of the products on the environment.
Item 19
As part of an environmental team at a factory, Darren is testing the
efficiency of limestone (CaCO₃) in neutralizing sulphur dioxide (SO₂)
emissions from industrial processes. To simulate the reaction, she treats a
sample of limestone with hydrochloric acid and measure the carbon dioxide
evolved. The data will help determine how much limestone is needed to
reduce SO₂ emissions and comply with environmental regulations. She has
contacted you for help.

75
 Task
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Explain the categories of the products
b) Suggest the properties of the solid product that make it useful in daily
life.
c) If 224 cm³ of CO₂ at STP is produced, calculate the mass of calcium
carbonate in a 2.5 g limestone sample.
d) Determine the percentage of calcium carbonate in the sample based
on the calculated mass.
e) Explain the impact of one of the products on the environment.
VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS

In an investigation to determine the nature of matter in a substance, a

chemist focuses on two main questions:
a) What are the components of the substance?
b) What amount of each component is present in the substance?
In an attempt to answer question (a) and (b), a chemist carries out
qualitative and quantitative analysis respectively. Most of the reactions
which a chemist carries out take place in solution.
Consider the reaction below
A(aq) + B(aq) C(aq)
+ D(aq)
If we are to determine the volume of A needed to completely react with a
given amount or volume of B, the answer is provided practically through
volumetric analysis.
In volumetric analysis, quantities of substances (often acids or alkalis) are
estimated by analytical processes involving measurements of volumes of
solutions using pipettes, burettes and measuring cylinders (for approximate
measurement). Weighing may also be involved. Most of the work in
volumetric analysis is based upon molar (M) solutions.
Standard and Molar solutions

A standard solution is a solution of known concentration. Examples of

standard solutions are; solution containing 12g of sodium chloride in one
litre of a solution; a solution containing 2 moles of solute in 1dm 3 e.t.c. The
substance that is used to prepare a standard solution is known as a
primary standard.

76
 A Molar solution is a solution that contains one mole of a substance in a
solution of one litre. In other words, it is a solution containing one mole of
solute in one litre.
Other related terms are;
Concentration; this is the amount of solutes in a given volume of solution.
Molarity; this is the number of moles of solute in one litre of a solution.
The unit is mol/dm3 or mol/l. The molarity of a solution is commonly
denoted by letter M. E.g.
0.2M NaOH which mean 1 litre of a solution containing 0.2 moles of NaOH.
1 litre(1 l)=1cubic decimetre (1dm3) = 1000 cubic centimetre (1000cm3)
Calculations on molarity and masses

Examples
1. Calculate the molarities of the following solution given (Na=23,O=16
H=1,C=12,Cl=35.5,S=32)
a) 13.5g of copper(II)chloride in 1dm3 of solution
b) 4.0g of sodium hydroxide in 400cm3 of solution
c) 53g of anhydrous sodium carbonate in 2 dm3 of solution.
Solution
a) RMM of CuCl2
=64+(35.5x2)
=135
135g is contained in 1 mole of CuCl2

1 g is contained in ( ) moles of CuCl2

13.5g is contained in ( ) moles of CuCl2

=0.1M of CuCl 2
b) 400cm3 of solution contains 4.0g of NaOH

1cm3 of solution contains ( )g of NaOH

1000cm3 of solution contains ( )g of NaOH

=10g/l of NaOH (concentration in grams/litre)
RMM of NaOH
=23+16+1

77
 =40
40g is contained in 1 mole of NaOH

1 g is contained in ( ) moles of NaOH

10 g is contained in ( ) moles of NaOH

=0.25M NaOH
c) 2dm3 of solution contains 53g of Na2CO3

1dm3 of solution contains ( )g of Na2CO3

=26.5g/dm 3 of Na2CO3 (concentration in grams/litre)
RMM of Na2CO3
=23x2+12+16x3
=106
106g is contained in 1 mole of Na2CO3

1 g is contained in ( ) moles of Na2CO3

10 g is contained in ( ) moles of Na2CO3

=0.25M Na 2CO3

In general, Molarity
When the concentration of a solutr in grams per litre and the RMM are
known then the molarity can be calculated from the above expression.
N.B. The use of formula is not so much recommended and workings should
be from first principle.
2. Calculate the mass of the named substance needed to make
a) 0.1 dm3 of 2M sodium sulphate solution
b) 1 l of 0.25M sodium hydroxide solution
c) 25cm3 of 0.1M potassium carbonate solution
d) 500cm3 of 0.05M sodium carbonate solution

Solution
a) 1dm3 of solution contains 2 moles of Na2SO4

0.1dm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of Na2SO4

=0.2 moles of Na 2SO4

78
 RMM for Na2SO4
=23x2+32+16x4
=142
1 mole of Na2SO4 weighs 142g

0.2 moles of Na2SO4 weighs ( ))g

=28.4g
b) 1l of solution contains 0.25 moles of NaOH
RMM for NaOH
=23+16+1
=40
1 mole of NaOH weighs 40g

0.25 moles of NaOH weighs ( ))g

=10g
c) 1000cm3 of solution contains 0.1moles of K2CO3

1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of K2CO3

25 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of K2CO3

=0.0025 moles of K 2CO3
RMM of K2CO3
=39x2+12+16x3
=138
1 mole of K2CO3 weighs 138g

0.0025 moles of K2CO3 weighs ( ))g

=0.345g
Calculating number of moles of ions in standard solutions

Examples
1. Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen ions in 25cm 3 of a 0.2 M
sulphuric acid.

79
 2. Calculate the number of moles of potassium ions in 35cm3 of 0.12 M
potassium carbonate solution.
Solution
1. 1000cm3 of solution contains 0.2moles of H2SO4

1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of H2SO4

25 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of H2SO4

=0.005 moles of H 2SO4
From the equation of ionization of H2SO4
H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + (aq)

1 mole of H2SO4 produces 2 moles H+

0.005 moles of H2SO4 produces ( ) moles H+

=0.01 moles
H+

2. 1000cm3 of solution contains 0.12 moles of K2CO3

1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of K2CO3

35 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of K2CO3

=0.0042 moles of
K2CO3
From the equation of ionization of K2CO3
K2CO3(aq) 2K+(aq) + (aq)
1 mole of K2CO3 produces 2 moles K+

0.0042 moles of K2CO3 produces ( ) moles K+

=0.0084
moles K +

Item 1
In a power plant, cooling systems use water that gradually becomes acidic due
to dissolved carbon dioxide. To prevent corrosion of metal pipes, sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) is added to the cooling water to neutralize the acidity.

80
However, precise dosing is crucial to avoid excess alkalinity, which could
damage the equipment and harm the environment.
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Explain the categories of the products.
b) Suggest the properties of one of the products that make it useful in daily
life.
c) If the initial titration shows 25 cm³ of 0.1 M NaOH is needed to neutralize
50 cm³ of the acidic water, calculate the concentration of carbonic acid in
grams per liter in the cooling system.
d) Explain the impact of the one of the products on the environment.

Item 2
In a pharmaceutical lab, Ethan is formulating a liquid medication that must
be at a precise pH for safe absorption by patients. She uses a hydrochloric
acid (HCl) solution to adjust the pH, and titrate the solution with sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) to ensure accuracy in formulation. She has contacted you
for help.
Task
As a chemistry student;
a) Explain the category of the products.
b) Suggest the properties of the product.
c) If 10 cm³ of 0.25 M HCl is used to reach neutrality with 15 cm³ of the
NaOH solution, calculate the concentration of NaOH in grams per liter.
d) Suggest the uses of one of the products
e) Explain the impact of one of the products on the environment.

Item 3

As part of a marine conservation team, Derrick is working to protect a coral

reef from the damaging effects of ocean acidification caused by rising CO₂
levels. To help stabilize the pH, her team plans to add a carefully controlled
alkaline solution to the surrounding water. Sodium bicarbonate has been
chosen as the neutralizing agent, but first, he needs to determine its precise
neutralizing capacity to avoid harming marine life.
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;

81
a) Explain the categories of the products
b) Suggest the properties of the gaseous product that make it useful in daily
life.
c) If you dissolve 5.0 g of NaHCO₃ in water to make a 500 cm³ solution and
titrate 50 cm³ of it with 0.1 M HCl, requiring 18.5 cm³ of HCl to reach the
endpoint, calculate the neutralizing power of the solution for dosing in the
reef area.
d) Explain the impact of the products on the environment

Item 4

A chemical supplier has provided a sample of sodium carbonate that is

suspected to be contaminated with potassium carbonate. The sample
weighs 3.00 grams and needs to be analyzed to determine the percentage
purity of sodium carbonate.
To analyze the sample, Cate dissolves it in 300 cm³ of distilled water and
then filter the solution to obtain a clear filtrate. Cate takes a 30 cm³ sample
of this filtrate and find that it requires 18 cm³ of 0.100 M hydrochloric acid
for complete neutralization. She has contacted you for help.
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Explain the categories of the products
b) Suggest the properties of the gaseous product that make it useful in
daily life.
c) Calculate the percentage purity of sodium carbonate
d) Explain the impact of the products on the environment.

TITRATION

This is a method of volumetric analysis in which a solution (usually a

standard solution) is added from a burette to another solution (usually
whose concentration is unknown) until the reaction is complete. An
indicator changes color immediately the reaction is complete or when the
end point is reached. Most titrations at this level are acid-base titrations.
Common laboratory indicators and color changes
Indicator Color in acidic Color in alkaline
solution solution
Phenolphthalein Colorless Purple
Methyl orange Red/pink Yellow
Litmus Red Blue

82
 Procedure for acid-base titration

1. Wash the pipette with distilled water then a little

of the solution it is to measure. Use the pipette to
deliver either 20.0cm3 or 25.0cm3 of the alkali
into a clean conical flask. Add a few drops (2 or 3
drops) of indicator. 2. Wash the burette with
distilled water then a little of the
Eye at same
Level with acid solution and run out the acid through
the tap. Fill meniscus the burette above the 0 cm3
Burette mark and run a little of the acid out to bring the
meniscus of the acid to the 0 cm3 mark or slightly
below it. Take the burette reading as V1 cm3.
3. Arrange the apparatus as shown on the left hand
Dilute acid
side. Run the acid solution from the burette drop
wise. Use your left hand to open the tap and your
right hand to swirl the conical flask (unless you
Tap
are left handed). Stop when the indicator just
changes color. This is the end point the titration.
4. Take the burette reading again V2 cm3. Subtract
(V 2- V1) cm
3
to get the ―titre‖ (i.e. the volume of
the acid needed to neutralize the known volume
of alkali).
5. Repeat the titration. Obtain an average titre. From this volume you can
calculate the unknown concentration. Alkali solution

White tile

N.B The first titration is regarded as a trial run (rough titration) and may
not be very accurate, therefore the value may not be used in computing the
average volume. Values used in calculating the average volume must be
close to each other
Specimen readings

Example
Neutralization of 0.1M NaOH solution with a solution of HCl
Volume of pipette used =25.0cm3

83
 Number of titration 1 2 3
Final burette reading/ cm 3
14.80 30.00 15.00
Initial burette reading/ cm 3
0.00 15.00 0.00
Volume of acid used/ cm3 14.80 15.00 15.00

Value used to calculate average volume of acid used: 15.00 cm 3 and 15.00
cm3

Average volume of acid used= =15.00 cm3

Calculate
a) The number of moles of sodium hydroxide that reacted
b) The number of moles of hydrochloric acid that reacted
c) The molarity of the hydrochloric acid ( i.e concentration in mol/litre)

Method of calculation
1. Write the equation for the reaction that took place. This gives you the mole
ratio of reaction between the acid and the alkali.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H 2O(l)
1 mole of HCl neutralizes 1 mole of NaOH
2. Work out the number of moles of the standard solution. In this case it is the
alkali (NaOH) as its concentration is known ( 25.O cm3 contains of 0.1M
NaOH ).

a) Moles of NaOH that reacted

1000cm3 of solution contains 0.1moles of NaOH

1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of NaOH

25 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of NaOH

=0.0025 moles of
NaOH
3. Work out the number of moles of the acid that reacted by relating the
number of moles of the alkali to the mole ratio of reaction between the acid
and alkali.
b) From the equation of reaction
1 mole of NaOH reacts with 1 mole of HCl

0.0025 moles of NaOH reacts with ( ) moles of HCl

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 =0.0025 moles of HCl
(since the mole ratio of the reaction of the HCl : NaOH is 1:1, so, the
number of moles of HCl = 0.0025 moles)
4. Now work out the molarity of the acid

c) 15cm3 of solution contains 0.0025moles of

HCl 1cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of
HCl 1000cm3 of solution contains ( )
moles of HCl
=0.167 mol/l of HCl
The molarity of the HCl is 0.167M
5. From the molarity, you can proceed and work out the concentration in
grams/litre, if the Molar mass is known.(e.g. for 0.167M HCl in the above
case)
Molar mass of HCl=(1+35.5)g =
36.5g 1 mole of HCl weighs 36.5g

0.167 moles of HCl weighs ( )g

=6.1g/l
Other examples
1. 25cm3 of sulphuric acid of concentration 0.15mol/dm3 neutralized 31.2cm3
of potassium hydroxide solution. Find the concentration of the KOH
solution in mol/l and in grams/litre.
Solution
Write the equation
Equation for the reaction
H2SO4 (aq) + 2KOH(aq) K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
1 mole of acid reacts with 2 moles of alkali
Calculate the number of moles of the acid (standard solution) that
reacted
1000cm3 of solution contains 0.15moles of H2SO4

1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of H2SO4

25 cm3 of solution contains ( )moles of H2SO4

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 =0.00375 moles of H 2SO4
Relate the number of moles of acid to the mole ratio of the reaction
to find the number of moles of the alkali that reacted
1 mole of H2SO4 reacts with 2 moles of KOH

0.00375moles of H2SO4 reacts with ( ) moles of KOH

=0.0075 moles of KOH
Calculate the molarity (concentration in mol/dm3) of the alkali
31.2cm3 of solution contains 0.0075moles of KOH

1cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of KOH

1000cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of KOH

=0.24 mol/l of KOH
The concentration of the KOH is 0.24 mol/l of KOH
Proceed and calculate the concentration in g/l
Molar mass of KOH= (39+16+1)= 56g
1 mole of KOH weighs 56g

0.24 moles of KOH weighs ( )g

=13.44g
The concentration of the KOH is 13.44g/l
2. Determine the molarity of acids in the following solutions.
a) 16.0cm3 of 1.5M sodium hydroxide neutralized by 20.0cm 3 of hydrochloric
acid
b) 25.0cm3 of 0.2M ammonia solution neutralized by 20.0cm3 of nitric acid
Solution
a) Equation of reaction
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) +H 2O(aq)
1000cm3 of solution contains 1.5moles of NaOH

1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of NaOH

16 cm3 of solution contains ( )moles of NaOH

=0.024 moles of NaOH
From the equation

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 1 mole of NaOH reacts with 1 mole of HCl,

0.024 moles of NaOH reacts with ( )moles of HCl

=0.024 moles
of HCl
20.0cm3 of solution contains 0.024moles of HCl

1cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of HCl

1000cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of HCl

=1.2 M HCl
The concentration of the HCl is 1.2M
Equation for reaction
b) HNO3(aq) + NH4OH(aq) NH 4NO3(aq) +H2O(aq)
1000cm3 of solution contains 0.2moles of NH4OH

1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of NH4OH

25cm3of solution contains ( )moles of NH4OH

=0.005 moles of NH4OH
From the equation
1 mole of NH4OH reacts with 1 mole of HNO3

0.005moles of NH4OH reacts with ( )moles of HNO3

=0.005 moles of
HNO3
20.0cm3 of solution contains 0.005moles of HNO3

1cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of HNO3

1000cm3 of solution contains( )moles of HNO3

=0.25 M HNO3
The concentration of the HNO3 is 0.25M
3. 5.0g of a mixture of sodium chloride and anhydrous sodium carbonate were
made up to 200cm3 of aqueous solution. 25cm3 of this solution required
40cm3 of 0.1M of hydrochloric acid for neutralization. What is the
percentage by mass of the anhydrous sodium carbonate in the mixture?

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 Solution
Equation for the reaction
2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) NaCl(aq) +H 2O(aq) + CO2(g)
1000cm3 of solution contains 0.1moles of HCl

1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of HCl

40cm3 of solution contains ( )moles of HCl
=0.004 moles of HCl
From the equation
2 mole of HCl reacts with 1 mole of Na2CO3
0.004 moles of HCl reacts with ( )moles of Na2CO3
=0.002 moles of Na2CO3
25.0cm3 of solution contains 0.002moles of Na2CO3

1cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of Na2CO3

1000cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of Na2CO3

=0.08 M Na 2CO3
The molarity of the Na2CO3 is 0.08M
RMM of Na2CO3
=23x2+12+16x3
=106
1 mole of Na2CO3 weighs 106g

0.08 moles of Na2CO3 weighs ( )g

=8.48g of Na 2CO3
The mass of Na2CO3 in 1 litre is 8.48g
200cm3 of solution contains 5.0g of mixture

1cm3 of solution contains ( )g of mixture

1000cm3 of solution contains ( )g of mixture

=25g of the mixture.

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 The mass of a mixture of sodium carbonate and sodium chloride in 1 litre is
25g.

Percentage mass of Na2CO x 100

=34%
4. 3.5g of a mixture of K2CO3 and K2SO4 were made up to 250cm3 of aqueous
solution. 25cm3 of the solution required 24.6cm3 of 0.1 HCl for complete
neutralization.
a) Write the equation for the reaction
b) Determine the percentage by mass of potassium sulphate in the mixture.
Solution

a) 2HCl(aq) + K2CO3(aq) 2KCl(aq) +

H2O(l) + CO2(g)
b) 1000cm3 of solution contains 0.1moles of HCl
1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of HCl
24.6cm3 of solution contains ( )moles of HCl
=0.00246 moles of HCl
From the equation
2 mole of HCl reacts with 1 mole of K2CO3

0.00246 moles of HCl reacts with ( )moles of K2CO3

=0.00123 moles of K 2CO3
25.0cm3 of solution contains 0.00123moles of K2CO3

1cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of K2CO3

1000cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of K2CO3

=0.0492 M K 2CO3
The molarity of the K2CO3 is 0.0492M

RMM of K2CO3
=39x2+12+16x3
=138

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 1 mole of K2CO3 weighs 138g

0.0492 moles of K2CO3 weighs ( )g

=6.79g of K 2CO3
The mass of K2CO3 in 1 litre is 6.79g
250cm3 of solution contains 3.5 g of mixture

1cm3 of solution contains ( )g of mixture

1000cm3 of solution contains ( )g of mixture

=14g of the mixture.
The mass of a mixture of potassium carbonate and potasium sulphate in 1
litre is 14g.
Mass of K2SO4= mass of mixture-mass of K2CO3
=(14-6.79)g= 7.21g

Percentage by mass of K2SO x 100

=51.5%
Calculating number of moles of water of crystallization
The water of crystallization present in compounds does not take part in the
reaction
1. Calculate the number of moles of water of crystallization in oxalic acid
crystals, H2C2O4.xH2O from the following data.
5.0g 0f the crystals were made up to 250cm3 of aqueous solution and
25cm3 of this solution required 15.9 cm3 of 0.5M NaOH solution to
neutralize it.
Solution
Equation for the reaction
2NaOH(aq) + H2C2O4(aq) Na 2C2O4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
1000cm3 of solution contains 0.5moles of NaOH

1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of NaOH

15.9 cm3 of solution contains ( )moles of NaOH
=0.00795 moles of NaOH

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 From the equation
2 mole of NaOH reacts with 1 mole of H2C2O4,
0.00795 moles of NaOH reacts with ( ) moles of H2C2O4
=0.003975 moles of
H2C2O4
25.0cm3 of solution contains 0.003975moles of H2C2O4

1cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of H2C2O4

1000cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of H2C2O4

=0.159 M H 2C2O4
The concentration of the H2C2O4is 0.159mol/dm3
250cm3 of solution dissolves 5 g of oxalic acid

1cm3 of solution contains ( )g of oxalic acid

1000cm3 of solution contains ( )g of oxalic acid

=20g/l of the oxalic acid.
The mass of a oxalic acid in 1 litre is 20g.
RMM of the oxalic acid
0.159 moles of H2C2O4.xH2O weighs 20g

1 mole of H2C2O4.xH2O weighs( )g

=125.79g The RMM of H2C2O4.XH2O

is 125.79≈ 126
There fore
H2C2O4.xH2O = 126
1x2+12x2+16x4+ x(1x2+16) =126
90+18x =126
18x=126-90
18x=36
X=2.
The formula of the oxalic acid is H2C2O4.2H2O

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2. 0.465g of a hydrated form of sodium carbonate exactly reacts with 75cm3 of
0.10M hydrochloric acid. Calculate the number of moles of water of
crystallization present in one mole of the hydrated salt.
Solution
Equation for the reaction
2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) NaCl(aq) +H 2O(aq) + CO2(g)
1000cm3 of solution contains 0.1moles of HCl

1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of HCl

75cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of HCl
=0.0075 moles of HCl
From the equation
2 mole of HCl reacts with 1 mole of Na2CO3
0.0075 moles of HCl reacts with ( ) moles of Na2CO3
=0.00375 moles of Na 2CO3
RMM of Na2CO3
=23x2+12+16x3
=106
1 mole of Na2CO3 weighs 106g

0.00375 moles of Na2CO3 weighs ( )g

=0.3975g of
Na2CO3
Mass of water contained=(0.465-0.3975)g=0.0675g
The mole ratio of Na2CO3 : H2O is obtained by dividing each by the molar
mass of the

compound i.e. mole ratio of Na2CO

The formula is Na2CO3.H2O

Calculating basicity of acids

Basicity of an acid is the number of hydrogen ions that can be produced by
one molecule of the acid upon complete ionization. It is not the number of
hydrogen atoms in one molecule of an acid.

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 Example
1. Calculate the basicity of an acid HnZ if 15cm3 of 0.1M acid is completely
neutralized by 9cm3 of 0.5 M potassium hydroxide.
Number of moles of the acid
1000cm3 of solution contains 0.1moles of HnZ

1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of HnZ

15cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of HnZ

=0.0015 moles of H nZ
Number of moles of KOH
1000cm3 of solution contains 0.5moles of KOH

1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of KOH

9cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of KOH

=0.0045 moles of KOH
Equation of reaction
HnZ(aq) + nKOH(aq) KnZ(aq) + nH2O(l)

Reaction ration,

0.0015n=0.0045
n= 3
Exercise
1. 11.2 g of potassium hydroxide were made up to 1 litre of aqueous solution.
25cm3 of this solution required 24.9cm3 of 0.1 M of an acid HnX.
Dertermine the value of n in the acid (i.e the basicity of the acid)
(Answer=2)
2. 1.5g of sodium hydroxide contained in 250cm3 of solution was used to
titrate 0.1M hydrochloric acid. What volume of acid would be needed to
react with 20cm3 of the alkali? (Answer=30cm3)
3. 8.50g of a sample of iron required just 75 cm 3 of 3.00M hydrochloric acid to
dissolve it and give a neutral solution. Calculate the percentage purity of
the sample of iron. (Answer=74.1%)

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4. Determine the number of moles of nitrate ions in 1 litre solution,if 6.62g of
Lead(II)nitrate are made up to 200cm 3 of aqueous solution.(Answer=0.2
moles)
5. Kyagulanyi and Atim were playing and accidentally poured an acid that was
on the table in the drinking water for students. Samanya and Dickens,
young analytical chemists titrate the water and find that 10.0dm 3 of water
are needed to neutralize 10.0cm 3 of a 0.010moldm3 solution of sodium
hydroxide. What is the concentration of the hydrogen ions in the water?
(Answer 0.00005M)
6. Sodium carbonate crystals (27.823g) were dissolved in water and made up
to 1 litre. 25.0 cm3 of the solution were neutralized by 48.8cm3 of
hydrochloric acid of concentration 0.10M. Find n in the formula
Na2CO3.nH2O.(Answer n=10)
7. Sophia, a meticulous chemistry student, is tasked with analyzing a sample
of potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃) that is suspected to be contaminated with
sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃). The sample weighs 2.80 grams and needs to
be analyzed to determine the percentage purity of potassium carbonate.
To analyze the sample, Sophia dissolves it in 280 cm³ of distilled water and
then filters the solution to obtain a clear filtrate. She takes a 28 cm³ sample
of this filtrate and finds that it requires 14 cm³ of 0.125 M hydrochloric acid
(HCl) for complete neutralization. You have contacted for help.
Task:
As a learner of chemistry;
a) Explain the categories of the products
b) Suggest the products of one of the products that make it useful in
daily life
c) Calculate the Percentage Purity of Potassium Carbonate
d) Category of the Filtrate
e) Explain the environmental impact of one of the products and
mitigation
Item 8
A local environmental agency has received a mysterious sample of a
carbonate mixture, suspected to be a blend of potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃)
and magnesium carbonate (MgCO₃). The sample weighs 1.80 grams and
needs to be analyzed to determine its composition.
Chemist Maya carefully shakes the sample with 280 cm³ of distilled water
and then filters the solution to obtain a clear filtrate. Maya takes a 28 cm³
sample of this filtrate and finds that it requires 14 cm³ of 0.110 M
hydrochloric acid (HCl) for complete neutralization.

94
As Maya’s colleague, you need to help her analyze this mysterious
carbonate sample.
Task
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Explain the category of the products
b) What are the properties of the products formed?
c) Explain the uses of the gaseous product
d) Determine the Percentage Percentage Purity of Potassium Carbonate
e) Explain the Environmental Impact of the product and Mitigation
Item 9
In a bustling chemistry laboratory, a young chemist, Emma, is tasked with
analyzing a mysterious mixture of potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃) and
magnesium carbonate (MgCO₃). The mixture, weighing 1.50 grams, has
been provided by a local industrial supplier, but its exact composition is
unknown.
Emma carefully shakes the mixture with 250 cm³ of distilled water and then
filters the solution to obtain a clear filtrate. She takes a 25 cm³ sample of
this filtrate and discovers that it requires 12 cm³ of 0.100 M hydrochloric
acid (HCl) to achieve complete neutralization.
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Explain the categories of the products
b) Suggest the properties of one of the products that make it useful in daily
life.
c) Calculate the percentage purity of potassium carbonate
d) Explain the impact of the products on the environment.
Item 10
In a cutting-edge research facility, a team of chemists is tasked with
analyzing an enigmatic blend of sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) and calcium
carbonate (CaCO₃). The blend, weighing 2.00 grams, has been sourced from
a local industrial supplier, but its exact composition is not known.
Chemist Alex carefully mixes the blend with 300 cm³ of distilled water and
then filters the solution to obtain a clear filtrate. Alex takes a 30 cm³ sample
of this filtrate and discovers that it requires 15 cm³ of 0.120 M hydrochloric
acid (HCl) to achieve complete neutralization

95
As Alex’s colleague, you need to help unravel the secrets of this alkaline
blend
Task:
As a student of chemistry;
a) Explain the category of the products.
b) What are the properties of the products?
c) Calculate the percentage purity of sodium carbonate in the mixture.
d) Explain the impact of the products on the environment

Sample items
Item 1
A group of Learners were faced with a unique solid substance, X, which
they suspected to be an element.
0.3g of the element could burn in air to form 0.5g of the solid product. One
of them picked interest in what could be the chemical formula of the oxide
of the element. However, he did not know how to determine the formula.
When they contacted the laboratory technician he gave them the atomic

representation of oxygen as 168𝑂

number and mass number of X as 12 and 24 respectively, and the symbolic

As a student of chemistry help the learners to;

(a) understand the nature of substance X
(b) determine the formula of the oxide of X
(c) know the environmental consequences of the element

Item 2
Charcoal is a common fuel used in many homes in Uganda. During its
combustion in excess oxygen supply, it produces carbon dioxide. Your
friend is using 80.5g of charcoal to cook food in a busy evening for guests.
It burns completely as shown in the equation below.

C(s) + O2 (g) ⟶CO2 (g)

Task
As a learner of chemistry

96
 a) Assess the product formed
b) Advise the friend on the appropriateness of the product formed.
c) Calculate the volume of the gas produced every busy evening.
(1 mole of a gas occupies 22.4l at s.t.p, C = 12)
d) Help the friend understand the impact of the product in the
environment

Item 3
Doreen is part of a hospital’s environmental safety team and she is
responsible for managing acidic wastewater generated from laboratory
processes. This wastewater contains excess hydrochloric acid, which can
harm the environment if not neutralized before disposal. To safely manage
it, she plans to use sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) to neutralize the acid,
preventing environmental damage. She has contacted you for help.
Task
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Explain the categories of the products
b) Suggest the properties of the gaseous product that make it useful in daily
life.
c) If 300 cm³ of CO₂ at STP is released, calculate the mass of sodium
carbonate needed to neutralize the excess acid.
d) Calculate the Percentage of Acid Neutralized: If 5.0 g of sodium carbonate
was used,
e) Explain the impact of one of the products on the environment.

Item 4
Irene is part of a green architecture team exploring eco-friendly building
materials. One component you’re analyzing is gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O), which
is a major material in drywall production. Irene suspects that some gypsum
batches may contain impurities like calcium carbonate, which can increase
the material’s carbon footprint when processed. To verify, Irene treats a
sample with hydrochloric acid and measure the carbon dioxide gas
released.
Task
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Explain the categories of the products
b) Suggest the properties of the gaseous product that make it useful in
daily life.

97
 c) Calculate the mass of calcium carbonate in the mixture if 112 cm³ of
CO₂ at STP is released, calculate the mass of calcium carbonate in a
2.0 g drywall sample.
d) Determine the percentage of calcium carbonate in the mixture.
e) Explain the impact of one of the products on the environment.
Item 5
A group of senior two students studied that aluminium can be used in
fireworks to produce attractive bright colour. They have picked 10g of
aluminium powder from the laboratory technician to carry out their
discovery. One of the students carefully burnt aluminium powder on a
spatula and noticed that bright flashes and white smoke were being
produced. The students were curious to know about the nature of the
product, properties, uses and its impact on the environment. They are stuck
and they have contacted you for help.
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Write an equation of reaction that took place
b) Explain the category of the product.
c) Suggest the properties of the product that make it useful in daily life.
d) Calculate the mass of product formed when 10g of aluminium powder
is ignited
e) Explain the impact of the product on the environment.
Item 6
Emma heated a strip of magnesium ribbon in a Bunsen burner flame. The
magnesium burns with a bright white light, leaving behind a white powder
in the crucible. She is also interested to know the amount of the product
formed when 4 g of magnesium is burnt in excess oxygen. She is curious
about what she observed and seeks your guidance.
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) write an equation of reaction that took place.
b) Explain the category of the product.
c) Suggest the properties of the product.
d) Guide Emma on the possible uses of the product.
e) calculate the mass of the product.
f) Explain the environmental impact of the product.

Item 7
John heated a small piece of sulphur in a flame. The sulphur burned with a
pale blue flame, producing a pungent gas. He noticed a white solid residue

98
in the container and wanted to know more about it. She also interested to
know how much gas is produced when 15 g is heated in excess oxygen.
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) write an equation of reaction that took place.
a) Explain the category of the product.
b) Suggest the properties of the product.
c) Guide John on the possible uses of the product.
d) Calculate the volume of gaseous product measured at stp
e) Explain the environmental impact of the product.

Item 8
Sarah ignited a 6g piece of charcoal in a flame. As it burned, it released a
significant amount of heat and light, and a colorless gas was produced.
Sarah is unsure of the exact chemical reaction that occurred. She also
interested to know how much volume of colourless gas formed. She is stuck
and she has contacted you for help.
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Explain the category of the product.
b) Suggest the properties of the product.
c) Guide Sarah on the possible uses of the product.
d) Calculate the volume of colourless gas formed at stp
e) Explain the environmental impact of the product.

Item 9
Natalie heated a small piece of aluminum foil in a flame. The aluminum
metal quickly reacted with the oxygen in the air, forming a white powdery
residue on its surface. Natalie is interested in knowing more about the
reaction.
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) write an equation of reaction that took place.
b) Explain the category of the product.
c) Suggest the properties of the product.
d) Guide Natalie on the possible uses of the product
e) Calculate the volume of oxygen required to produce 32g of the
product in the reaction
f) Explain the environmental impact of the product.

99
Item 10
In a power plant, cooling systems use water that gradually becomes acidic
due to dissolved carbon dioxide. To prevent corrosion of metal pipes,
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is added to the cooling water to neutralize the
acidity. However, precise dosing is crucial to avoid excess alkalinity, which
could damage the equipment and harm the environment.
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Write an equation of reaction that took place
b) Explain the categories of the products.
c) Suggest the properties of one of the products that make it useful in
daily life.
d) If the initial titration shows 25 cm³ of 0.1 M NaOH is needed to
neutralize 50 cm³ of the acidic water, calculate the concentration of
carbonic acid in grams per liter in the cooling system.
e) Explain the impact of the one of the products on the environment.
Item 11
In a pharmaceutical lab, Ethan is formulating a liquid medication that must
be at a precise pH for safe absorption by patients. She uses a hydrochloric
acid (HCl) solution to adjust the pH, and titrate the solution with sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) to ensure accuracy in formulation. She has contacted you
for help.
Task
As a chemistry student;
a) Write an equation of reaction that took place.
b) Explain the category of the products.
c) Suggest the properties of the product.
d) If 10 cm³ of 0.25 M HCl is used to reach neutrality with 15 cm³ of the
NaOH solution, calculate the concentration of NaOH in grams per
liter.
e) Suggest the uses of one of the products
f) Explain the impact of one of the products on the environment.

100
Item 12
Sarah is part of a marine exploration team studying underwater volcanic
activity. During a recent dive, she discovers a source of chlorine gas venting
from the seabed. As part of an experiment, she needs to create a stable
compound that can help neutralize the chlorine gas in the surrounding
water to prevent harm to nearby marine life. She has contacted you for
help.
Task
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Write an equation of reaction that took place
b) Explain the category of the product.
c) Suggest the uses of the product
d) Calculate the volume of chlorine gas needed (at STP) to react
completely with 0.6 g of magnesium to create the stable compound.
(Cl = 35.5, Mg = 24; 1 mole of a gas occupies 22400cm3 at s.t.p)
e) Explain the impact of the product on the environment.
Item 13
As part of a wildfire control team, Kizito need an effective way to control
flames and prevent future forest fires. Magnesium chloride is known for its
fire-retardant properties and ability to help reduce flammability in dry
forested areas. Kizito decides to manufacture magnesium chloride by
heating magnesium with chlorine. He has contacted you for help.
Task
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Write an equation of reaction that takes place.
b) explain the category of the product
c) Suggest the properties of the product that make it useful in daily life
d) Calculate the volume of chlorine required to react with 0.6g of
magnesium at STP. (Cl = 35.5, Mg = 24; 1 mole of a gas occupies
22400cm3 at s.t.p)
e) Explain the impact of the product on the environment.
Item 14
Timothy is part of an agricultural research team testing soil samples from
various farms to evaluate their suitability for crop growth. Due to prolonged
use, many soils have become acidic and contain compounds like magnesium
carbonate, which can affect nutrient availability for plants. To determine the
soil’s lime content, Timothy treat a sample with excess hydrochloric acid,

101
which releases carbon dioxide gas that he measures to assess the
magnesium carbonate concentration. He has contacted you for help.
Task
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Write an equation of reaction that takes place
b) Explain the categories of the products
c) Suggest the properties of the gaseous product that make it useful in
daily life.
d) If 560 cm³ of CO₂ at STP is released from the reaction, calculate the
percentage of magnesium carbonate in a 4.0 g soil sample.
e) Explain the impact of one of the products on the environment.
Item 15
As part of an environmental team at a factory, Darren is testing the
efficiency of limestone (CaCO₃) in neutralizing sulphur dioxide (SO₂)
emissions from industrial processes. To simulate the reaction, she treats a
sample of limestone with hydrochloric acid and measure the carbon dioxide
evolved. The data will help determine how much limestone is needed to
reduce SO₂ emissions and comply with environmental regulations. She has
contacted you for help.
Task
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Write an equation of reaction that takes place.
b) Explain the categories of the products
c) Suggest the properties of the solid product that make it useful in daily
life.
d) If 224 cm³ of CO₂ at STP is produced, calculate the mass of calcium
carbonate in a 2.5 g limestone sample.
e) Determine the percentage of calcium carbonate in the sample based
on the calculated mass.
f) Explain the impact of one of the products on the environment.

Item 16
In a field hospital set up during an emergency, the research team needs to
prepare a sterile saline solution to clean wounds and prevent infections. The
team has a supply of sodium chloride (NaCl) but need to determine the
concentration accurately. By conducting a titration experiment with a silver

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nitrate (AgNO₃) solution, the team can confirm the concentration of the
NaCl solution to ensure it’s safe and effective for medical use. However,
they are not sure how to do. They have contacted you for help.
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Write an equation of reaction that takes place.
b) Explain the categories of the products
c) Suggest the properties of the products that make it useful in daily life.
d) If 15 cm³ of 0.1 M AgNO₃ was required to completely react with 20
cm³ of the NaCl solution, calculate the concentration of NaCl in grams
per liter.
e) Explain the impact of one of the products on the environment.
Item 17
A chemical supplier has provided a sample of sodium carbonate that is
suspected to be contaminated with potassium carbonate. The sample
weighs 3.00 grams and needs to be analyzed to determine the percentage
purity of sodium carbonate.
To analyze the sample, Cate dissolves it in 300 cm³ of distilled water and
then filter the solution to obtain a clear filtrate. Cate takes a 30 cm³ sample
of this filtrate and find that it requires 18 cm³ of 0.100 M hydrochloric acid
for complete neutralization. She has contacted you for help.
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;
e) Explain the categories of the products
f) Suggest the properties of the gaseous product that make it useful in
daily life.
g) Calculate the percentage purity of sodium carbonate
h) Explain the impact of the products on the environment.
Item 18
A chemical manufacturing plant has received a shipment of a carbonate
blend, believed to be a mixture of sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) and calcium
carbonate (CaCO₃). The blend weighs 2.50 grams and needs to be analyzed
for quality control purposes.
Chemist Ryan carefully mixes the blend with 320 cm³ of distilled water and
then filters the solution to obtain a clear filtrate. Ryan takes a 32 cm³
sample of this filtrate and finds that it requires 16 cm³ of 0.130 M

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hydrochloric acid (HCl) for complete neutralization. You have been
contacted for help
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Explain the categories of the products
b) Suggest the properties of the gaseous product
c) Calculate the percentage purity of sodium carbonate
d) Explain the impact of the products on the environment.
Item 19
Saidia is part of a specialized team working to treat acidic groundwater in a
rural community where drinking water sources have become unsafe. Her
task is to develop a treatment solution that neutralizes this acidity using
sodium carbonate, but to ensure precise dosage, you must first analyze the
exact formula of the available sodium carbonate, which could contain
varying amounts of water molecules in its hydrated form.
To accurately determine the composition of her sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃ ·
nH₂O), she prepares a solution by dissolving 7.15 g of the compound in
water to make 250 cm³ of solution. She then conducts a titration with
hydrochloric acid (0.25 M HCl) to identify the level of hydration in the
sodium carbonate. By titrating 25 cm³ of this solution with 0.25 M HCl, the
endpoint is reached with exactly 20.0 cm³ of acid. her goal is to calculate
the number of water molecules (n) associated with each unit of sodium
carbonate in the compound and understand the implications for your
treatment strategy.
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Write an equation of reaction that takes place.
b) Explain the categories of the products.
c) Suggest the properties of the gaseous product that make it useful in
daily life.
d) calculate the exact value of n the hydrated sodium carbonate
formula, Na₂CO₃ · nH₂O.
e) Explain the impact of the products on the environment.
Item 20
Peter is part of a medical team working in a high-altitude clinic where
oxygen levels are low. His task is to produce oxygen gas on-site for

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emergency patients. The clinic has a supply of potassium chlorate (KClO₃),
which decomposes when heated to release oxygen gas.
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;
a) Write an equation of reaction that takes place.
b) Explain the category of the products
c) Suggest the properties of the gaseous product that make it useful in
daily life.
d) Calculate the mass of potassium chlorate required to produce 15 liters
of oxygen gas at STP.
e) Explain the impact of one of the products on the environment.
Item 21
Mercy, a diligent chemistry student, is tasked with analyzing a sample of
hydrated sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃·nH₂O) that has been provided by a
local chemical supplier. The sample weighs 8.50 grams and needs to be
analyzed to determine the number of moles of water of crystallization and
the percentage purity of the sodium carbonate.
To analyze the sample, Mercy dissolves it in 300 cm³ of distilled water and
then filters the solution to obtain a clear filtrate. She takes a 30 cm³ sample
of this filtrate and finds that it requires 24.0 cm³ of 0.25 M hydrochloric
acid (HCl) for complete neutralization, using methyl orange as an indicator.
Task:
As a learner of chemistry;
f) Write an equation of reaction that takes place.
g) Explain the categories of the products
h) Suggest the products of one of the products that make it useful in
daily life
i) Calculate the Percentage Purity of sodium carbonate.
j) Explain the environmental impact of one of the products and
mitigation
Item 22
Sophia, a meticulous chemistry student, is tasked with analyzing a sample
of potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃) that is suspected to be contaminated with
sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃). The sample weighs 2.80 grams and needs to be
analyzed to determine the percentage purity of potassium carbonate.

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To analyze the sample, Sophia dissolves it in 280 cm³ of distilled water and
then filters the solution to obtain a clear filtrate. She takes a 28 cm³ sample
of this filtrate and finds that it requires 14 cm³ of 0.125 M hydrochloric acid
(HCl) for complete neutralization. You have contacted for help.
Task:
As a learner of chemistry;
a) Explain the categories of the products
b) Suggest the products of one of the products that make it useful in
daily life
c) Calculate the Percentage Purity of Potassium Carbonate
d) Category of the Filtrate
e) Explain the environmental impact of one of the products and
mitigation
Item 23
A local environmental agency has received a mysterious sample of a
carbonate mixture, suspected to be a blend of potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃)
and magnesium carbonate (MgCO₃). The sample weighs 1.80 grams and
needs to be analyzed to determine its composition.
Chemist Maya carefully shakes the sample with 280 cm³ of distilled water
and then filters the solution to obtain a clear filtrate. Maya takes a 28 cm³
sample of this filtrate and finds that it requires 14 cm³ of 0.110 M
hydrochloric acid (HCl) for complete neutralization.
As Maya’s colleague, you need to help her analyze this mysterious
carbonate sample.
Task
As a learner of Chemistry;
f) Explain the category of the products
g) What are the properties of the products formed?
h) Explain the uses of the gaseous product
i) Determine the Percentage Percentage Purity of Potassium Carbonate
j) Explain the Environmental Impact of the product and Mitigation
Item 24
In a bustling chemistry laboratory, a young chemist, Emma, is tasked with
analyzing a mysterious mixture of potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃) and
magnesium carbonate (MgCO₃). The mixture, weighing 1.50 grams, has

106
been provided by a local industrial supplier, but its exact composition is
unknown.
Emma carefully shakes the mixture with 250 cm³ of distilled water and then
filters the solution to obtain a clear filtrate. She takes a 25 cm³ sample of
this filtrate and discovers that it requires 12 cm³ of 0.100 M hydrochloric
acid (HCl) to achieve complete neutralization.
Task:
As a learner of Chemistry;
e) Write an equation of reaction that takes place.
f) Explain the categories of the products
g) Suggest the properties of one of the products that make it useful in
daily life.
h) Calculate the percentage purity of potassium carbonate
i) Explain the impact of the products on the environment.
Item 25
In a cutting-edge research facility, a team of chemists is tasked with
analyzing an enigmatic blend of sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) and calcium
carbonate (CaCO₃). The blend, weighing 2.00 grams, has been sourced from
a local industrial supplier, but its exact composition is not known.
Chemist Alex carefully mixes the blend with 300 cm³ of distilled water and
then filters the solution to obtain a clear filtrate. Alex takes a 30 cm³ sample
of this filtrate and discovers that it requires 15 cm³ of 0.120 M hydrochloric
acid (HCl) to achieve complete neutralization
As Alex’s colleague, you need to help unravel the secrets of this alkaline
blend
Task:
As a student of chemistry;
e) Write an equation of reaction that takes place.
f) Explain the category of the products.
g) What are the properties of the products?
h) Calculate the percentage purity of sodium carbonate
i) Explain the impact of the products on the environment
Item 26
A pharmaceutical company is synthesizing sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) by
reacting sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) with carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water.
Sodium bicarbonate is used in medicines, especially antacids, and as a
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leavening agent in food production. The company needs to maintain the
correct concentration of reactants to ensure consistent product quality.
In the lab, 40 g of sodium carbonate is reacted with carbon dioxide gas in
excess water. The company requests your help to analyze the concentration
of sodium bicarbonate produced.
Task

As a learner of chemistry;

a) Explain the categories of the reactants

b) Suggest the properties of one of the reactants that make it useful in daily
life.
c) Calculate the number of moles of sodium bicarbonate produced from 40 g
of sodium carbonate.

d) Determine the molarity of the sodium bicarbonate solution, assuming it is

dissolved in 500cm3 of water.

e) Explain the impact of the products on the environment.

Item 27
A laboratory is synthesizing ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) by reacting
ammonia gas (NH₃) with hydrochloric acid (HCl). Ammonium chloride is
used in various industrial applications, such as in fertilizers and dry cell
batteries. The lab needs to ensure that the reactants are of the correct
concentration for maximum yield.
In an experiment, 75cm3 of 1.0 M hydrochloric acid is reacted with
ammonia gas. The lab requests your assistance in calculating the necessary
amount of ammonia and determining the concentration of ammonium
chloride formed.
Task

As a learner of chemistry;

a) Explain the categories of the product.

b) Calculate the volume of ammonia gas (at STP) required to completely
neutralize 75cm3 of 1.0 M hydrochloric acid.

c) Determine the molarity of the ammonium chloride solution formed after

the reaction.

108
d) Explain the impact of the product on the environment.

Item 28
A water treatment facility is exploring the use of slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide, Ca(OH)₂) to treat wastewater by neutralizing acidic
contaminants. Slaked lime is produced by adding water to quicklime
(calcium oxide, CaO), which is obtained by heating limestone (CaCO₃). The
facility is interested in knowing how much slaked lime can be produced
from a certain amount of quicklime and the effects of the process on water
quality.
Before scaling up production, an experiment was carried out where 30 g of
quicklime was mixed with water to produce slaked lime. You have been
asked to assist with the analysis.
Task

As a chemistry student,

(a) Identify and explain the products

(b) Calculate the mass of slaked lime formed from the 30 g of quicklime
used in the experiment.
(c) Suggest the properties of the gaseous product that make it useful in
daily life.
(d) Explain the impact of one of the products on the environment.

Item 29
A chemist is investigating a compound made of aluminum and oxygen.
When 4.05 g of aluminum is burned in oxygen, 7.65 g of an aluminum oxide
compound is formed. The chemist needs to calculate the chemical formula
of the oxide. You have been contacted for help.
Task

As a learner of chemistry

a) Explain the category of the product.

b) Suggest the properties of the product that make it useful in daily life

c) Determine the chemical formula of the product

d) Explain the impact of the product on the environment.

109
Item 30
A chemical company is investigating a compound containing calcium (Ca)
and chlorine (Cl). A 4.5 g sample of the compound contains 1.43 g of
calcium, with the rest being chlorine. The company asks you to determine
the empirical formula of the compound.
Task

As a leaner of chemistry;

e) Explain the category of the product.

f) Suggest the properties of the product

g) Determine the empirical formula of the product.

h) Explain the impacts of the product on the environment

Item 31
A group of students is studying a mysterious metal Y. They performed an
experiment in which 0.6 g of metal Y reacted with oxygen to form 1.0 g of
its oxide. After consulting the periodic table, the students found that metal
Y has an atomic number of 13 and a mass number of 27. The teacher asked
the students to determine the chemical formula of the metal oxide and its
environmental effects.
Task

As a student of chemistry help the

learners to;

a) Understand the nature of substance

d) Determine the formula of substance Y

e) Know the environmental consequences of the element.

Item 32

A group of learners discovered a metal Z and carried out a combustion

reaction with oxygen.

110
They started with 0.7 g of metal Z and after the reaction, the total mass of
the oxide was 1.1 g.
The learners contacted their teacher, who informed them that metal Z has
an atomic number of 20 and a mass number of 40. The learners want to
determine the formula of the metal oxide and understand its industrial and
environmental impacts.
Task

As a student of chemistry help the

learners to; a) Understand the nature of

substance Z

d) Determine the formula of substance Z

e) Know the environmental consequences of the element.

Item 33

A baker uses charcoal to heat an oven. During a busy evening, the baker
uses 70 g of charcoal. When burnt in excess oxygen, charcoal produces
carbon dioxide. The combustion equation is:
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

Task:

As a Chemistry student, help the baker with the

following:

(a) Assess the product formed

(b) Advise the baker on the appropriateness of the product

c) Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide produced

(d) Explain the environmental impact of the product

Item 34
Your friend is using 80.5 g of charcoal (primarily carbon) to cook food for
guests during a busy evening. When the charcoal burns completely in an
excess supply of oxygen, it produces carbon dioxide (CO₂), as represented
by the combustion equation:
C(s) + O2(g) CO 2(g)

111
Task:

As a learner of Chemistry,

a) Assess the product formed:

b) Advise the friend on the appropriateness of the product formed:

c) Calculate the volume of gas produced (C = 12, 1 mole of gas occupies

22.4 liters)

(d) Help the friend understand the impact of the product on the
environment.

112