:Here are the answers to the open questions on urology

:Anatomy and Topography of the Urinary Tract System .1

The urinary tract system is composed of the kidneys, ureters,

.bladder, and urethra

Kidneys: Bean-shaped organs located on either side of the spine, *

responsible for filtering waste products from the blood and
.producing urine

Ureters: Narrow tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the *
.bladder

Bladder: A muscular sac that stores urine until it is expelled from *

.the body

Urethra: A tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside *
.of the body

Evaluation of the Urologic Patient: History and Physical .2

Examination

:History

Symptoms: Frequency, urgency, dysuria, hematuria, pain, *

.incontinence, erectile dysfunction, infertility

.Medical history: Diabetes, hypertension, kidney stones, infections *

.Surgical history: Previous urological procedures *

.Family history: Kidney disease, prostate cancer *

.Social history: Smoking, alcohol use, occupation *

:Physical Examination

.General appearance: Vital signs, weight, height *

.Abdominal examination: Palpation of kidneys, bladder, masses *

.Genital examination: Inspection of penis, scrotum, testicles *

Digital rectal exam (DRE): To assess prostate gland size, *

.tenderness, nodules

Evaluation of the Urologic Patient: Testing and Imaging .3

Urinalysis: To check for blood, protein, bacteria, and other *

.abnormalities
 Blood tests: BUN, creatinine, electrolytes, PSA (prostate-specific *
.antigen)

.Urine culture: To Identify bacteria causing infection *

:Imaging *

KUB (Kidney, Ureter, Bladder) X-ray: To visualize kidney stones, *

.bladder calculi, and other abnormalities

IVP (Intravenous Pyelography): To assess kidney function, ureters, *

.and bladder

CT scan: To visualize detailed images of the kidneys, ureters, *

.bladder, and surrounding structures

.MRI: To assess soft tissue structures, such as tumors *

Ultrasound: To visualize kidney stones, hydronephrosis, bladder *

.wall thickness, and prostate enlargement

:Kidney, Ureter, and Bladder Urography (KUB) .4

.Indications: Kidney stones, bladder stones, large masses *

.Contraindications: Pregnancy *

:Excretory Urography – Intravenous Pyelography (IVP) .5

.Indications: Kidney stones, obstruction, tumors *

.Contraindications: Allergy to contrast dye, kidney failure *

:Retrograde Ureteropyelography .6

Definition: A procedure where contrast dye is injected into the *

ureters through a cystoscope to visualize the ureters and renal
.pelvis

Technique: A cystoscope is inserted into the urethra and bladder, *

and a catheter is passed through the ureteral orifice to Inject
.contrast dye

:Antegrade Ureteropyelography .7

Definition: A procedure where contrast dye is injected directly into *

.the renal pelvis through a percutaneous nephrostomy tube

Technique: A needle Is inserted into the kidney under ultrasound *

.or CT guidance, and a catheter is placed to inject contrast dye

:Urethrography .8
 .Indications: Urethral stricture, trauma, foreign bodies *

.Contraindications: Allergy to contrast dye, acute urethritis *

:Instrumental methods of diagnostics in Urology .9

Cystoscopy: Visual examination of the bladder and urethra using a *

.cystoscope

Urethroscopy: Visual examination of the urethra using a *

.urethroscope

Voiding Cystourethrography (VCUG): X-ray imaging of the bladder *

.and urethra during urination to assess for vesicoureteral reflux

:Cystoscopy .10

Definition: A procedure to visualize the inside of the bladder and *

.urethra using a cystoscope

Indications: Hematuria, bladder cancer, strictures, foreign bodies, *

.stone disease

:Urethroscopy .11

Definition: A procedure to visualize the inside of the urethra using *

.a urethroscope

.Indications: Urethral stricture, trauma, foreign bodies, urethritis *

Urethroscopy: (Same as 11) .12

:Principles of Voiding Cystourethrography (VCUG) .13

Definition: A diagnostic test to assess the function of the bladder *

.and urethra during urination

Principles: A catheter Is inserted into the bladder to fill it with *

contrast dye. X-rays are taken as the patient voids to visualize the
.flow of urine and any abnormalities

:VCUG (Voiding Cystourethrography) .14

.Definition: See above *

Indications: Vesicoureteral reflux, voiding dysfunction, recurrent *

.urinary tract infections

Urinary Tract Imaging: Basic Principles of Renal Scintigraphy, CT, .15

MRI, and Plain Film ImagingUrinary Tract Imaging: Basic Principles of
Urologic Ultrasonography
 Renal Scintigraphy: Uses radioactive tracers to assess kidney *
.function, blood flow, and damage

CT: Provides detailed cross-sectional images of the kidneys, *

.ureters, bladder, and surrounding structures

MRI: Provides detailed images of soft tissue structures, such as *

.tumors

Ultrasound: Non-invasive imaging technique to visualize kidney *

stones, hydronephrosis, bladder wall thickness, and prostate
.enlargement

Role of nuclear medicine in clinical urology. Radioisotope .16

:renography (DMSA, DTPA, MAG3)

Nuclear medicine uses radioactive isotopes to assess kidney *

.function, blood flow, and damage

DMSA, DTPA, and MAG3 are radioisotopes used in renal *

.scintigraphy to evaluate various aspects of kidney function

:Hematuria .17

Types: Gross hematuria (visible blood in urine) and microscopic *

.hematuria (blood only detectable by microscopic examination)

:Micro and Macro hematuria .18

Microhematuria: Blood In the urine only detectable by microscopic *

.examination

.Gross hematuria: Visible blood in the urine *

:Evaluation and Management of Hematuria .19

Evaluation: History, physical exam, urinalysis, imaging (KUB, IVP, *

.CT, MRI), cystoscopy

Management: Depends on the underlying cause, which may *

.include kidney stones, bladder cancer, infection, or trauma

:Hydronephrosis .20

.Classification: Mild, moderate, severe *

.Diagnostics: Ultrasound, IVP, CT scan *

:Disorder of urination - Urinary incontinence .21

Causes: Weak pelvic floor muscles, nerve damage, overactive *

.bladder
 .Clinical manifestations: Involuntary leakage of urine *

:Disorder of urination - Pollakiuria, nocturia .22

.Pollakiuria: Frequent urination *

.Nocturia: Frequent nighttime urination *

Causes: Overactive bladder, urinary tract infection, prostate *

.enlargement

:Disorder of urination - Ischuria and stranguria .23

.Ischuria: Difficulty initiating urination *

.Stranguria: Painful urination *

Causes: Urinary tract infection, prostate enlargement, urethral *

.stricture

:Quantitative changes in urine: polyuria, oliguria, anuria .24

.Polyuria: Excessive urine output *

.Oliguria: Decreased urine output *

.Anuria: No urine output *

:Anuria .25

.Causes: Kidney failure, obstruction, shock *

.Classification: Prerenal, renal, postrenal *

Qualitative change in urine. Hyper-, hypo- and isostenuria, .26

:hematuriya, proteinuria and pyuria

.Hyperstenuria: Increased urine concentration *

.Hypostenuria: Decreased urine concentration *

.Isostenuria: Fixed urine specific gravity *

.Hematuria: Blood In the urine *

.Proteinuria: Protein in the urine *

.Pyuria: Pus In the urine *

:Urolithiasis. Types of stones .27

.Calcium oxalate: Most common type *

.Uric acid: Associated with gout and low urine pH *

.Struvite: Associated with urinary tract infections *

 .Cystine: Rare, hereditary disorder *

:Urolithiasis. Exo- and endogenous factors .28

.Exogenous factors: Diet, fluid intake, medications *

Endogenous factors: Genetic factors, metabolic disorders, urinary *

.tract infections

:Urinary Lithiasis Etiology Epidemiology and Pathogenesis .29

.Etiology: Combination of genetic, dietary, and metabolic factors *

Epidemiology: More common in men, individuals with a family *

.history, and those with certain medical conditions

Pathogenesis: Supersaturation of urine with stone-forming *

.substances, leading to crystal formation and growth

:Complications of Urologic Surgery .30

.Bleeding: Hemorrhage *

.Infection: Urinary tract infection, wound infection *

.Injury to adjacent organs: Bowel, blood vessels *

Urine leakage: Urinary *

:Here are the answers to the remaining questions *

.Ureterolithiasis. Treatment .35

Treatment for ureterolithiasis depends on the size, location, and

number of stones, as well as the patient's overall health. Options
:include

Medical Expulsive Therapy (MET): Using medications to relax the *

.ureter and promote stone passage

Extracorporeal Shock Wave Lithotripsy (ESWL): Using shock waves *

.to break the stone into smaller pieces that can be passed

Ureteroscopy: A minimally invasive procedure where a small scope *

.is inserted into the urethra and ureter to remove the stone

Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy (PCNL): A minimally invasive *

procedure where a small incision is made in the back to access the
.kidney and remove the stone

Open Surgery: In rare cases, open surgery may be necessary to *

.remove large or complex stones
 .Cystolithiasis. Clinical manifestations. Diagnostics .36

:Clinical manifestations *

Frequent urination *

Painful urination *

Blood in the urine *

Difficulty urinating *

Urinary tract Infections *

:Diagnostics *

KUB X-ray *

Ultrasound *

CT scan *

Cystoscopy *

.Cystolithiasis. Treatment .37

:Treatment options for cystolithiasis include

.Medical Expulsive Therapy (MET): For small stones *

Cystoscopy: To remove small stones using a specialized *

.instrument

Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy (PCNL): For large or complex *

.stones

Open Surgery: In rare cases, open surgery may be necessary to *

.remove large or complex stones

.Definitions of pyelolithotomy and cystolithotomy .38

Pyelolithotomy: Surgical removal of a kidney stone through an *

.incision In the kidney

Cystolithotomy: Surgical removal of a bladder stone through an *

.incision In the bladder

.Conservative management of urolithiasis .39

:Conservative management of urolithiasis involves

Increased fluid Intake: To dilute urine and reduce the risk of stone *
.formation
 Dietary modifications: To reduce the intake of stone-forming *
.substances, such as oxalate and purine

.Medication: To help pass stones or prevent future stone formation *

.Open surgery In case of nephrolithiasis. Indications .40

Open surgery for nephrolithiasis is typically reserved for large or

complex stones that cannot be removed with minimally invasive
.techniques

.Open surgery In case of ureterolithiasis. Indications .41

Open surgery for ureterolithiasis is rarely needed and is usually

.reserved for complex cases where other treatments have failed

.Open surgery in case of cystolithiasis. Indications .42

Open surgery for cystolithiasis is rarely needed and is usually

reserved for large or complex stones that cannot be removed with
.minimally invasive techniques

Minimally Invasive surgical treatment for kidney stone disease .43

:Minimally invasive surgical treatments for kidney stones include

Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy (PCNL): A small incision is made in *

.the back to access the kidney and remove the stone

Ureteroscopy: A small scope is inserted into the urethra and ureter *

.to remove the stone

Extracorporeal Shock Wave Lithotripsy (ESWL): Shock waves are *

.used to break the stone into smaller pieces that can be passed

ESWL (extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy) – Definition, .44

.indications and contraindications

ESWL is a non-invasive procedure that uses shock waves to break

up kidney stones. It is indicated for small to medium-sized kidney
stones. Contraindications include pregnancy, bleeding disorders,
.and certain bone diseases

TUL (Transurethral ureterolithotripsy). Indications and .45

.contraindications

TUL is a minimally invasive procedure to remove ureteral stones

using a laser or other energy source. It is indicated for ureteral
stones that are accessible with a ureteroscope. Contraindications
include severe urinary tract infection, significant bleeding disorders,
.and certain anatomical abnormalities
 .Ureterolytothomy. Definition. Indications .46

Ureterolythotomy is an open surgical procedure to remove a stone

from the ureter. It Is rarely used today due to the availability of
.minimally invasive techniques

.Nephrolithotomy. Definition. Indications .47

Nephrolithotomy is an open surgical procedure to remove a kidney

stone. It is rarely used today due to the availability of minimally
.invasive techniques

.The role of ultrasound In urolithiasis .48

Ultrasound is a valuable tool for diagnosing and managing

:urolithiasis. It can be used to

Identify kidney stones *

Assess the size and location of stones *

Guide minimally invasive procedures *

Monitor the effectiveness of treatment *

Prevention of urolithiasis .49

:Prevention of urolithiasis involves

Increased fluid Intake: Drinking plenty of water helps dilute urine *

.and reduce the risk of stone formation

Dietary modifications: Limiting intake of sodium, animal protein, *

.and oxalate-rich foods can help prevent stone formation

Medication: In some cases, medication may be prescribed to *

.reduce the risk of stone formation

.Nephrectomy. Definition. Indications .50

Nephrectomy is the surgical removal of a kidney. Indications for

:nephrectomy include

Kidney cancer *

Severe kidney injury *

Kidney failure *

Kidney stones that cannot be treated with other methods *

.Anomaly of structure of the kidney .51

:Anomalies of kidney structure include

 .Renal dysplasia: Abnormal development of kidney tissue *

.Renal hypoplasia: Underdeveloped kidney *

.Renal agenesis: Absence of a kidney *

.Horseshoe kidney: Fusion of the lower poles of the kidneys *

Anomaly of localization of the kidney .52

:Anomalies of kidney localization include

Ectopic kidney: Kidney located in an abnormal position, such as In *

.the pelvis

.Malrotated kidney: Kidney rotated abnormally *

.Kidney abnormality. Definition. Classifications .53

Kidney abnormalities can be congenital or acquired. Congenital

abnormalities occur during fetal development, while acquired
.abnormalities develop after birth

Bladder Anomalies in Children .54

:Bladder anomalies in children include

Bladder extrophy: A congenital condition where the bladder wall is *

.exposed outside the body

Epispadias: A congenital condition where the urethra opens on the *

.upper surface of the penis

Hypospadias: A congenital condition where the urethra opens on *

.the underside of the penis

.Anomalies of the Upper Urinary Tract .55

:Anomalies of the upper urinary tract include

.Duplication of the ureters: Two ureters draining a single kidney *

Ureteropelvic junction obstruction: Narrowing of the junction *

.between the kidney and ureter

.Megaureter: Dilation of the ureter *

Vesicoureteral reflux: Backflow of urine from the bladder into the *

.ureters and kidneys

.Ectopic Ureter, Ureterocele, and other Ureteral Anomalies .56

Ectopic ureter: A ureter that enters the bladder in an abnormal *

.location
 .Ureterocele: A cystic dilation of the distal ureter *

Ureteropelvic junction obstruction, Megaureter and .57

.Vesicoureteral Reflux

Ureteropelvic junction obstruction: Narrowing of the junction *

.between the kidney and ureter

.Megaureter: Dilation of the ureter *

Vesicoureteral reflux: Backflow of urine from the bladder into the *

.ureters and kidneys

.Management of Abnormalities of the External Genitalia in Boys .58

Management of abnormalities of the external genitalia in boys

depends on the specific condition and may involve surgery,
.hormone therapy, or observation

.Hypospadias. Classification. Diagnostics and treatment .59

Hypospadias is a congenital condition where the urethra opens on

the underside of the penis. Treatment involves surgery to correct the
.defect

.Epispadia. Diagnostics and treatment .60

Epispadias is a congenital condition where the urethra opens on the

upper surface of the penis. Treatment involves surgery to correct the
.defect

.Etiology, Diagnostics and Management of undescended testis .61

Undescended testis is a condition where one or both testicles fail to

descend into the scrotum. Treatment may involve surgery to bring
.the testicle into the scrotum

.Cryptorchidism. Classification. Diagnostics and treatment .62

.Cryptorchidism is another term for undescended testis

.Benign prostatic hyperplasia. Etiology. Diagnostics .63

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is an enlargement of the prostate

gland. The exact cause is unknown, but hormonal factors play a
.role. Diagnosis is made through a digital rectal exam and PSA test

.Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Complications. Prevention .64

Complications of BPH include urinary retention, urinary tract

infections, and bladder stones. Prevention strategies include
.maintaining a healthy lifestyle and avoiding certain medications
.Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Signs and symptoms. Stages .65

:Signs and symptoms of BPH include

Frequent urination *

https://issuu.com/hmsdesk1/docs/kidney_stone_removal.pptx *

.Bladder tumors. Signs and symptoms. Diagnostics. Treatment .73

:Signs and symptoms

Hematuria (blood in urine) *

Frequent urination *

Urgency *

Dysuria (painful urination) *

Nocturia (frequent nighttime urination) *

Pelvic pain *

:Diagnostics

Cystoscopy *

Urine cytology *

CT scan *

MRI *

:Treatment

Transurethral resection of bladder tumor (TURBT): A minimally *

.invasive procedure to remove the tumor

Radical cystectomy: Surgical removal of the bladder, prostate, and *

.surrounding lymph nodes

.Chemotherapy: To kill cancer cells throughout the body *

Radiation therapy: To kill cancer cells in the bladder and *

.surrounding tissues

.Prostate cancer. Signs and symptoms. Treatment .74

:Signs and symptoms

Difficulty urinating *

Weak urine flow *

Frequent urination, especially at night *

 Blood in the urine or semen *

Painful ejaculation *

Pain in the pelvis or back *

:Treatment

Active surveillance: Monitoring the cancer without immediate *

.treatment

.Surgery: Prostatectomy (removal of the prostate gland) *

.Radiation therapy: To kill cancer cells in the prostate gland *

Hormone therapy: To reduce the levels of male hormones that fuel *

.prostate cancer growth

.Chemotherapy: To kill cancer cells throughout the body *

.Urinary tract infections (UTI). Diagnostics. Treatment .75

:Diagnostics

Urinalysis *

Urine culture *

:Treatment

Antibiotics *

.Infections of specific etiology .76

This refers to UTIs caused by specific bacteria, such as E. coli,

Klebsiella, or Proteus mirabilis. Treatment is tailored to the specific
.bacteria causing the infection

Acute pyelonephritis. Signs and symptoms. Diagnostics. .77

.Treatment

:Signs and symptoms

Fever *

Chills *

Flank pain *

Nausea *

Vomiting *

Frequent urination *
 Burning or pain with urination *

:Diagnostics

Urinalysis *

Urine culture *

Blood tests *

:Treatment

Antibiotics *

Chronic pyelonephritis. Signs and symptoms. Diagnostics. .78

.Treatment

:Signs and symptoms

High blood pressure *

Kidney damage *

Recurrent UTIs *

:Diagnostics

Urinalysis *

Urine culture *

Blood tests *

Imaging studies (ultrasound, CT scan) *

:Treatment

Antibiotics *

Blood pressure control *

Pain management *

Pyelonephritis in pregnancy. Signs and symptoms. Diagnostics. .79

.Treatment

:Signs and symptoms

Fever *

Chills *

Flank pain *

Nausea *
 Vomiting *

Frequent urination *

Burning or pain with urination *

:Diagnostics

Urinalysis *

Urine culture *

Blood tests *

:Treatment

Antibiotics *

Hydronephrosis In Pregnancy. Signs and symptoms. Diagnostics. .80

.Treatment

:Signs and symptoms

Pain in the back or side *

Frequent urination *

Urinary tract Infection *

:Diagnostics

Ultrasound *

IVP (Intravenous Pyelogram) *

:Treatment

Treatment of underlying cause (e.g., kidney stones, ureteral *

stricture)

.Acute prostatitis. Signs and symptoms. Diagnostics. Treatment .81

:Signs and symptoms

Pain in the groin or lower back *

Fever *

Chills *

Difficulty urinating *

Frequent urination *

Painful ejaculation *
 :Diagnostics

Digital rectal exam *

Urine culture *

PSA test *

:Treatment

Antibiotics *

.Chronic prostatitis. Signs and symptoms. Diagnostics. Treatment .82

:Signs and symptoms

Pelvic pain *

Frequent urination *

Painful urination *

Painful ejaculation *

:Diagnostics

Digital rectal exam *

Urine culture *

PSA test *

Urine culture for bacteria, fungi, or chlamydia *

:Treatment

Antibiotics (if bacterial infection) *

Alpha-blockers *

Anti-inflammatory medications *

Pain relievers *

.Prostatitis. Classification. Treatment .83

Prostatitis is classified into four types: acute bacterial, chronic

bacterial, chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CPPS),
and asymptomatic inflammatory prostatitis. Treatment varies
.depending on the type of prostatitis

.Cystitis. Signs, symptoms, treatment .84

:Signs and symptoms

Frequent urination *
 Urgency *

Dysuria *

Pelvic pain *

:Treatment

Antibiotics *

CPPS (Chronic pelvic pain syndrome). Definition. Classifications. .85

.Treatment

CPPS is a chronic condition characterized by pelvic pain and urinary

symptoms. It is classified into inflammatory and non-inflammatory
types. Treatment may include pain relievers, alpha-blockers, and
.physical therapy

.Fimosis and Parafimosis. Signs, symptoms. Treatment .86

Fimosis: Tight foreskin that cannot be retracted over the glans *

.penis

Parafimosis: A medical emergency where the foreskin is retracted *

.and cannot be returned to its normal position

:Treatment

Circumcision *

.Epididymitis. Signs, symptoms, treatment .87

:Signs and symptoms

Pain and swelling In the scrotum *

Fever *

Discomfort in the testicles *

:Treatment

Antibiotics *

Pain relievers *

Scrotal elevation *

.Orchitis. Signs, symptoms, treatment .88

:Signs and symptoms

Pain and swelling in the testicles *

Fever *
 Chills *

:Treatment

Antibiotics *

Pain relievers *

Scrotal elevation *

.Urethral Trauma. Signs and symptoms. Diagnosis. Treatment .89

:Signs and symptoms

Blood in the urine *

Painful urination *

Difficulty urinating *

Swelling of the penis or scrotum *

:Diagnosis

Physical exam *

Urethrography *

:Treatment

Depends on the severity of the injury, may include surgery or *

.catheterization

.Urethritis. Signs and symptoms. Diagnostics. Treatment .90

:Signs and symptoms

Burning or pain with urination *

Discharge from the penis or vagina *

:Diagnostics

Urine culture *

Urethral swab *

:Treatment

Antibiotics *

.Scrotal Trauma. Clinical presentation. Treatment .91

:Clinical presentation

Pain *
 Swelling *

Bruising *

:Treatment

Ice packs *

Elevation of the scrotum *

Pain relievers *

Surgery in severe cases *

.Renal Trauma. Etiology. Classification. Diagnostics and Treatment .92

:Etiology

Blunt trauma (car accidents, falls) *

Penetrating trauma (gunshot wounds, stab wounds) *

:Classification

Blunt renal injury *

Penetrating renal Injury *

:Diagnostics

CT scan *

Ultrasound *

:Treatment

Depends on the severity of the injury, may include surgery or *

.conservative management

Bladder Trauma. Etiology. Clinical presentation. Diagnostics and .93

.Treatment

:Etiology

Blunt trauma *

Penetrating trauma *

:Clinical presentation

Blood in the urine *

Difficulty urinating *

Pain in the lower abdomen *

 :Diagnostics

CT scan *

Cystoscopy *

:Treatment

Depends on the severity of the injury, may include surgery or *

.catheterization

.Testicular torsion. Symptoms, diagnostics, emergency care .94

:Symptoms

Sudden, severe pain in the scrotum *

Swelling of the scrotum *

Nausea and vomiting *

:Diagnostics

Physical exam *

Ultrasound *

:Emergency care

Immediate surgical intervention to untwist the testicle and restore *

.blood flow

.Penile Trauma. Signs and symptoms. Emergency care .95

:Signs and symptoms

Pain *

Swelling *

Bruising *

Difficulty urinating *

:Emergency care

Immediate medical attention to assess the extent of the injury and *

.provide appropriate treatment

.Priapism. Signs, symptoms, treatment .96

:Signs and symptoms

.Persistent, painful erection that lasts for more than 4 hours 

:Treatment
 Immediate medical attention to relieve the erection and prevent *
.tissue damage

.Trauma of upper urinary system .97

Trauma to the upper urinary system can cause kidney injury,

ureteral injury, or renal vascular injury. Treatment depends on the
severity of the injury and may includeincludee surgery or
.conservative management

.Male Infertility. Classifications. Treatment .98

Male infertility can be caused by various factors, including hormonal

imbalances, genetic disorders, and lifestyle factors. Treatment
options include medication, surgery, and assisted reproductive
.technologies

Disorder in semen: oligospermia, asthenozoospermia and .99

.teratozoospermia. Definitions

Oligospermia: Low sperm count *

Asthenozoospermia: Poor sperm motility *

Teratozoospermia: Abnormal sperm morphology *

.Evaluation and Management of Erectile Dysfunction .100

Erectile dysfunction can be caused by various factors, including

psychological, medical, and lifestyle factors. Treatment options
.include medication, lifestyle changes, counseling, and surgery

.Diagnosis and Management of Peyronie's Disease .101

Peyronie's disease is a condition that causes curvature of the

.Acute Renal Failure. Signs, symptoms, treatment .110

:Signs and Symptoms

Decreased urine output *

Fatigue *

Nausea *

Vomiting *

Shortness of breath *

Swelling in legs, ankles, or feet *

Confusion *
 Weakness *

:Treatment

Addressing the underlying cause *

Medications to control fluid and electrolyte imbalances *

Dialysis *

.Chronic Renal Failure. Signs, symptoms, treatment .111

:Signs and Symptoms

Fatigue *

Loss of appetite *

Nausea *

Vomiting *

Swelling in legs, ankles, or feet *

Shortness of breath *

High blood pressure *

Anemia *

Weak bones *

:Treatment

Medications to control blood pressure, anemia, and other *

complications

Dietary changes *

Dialysis *

Kidney transplant *

Renal replacement therapy (hemodialysis and peritoneal .112

.dialysis). Indications

:Indications

Kidney failure that is not reversible *

Severe kidney damage that prevents the kidneys from functioning *

properly

.Polycystic kidney disease .113

 Polycystic kidney disease is a genetic disorder that causes cysts to
form in the kidneys. These cysts can grow and damage the kidneys
.over time

UA(Urinalysis) interpretation .114

Urinalysis is a test to check the composition of urine. It can help

diagnose urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and other
.conditions

Interpretation and normal range of GFR (Glomerular filtration .115

.rate), serum creatinine and BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen)

GFR: Measures how well the kidneys are filtering waste products *
.from the blood. A normal GFR is typically above 60 mL/min/1.73 m²

Serum creatinine: A waste product in the blood that is filtered by *

.the kidneys. A high level of creatinine indicates kidney damage

BUN: A waste product in the blood that is filtered by the kidneys. A *

.high level of BUN can indicate kidney damage or other problems

?What organs does the urinary tract consist of .116

The urinary tract consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and

.urethra

?What are the functions of the urinary tract .117

:The functions of the urinary tract include

Filtering waste products from the blood *

Producing urine *

Storing urine *

Eliminating urine from the body *

?How much urine is normally produced on a daily basis .118

.The average adult produces about 1.5 liters of urine per day

.Urethral discharge. Causes and treatment .119

Urethral discharge can be caused by a variety of infections,

:including

Gonorrhea *

Chlamydia *

Urethritis *
 .Treatment involves antibiotics

.Sexually transmitted infection. Causes. Diagnostics .120

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are caused by bacteria,

.viruses, or parasites. They are spread through sexual contact

:Diagnostics

Urine test *

Blood test *

Swab test *

.Sexually transmitted infection. Complications .121

:Complications of STIs include

Pelvic inflammatory disease *

Infertility *

Increased risk of HIV infection *

Certain cancers *

.Sexually transmitted infection. Treatment. Prevention .122

Treatment for STIs varies depending on the specific infection.

.Prevention involves practicing safe sex, including using condoms