Curriculum is at the heart of the Teaching Profession.

Basic Education BEC – Preschool, elementary, secondary and the K-12 program. The new basic Education levels are
provided in the K-12 Enhanced Curriculum of 2013 of the Department of Education.

Technical Vocational Education TVET – Vocational education and training taken care of by TESDA. For TECH VOC
track in SHS of DEPED.

Higher Education – Higher education is tertiary education leading to the award of an academic degree. Bachelor’s or
Master’s Degree of Baccalaureate under CHED.

Types of Curricula
1) Recommended Curriculum - Almost all curricula found in our schools are recommended. For BEC it is
recommended by DepEd, for Higher Education recommended by CHED and Vocational Education by TESDA. The
recommendations come from a form or memoranda or policies, standards and guidelines.
2) Written Curriculum - includes documents based on the curriculum. They come in the form of courses of study,
syllabi, modules, books or instructional guides among others.
3) Taught Curriculum - From what has been written or planned, the curriculum has to be implemented or taught. The
teacher and the learners will put life to the written curriculum. The taught curriculum will depend largely on the
teaching style of the teacher and the learning style of the learners.
4) Supported Curriculum - This is described as support materials that the teacher needs to make learning and teaching
meaningful. These include print materials like books, charts, posters, worksheets, or non-print materials like
PowerPoint presentation, movies, slides, models, realias, mock-ups and other electronic illustrations.
5) Assessed Curriculum - Taught and supported curricula have to be evaluated to find out if the teacher has succeeded
or not in facilitating learning. In the process of teaching and at the end of every lesson or teaching episode, an
assessment is made.
6) Learned Curriculum - These arcs measured by tools in assessment, which can indicate the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor outcomes. Learned curriculum will also demonstrate higher order and critical thinking and lifelong
skills.
7) Hidden/Implicit Curriculum - This curriculum is not deliberately planned, but has a great impact on the behavior of
the learner.

The Teacher as a Curricularist

According to the study conducted by Sandra Hayes (1991), the most influential curricularist in America include
John Dewey, Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba and Franklin Bobbit. The word curricularist is described as a curriculum
specialist (Hayes, 1991; Ornstein & Hunkins,2004; Hewitt, 2006). A person who is involved in curriculum knowing,
writing, planning, implementing, evaluating, innovating, and initiating may be designated as curricularist. A
TEACHER'S role is broader and inclusive of other functions and so a teacher is a curricularist.

1) Learning begins with knowing. The teacher as a learner starts with knowing about the curriculum, the subject matter
or the content. (KNOWER)
2) A classroom teacher takes a record of knowledge concepts, subject matter or content. These need to be written or
preserved. (WRITER)
3) The teacher takes into consideration several factors in planning a curriculum. These factors include the learners, the
support material, time, subject matter or content, the desired outcomes, the context of the learners among others. By
doing this, the teacher becomes a curriculum planner. (PLANNER)
4) Implementation of a new curriculum requires the open mindedness of the teacher, and the full belief that the
curriculum will enhance learning. There will be many constraints and difficulties in doing things first or leading,
however, a transformative teacher will never hesitate to try something novel and relevant. (INITIATOR)
5) Creativity and innovation are hallmarks of an excellent teacher. Curriculum is always dynamic; hence it keeps on
changing. A good teacher, therefore, innovates the curriculum and thus becomes a curriculum innovator.
(INNOVATOR)
6) It is this role where the teacher becomes the curriculum implementor. An implementer gives life to the curriculum
plan. It is where teaching, guiding, facilitating skills of the teacher are expected to the highest level. The success of a
recommended, well written and planned curriculum depends on the implementation. (IMPLEMENTOR)
7) Is the curriculum working? Does it bring the desired results? What do outcomes reveal? Are the learners achieving?
These are some few questions that need the help of a curriculum evaluator. That person is the teacher.
(EVALUATOR)

The Teacher as a knower of the curriculum

Some Definitions of Curriculum:
1) Curriculum is planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended outcomes, formulated through the
systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices of the school, for learners’ continuous
and willful growth in personal social competence.” (Daniel Tanner,1980)
2) It is a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives, content, learning activities,
evaluation produces and so forth. (Pratt, 1980)
3) The content of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned activities, the desired learning outcomes and
experiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform society make upa curriculum. (Schubert, 1987)
4) A curriculum includes “all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program of education whose purpose
is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives, which is planned and terms of a framework of theory and
research or past and present professional practice.” (Hass, 1987)
5) It is a programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that the pupil will attain so far as possible certain
educational and other schooling ends or objectives. (Grundy, 1987)
6) It is a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and place, a tool that aims to bring about
behavior changes in students as a result of planned activities and includes all learning experiences received by
students with the guidance of the school. (Goodland and Su,1992)
7) It provides answers to three questions: (1) What knowledge, skills and values are most worthwhile? (2) Why are
they most worthwhile? (3) How should the young acquire them? (Cronbeth, 1992)

Curriculum from Traditional Points of View

● Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as “permanent studies” where rules of grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic and
mathematics for basic education are emphasized. The 3Rs (Reading, Writing, ‘rithmetic) should emphasized in the
basic education while liberal education should be emphasis in college.
● Arthur Bestor as an essentialist believes that the mission of the school should be intellectual training, hence
curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and writing.
● Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole source of curriculum is a discipline, thus the subject areas such as Science,
Mathematics, Social Studies, English and many more.
● Philip Phenix asserts that the curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from various disciplines.

Curriculum from Progressive Points of View

● John Dewey believes that education is experiencing. Reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements
that are tested by application.
● Holin Caswell and Kenn Campbell viewed curriculum as all experiences children have under the guidance of
teachers.
● Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and Harlan Shore likewise defined curriculum as a sequence of potential
experiences, set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.
● Collin Marsh and George Willis also viewed curriculum as all the experiences in the classroom which are planned
and enacted by the teacher and also learned by the students.

(3 ways) Approaches to the School Curriculum

1. Curriculum as a Content or Body of Knowledge

The focus will be the body of knowledge to be transmitted to students using appropriate teaching methods. There are
four ways of presenting the content in the curriculum.

1) Topical Approach, where much content is based on knowledge, and experiences are included.
2) Concept Approach with fewer topics in clusters around major and sub-concepts and their interaction, with
relatedness emphasized.
3) Thematic Approach as a combination of concepts that develop conceptual structures.
4) Modular Approach that leads to complete units of instruction.

Criteria in the Selection of Content. There are some suggested criteria in the selection of knowledge or subject matter.
(Scheffer,1970 in Bilbao, et al 2015)

o Significance. Content should contribute to ideas, concepts, principles and generalization that should attain the
overall purpose of the curriculum.
o Validity. The authenticity of the subject matter forms its validity.
o Utility. Usefulness of the content in the curriculum is relative to the learners who are going to use these. Utility
can be relative to time. Will it add meaning to my life as a lifelong learner?
o Learnability. The complexity of the content should be within the range of experiences of the learners. This is
based on the psychological principles of learning.
o Feasibility. Can the subject content be learned within the time allowed, resources available, expertise of the
teachers and the nature of the learners?
o Interest. Will the learners take interest in the content? Why?

BASICS: Fundamental Principles for Curriculum Contents

- Basic – content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth.

- Articulation – this will assure no gaps and overlaps in the content.
- Sequence – logical arrangement of contents.
- Integration – should infused in other disciplines.
- Continuity – should continuously flow, perennial and endures time.
- Scope – the coverage of the content.

2. Curriculum as a Process

Curriculum as a process is seen as a scheme about the practice of teaching. It is not a package of materials or a
syllabus of content to be covered. As a process, curriculum links to the content. While content provides materials on
what to teach, the process provides a curriculum on how to teach the content.

When curriculum is approached as a PROCESS, guiding principles are presented.

1) Curriculum processes in the form of teaching methods or strategies are means to achieve the end.
2) There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend on the desired learning outcomes, the
learners, support materials and the teacher.
3) Curriculum process should stimulate the learners' desire to develop the cognitive, affective, psychomotor domains in
each individual.
4) In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be considered.
5) Every method or process should result in learning outcomes which can be described as cognitive, affective and
psychomotor.
6) Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered. An effective process will always result in
learning outcomes.
7) Both teaching and learning are the two important processes in the implementation of the curriculum.

3. Curriculum as a Product

Product is what the students desire to achieve as learning outcomes. The product from the curriculum is a student
equipped with the knowledge, skills and values to function effectively and efficiently. The real purpose of education is
to bring about significant changes in students' patterns of behavior. It is important that any statement of objectives or
intended outcomes of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students. Central to the
approaches is the formulation of behavioral objectives stated as intended learning outcomes or desired products so
that content and teaching methods may be organized and the results evaluated. Products of learning are
operationalized as knowledge, skills, and values.

Curriculum Development Process Model

Curriculum development involves or focuses on the implementation of different types of instructional strategies
and organizational methods that are focused on achieving optimal student development and student learning outcomes.

Curriculum Development Process

It is a dynamic process involving many different people and procedures. Development connotes changes which are
systematic. A change for the better, means alteration, modification, or improvement of existing condition.
Curriculum development process is the multi-step process of creating and improving a course taught at a school or
university.
In the curriculum development process, it will be systematically organizing through what will be taught, who will
be taught, and how it will be taught.
 To produce positive changes, development should be purposeful, planned and progressive. Usually, it is linear and
follows a logical step-by-step fashion involving the following phases: curriculum planning, curriculum design,
curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation.

Generally, most models involve four phases:

1) Curriculum Planning – considers the school vision, mission, and goals.

2) Curriculum Designing – the way curriculum is conceptualized, selection and organization of content, learning
exp or activities. Subject-centered curriculum design – it revolves around a particular subject matter or
discipline. For example, a subject-centered curriculum may focus on math or biology. Learner-centered design –
focuses on the quality of student learning.
3) Curriculum Implementing – putting plan into action.
4) Curriculum Evaluating – determines the extent to which the desired outcome is achieved.

The Tyler Model

One of the best-known curriculum models is The Tyler Model introduced in 1949 by Ralph Tyler in his classic book
Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction in which he asked 4 questions:

1. Determine the school’s purposes (aka objectives)

2. Identify educational experiences related to purpose/ objectives
3. Organize the experiences
4. Evaluate the purposes /Objectives

Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach

Improved Tyler’s model. Believe that teachers should participate in developing a curriculum.

Major Steps in Linear Model

1. Diagnosis of learners’ needs and expectations of the larger society.

2. Formulation of learning objectives.
3. Selection of learning contents.
4. Organization of learning contents.
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it.

Alexander Model: Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974)

According to them, curriculum is “a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad
educational goals and related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school center”.

1. Goals, Objectives and Domains – are chosen and identified based on research findings
2. Curriculum Designing
3. Curriculum Implementation
4. Curriculum Evaluation
Foundations of Curriculum
Philosophical Foundations

Faculty, educational planners and policy makers must have a philosophy or strong belief that education and
schooling and the kind of curriculum in the teachers’ classrooms.

● Perennialism: Plato, Aristotle, or Thomas Aquinas

- Aim: to educate rational person
- Role: teachers assist students to think with reason
- Focus: classical subjects, literary analysis
- Trends: use of great and liberal books

● Essentialism: William Bagley (1974-1946)

- A: To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent
- R: Teachers are sole authorities of the subject area
- F: Essential skills of the 3Rs
- T: Back to basics

● Progressivism: John Dewey (1859-1952)

- A: Produce democratic social living
- R: Teachers leads for growth and development of lifelong learners
- F: Interdisciplinary subjects. Learner-centered/ outcome based.
- T: Equal opportunities for all

● Reconstructionism: Theodore Brameld (1904-1987)

- A: To improve and reconstruct society
- R: Teachers acts as agents of change and reforms
- F: Present and future educational landscape
- T: School and curricular reform

Historical Foundation

Where the curriculum development came from.

● Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)

- He started the curriculum development movement.
- Curriculum as a science that emphasizes students’ needs.
- Curriculum prepares learners for adult life.
- Objectives and activities should group together when tasks are clarified.

● Warret Charters (1875-1952)

- Like Bobbit, he posited that curriculum is science and emphasizes students’ needs
- Objectives and activities should match. Subject matter or content relates to objectives.

● William Kilpartick (1875-1952)

- Curricula are purposeful activities which are child-centered.
- The purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth. He introduced this project method where teacher and
student plan the activities.
- Curriculum develops social relationships and small group discussion.

● Harold Rugg (1886-1960)

- Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-centered.
- With the statement of objectives and related learning activities, the curriculum should produce outcomes.
- He emphasized social studies and suggested that the teacher plans curriculum in advance.

● Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)

- Curriculum is organized around social functions of themes, organized knowledge and learner’s interest.
- Curriculum, instruction and learning are interrelated.
- Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter is developed around social functions and learners’ interest.

● Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)

- Curriculum is a science and an extension of the school's philosophy. It is based on students’ needs and interest
- Curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values.
- The process emphasizes problem solving. Curriculum aims to educate generalists and not specialists.

● Hilda Taba (1902-1967)

- Contributed to theoretical and pedagogical foundations of concepts development and critical thinking in social studies
curriculum.
- Helped lay the foundation for a diverse student population.

● Peter Oliva (1992-2012)

- He described curriculum change as a cooperative endeavor.
- Teachers and curriculum specialist constitute the professional core of planners.
- Significant improvement is achieved through group activity.

Psychological Foundation

Provides basis to understand teaching and learning process. Unifies elements of the learning process.

❖ Association and Behaviorism

Contributions/ Theories and Principles

● Ivan Pavlov (1849-1946)

- He is the father of the classical conditioning theory, S-R theory
- The key to learning is early years of life is to train them what you want them to become
- S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice called indoctrination

● Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)

- He championed the connectionism theory
- He proposed the three laws of learning: - Law of readiness - Law of exercise - Law of effect.
- Specific stimulus has specific response.
● Robert Gagne (1916-2002)
- He proposed the hierarchical learning theory
- Behavior is based on prerequisite conditions
- He introduced tasking in the formulation of objectives

❖ Cognitive Information Processing Theory

● Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

Theories of Piaget

- Cognitive development has stages from birth to maturity.

- Sensorimotor stage (0-2), preoperational stage (2-7), concrete operations stage (7-11) and formal operations
(11-onwards)

Keys to learning

- Assimilation (incorporation of new experience)

- Accommodation (learning modification and adaptation)
- Equilibration (balance between previous and later learning

● Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

Theories of Vygotsky

- Cultural transmission and development stage. Children could, as a result of their interaction with society, actually
perform certain cognitive actions prior to arriving at developmental stage.
- Learning precedes development.
- Sociocultural development theory.

Keys to learning

- Pedagogy creates learning processes that lead to development

- The child is an active agent in his or her educational process.

● Howard Gardner

Gardner’s multiple intelligences

- Humans have several different ways of processing information and these ways are relatively independent of one
another.
- There are eight intelligences: linguistic, logico-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and naturalistic.
❖ Humanistic Psychology

● Gestalt

Theory:

- Learning is explained in terms of “wholeness” of the problem.

- Humans do not respond to isolated stimuli but to a pattern of stimuli.

Keys:

- Learning is complex and abstract.

- Learners analyze problem, discriminate, and perceive relationships.
- Learners will perceive something in relation to the whole.
● Abraham Maslow (1909-1970)

Theories:

- Advance self-actualization theory

- Classic theory of needs
- Put human emotions based on love and trust.

Key:

- Produce a healthy and happy learner who can accomplish, grow, and actualized his or her human self.

● Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

Theory:

- Nondirective and therapeutic learning

- Established counseling procedures and methods for facilitating learning
- Children’s perceptions influence their learning and behavior in class

Key:

- Curriculum is concerned with process.

❖ Social Foundations of Curriculum

● Schools and Society

- Society as a source of change
- Schools as agents of change
- Knowledge as agent of change

● Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

- Influence of society and social context in education
- Things that surround individuals can change, develop their behavior
- Considered two fundamental elements which are schools and civil society
● Alvin Toffler
- Wrote the book Future Shock
- Believed that knowledge should prepare students for the future
- Suggested that in the future, parents might have the resources to teach prescribed curriculum from home as a result of
technology, not in spite of it. (Home Schooling)
- Foresaw schools and students worked creatively, collaboratively, and independent of their age.

❖ Other Theorists
● Paolo Freire (1921-1997)
- Education as means of shaping a person
- Teachers use questioning and problem posing approach to raise students’ consciousness.
- Emphasis on critical thinking
- Major book: Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 1968

● John Goodlad (1920-2014)

- Curriculum organized around needs of society and the students
- Reduce student conformity in classroom
- Constant need for school improvement
- Emphasis on active and critical thinking
- Involvement of students in planning curriculum content
- Need to align content with standards
- Major book: A Place Called Schools, 1984

● William Pinar (1947)

- Broaden the conception of curriculum to enrich practice
- Understand the nature of educational experience
- Involves multiple disciplines
- Should be studied from a historical, racial, gendered. Phenomenological, postmodern, theological and international
perspectives.