Lucent's General Knowledge

ArchaeologicalFinds
Site
Working floors.
6 Granaries in row,
Harappa Virgin-Goddess (seal), Cemetery (R-37, H), Workmen's
of Lingam (male sex organ)
and Yoni Stonesexquarsymbos
(female ters,
Painted pottery, Çlay figures of Mother Goddess, organand),
Barley in wooden mortar, Copper scale, Crucible forWheat
Copper-made mirror, Vanity box, Dice.
(the largest building of
bronze,
Mohenjodaro Great Granary, Great Bath
Assembly hall, Shell strips, Pashupati
Shiva (seal), BronzeImage of a nude woman
civiliz|Patroioton,-
Mahadeva/
image of bearded man, Human skeltons huddled dancer, Steatite
Painted seal (Demi-God), Clayfigures of Mother
fragment of woven cotton, Brick Kilns,,2
together,A
Goddess,
Mesopotamian seals,
1398 seals (56% of total seals of civilization), Dice.

Jhanhudaro City without a citadel, Inkpot, Lipstick;

shell-ornament makers' and bead-makers' Metal-workers,
shops; Imprint
of dog's paw on a brick, Terracotta model of
Bronze toy cart.
bullock cart,
Lothal Dockyard, Rice husk; Metal-workers', shell-ornament makers
and bead-makers' shopes; Fire altars, Terracottafigurine of a
horse, Double burial (burying amale and a female inasingle
grave), Terracotta mnodel of aship, Dyingvat, Persian/ Iranian
seal, Baharainean seal, Painted jar (bird and fox).
Kalibanga Ploughed field surface (Pre-Harappan), 7 Fire altars,
Decorated bricks, Wheels of atoy cart, Mesopotamian
cylindrical seal.
Banawali Lack of chess-board or gridironpattern town planning, Lack
of systematic drainage system, Toy plough, Clay figurès of
Mother Goddess.
Dholavira A unique water harnessing system and its storm water
drainage system, a large well and a bath (giant water
reservoirs), Only site to be divided into 3 parts, Largest
Harappan inscription used for civic purposes,;A stadium.
Surkotada Bones of horse, Oval grave, Pot burials.
Daimabad Bronze images (Charioteer with chariot, Ox, elephantand
rhinoceros)
Mohenjodaro -the largest site of Indus Civilization, Rakhigarhi -The
largest Indian site of Indus Civilization.
Common Features of Major Cities : 1. Systematic town-planning
on the lines of 'grid system' 2. Use of burnt bricks in Constructions
3. Underground drainage system (giant water reservoirs in Dholavira)
4. Fortified citadel
Surkotada (Kutchh(exception-Chanhudaro).
district, Gujarat) : the only Indus site wherethe
remains of a horse have actually been found.
 Indian History 3
A Main Crops:Wheat and Barely;
and Rangpur (Gujarat) only. Evidence of cultivation of rice in Lothal
cotton etc. Indus people wereOther Crops : Dates, mustard, sesamum,
the first to produce cotton
Animals: in the world.
Sheep, goat, humped
cat, pig, fowl, deer, tortoise, and humpless bull, buffalo, boar, dog,
Lion was not known toIndus elephant, camel, rhinoceros, tiger etc.
theIndian
rhinoceros has beenpeople. From Amari, a single instance of
reported.
A There was extensive inland and
Mesopotamia or Sumeria (Modern foreign trade. Foreign trade with
Irag), Bahrain etc. flourished.
Imports From
Gold
Kolar (Karnataka), Afghanistan, Persia
Afghanistan, Persia (Iran), South India (Iran)
Silver

Copper Khetri (Rajasthan), Baluchistan, Arabia

Tin
Lapis Lazuli and Sapphire Afghanistan, Bihar
Jade Badak-shan (Afghanistan)
Central Asia
Steatite
Amethyst Shaher-i-Sokhta (Iran), Kirthar Hills (Pakistan)
Agate,
Maharasthtra
Carnelians
Chalcedonies and Saurashtra and West India
Exports : Agricultural products, cotton goods,
pottery, certain beads (from Chanhudaro), terracotta figurines,
ivory products, copper etc. conch-shell (fromn Lothal ),
> Avery
A known tointeresting feature of this civilization was
the people. thatIron was not
A The Sumeriantexts refer to trade relations
name given to the
Indus region. with'Meluha which wwas the
Shatughai Mundigaq were the Indus sites
and
found in Afghanistan.
The Sumerian texts also refer to two
(Bahrain) and Makan (Makran coast). Susaintermediate stations-Dilmun
places where Harappan seals were found. and Ur are Mesopotamian
The Harappans were the earliest
'Sindon' by the Greeks). people to produce cotton (It was called
As there is no evidence of
normal method of exchangecoins, barter is assumed to have been the
of goods.
Lothalwas an ancient port of Indus civilization.
The Indus Civilization was
primarily
There is no clear-cut evidence urban.
of the nature of polity, but it
the ruling authority of Indus seems that
> The Harappan people didn't Civilization was aclass of merchants.
in fact has been worship their gods in
unearthed, An idea of their religion tenmple. No temple
statues and figurines is formed from the
found.
 Lucent's General Knowledge
4

found figurine is that of Mother-

commonly
The most Shakti) There is evidence of prevalence of
(Matridevi or
sex
Theorgan)
chief worship.
male deity was the Pasupati Mahadeva' i.e. the lord of
-Goddes
Yoni (femal$e
(Proto-Shiva)
:
representedin sealsasssitting inyogicposture; heis
Animals
surrounded byfour animals (elephant, tiger, rhino,and buffalo) and tw
deer appear at his feet. There was the prevalence of Phal0lic (lingam)

worship.
Thus Shiva-Shaktiworship,the oldest form of worship in India, aappears
tohave beenpart ofthe religioussbelief of Harppan people (esp.humped
bull).
zoolatry i.e. animal worshi.
The remains and relics also reveal that
vogue in those days.
tree worship (esp. peepal) were in
mainly on seals, The
There is the evidence of pictographic script,found letters
scripthas not beendeciphered so far, butoverlap of on some of the
potsherds from Kalibangashow that writing wasboustrophedonor from
It has been re ferred
right to left and from left to right in alternate lines.
to as Proto-Dravidian.
manufacture of seals.
Steatite was mainly used in the
seals.
Humpless bullis represented in most of the Indus
common method of
> Inhumation or complete burial was the most
disposal of the dead.
traced to the Indus
> The origin of the 'Swastika'symbol can be
Civilization.
Civilisation'
A Indra is accused of causing the decline of Indus
M. Wheeler.
A The Rigveda speaks of a battle at a place named Hariyumpia which
has been identified with Harappa.
were
> The majority of scholars believe that the malkers of this civilization
Dravidian.
Contemporary civilizations of Indus Civilization-Mesopotamia, Egypt
and China.

2. Vedic Culture (1500 BC-600 BC)

Original Home of the Aryan a
> The location of the original home of the Aryans still remains
controversial point. Some scholars believe that the Aryans were Aryans
a
to the soil of India and some other scholars believe that the
Europe/Arctic
were migratedlfrom outside (Central Asia(Max Muller)/
region (B. G Tilak)A. migrated
> According to popular belief, the Aryans aressupposed to have waves
from CentralIAsia into the Indiansubcontinent in severalI stages or
during 2000 BC-1500 BC. vedic
4
A Boghazkai Inscription (Asia Minor, Turkey), which mentions Theory
gods Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasatyas, proves Central Asian
as their homeland.
 Indian History 5
The group that came to India first
and the Punjab-then called Sapta settled in the present Frontier Province
ived here for many centuries andSindhui.e. region ofseven rivers. They
settle in the valleys of the Ganges gradually pushed into theinterior to
and the Yamuna.
Vedic Literature (1500BC-600 BC)
Itis presumed that the Rig
Veda was composed while the
stillin the Punjab. Aryans were
Vedic Literature
or Vedas 2. Thecomprises
Brahamans
of four literary
productions:1.
3. The Aranyakas The Samhitas
4. The Üpanishads.
A VedicLiterature had grown up in course of time
down from generation to generation by word of and was really handed
are called Shruti (to hear). mouth. Hence these
The most important of Vedic Literature are Vedas. Vedas are
Apaurasheya i.e. not created by man but God-gífted and Nitya called
existingin all eternity. i.e.
There are four Vedas-Rig Veda, Sama Veda,
Thefirst three Vedas are jointly Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.
Of the four Vedas, the Rig Veda
called Vedatrayi i.e. trio of Vedas.
in the wold, and (Collection of
therefore, is also known aslyrics)
is the oldest text
'the
mankind'. The Rig Veda contains 1028 hymns, first testament of
mandalas. Six mandalas (from 2nd to 7th divided into 10
Vamsha Mandalas (Kula Granth). The 1st and mandalas) are called Gotra/
said to have been added later. 10th mandalas are
The 10th mandalacontains the famous
Purushasukta which explains the 4 Varnas -
Vaishya and Shudra. The hymns of Rig Veda Brahmana, Kshatriya,
A The Sama Veda (book of chants) had were recited by Hotri.
75)were taken from the Rig 1549 hymns.All hymns (excluding
recited by Udgatri. This Veda isVeda. The hynns of the Sama Veda were
The Yajur Veda (book of important for Indian music.
were recited by Adhvaryus.sacrificial prayers) is a ritual veda. Its hymns
Veda and Shukla Yajur Veda.It Inis divided into two parts-Krishna Yajur
verse entirely, this one is in both contrast to the first two which are in
A The AtharvaVeda (book of verse and prose.
one,contains charms and magical formulae), the fourth and the last
very long time it wasnot spells to ward off evils and diseases. For a
> The Brahmans included in the category of the Vedas.
explain the
and ritualistic in nature. hymns the Vedas. They are written in prose
of
and rituals have been
Veda has several
Brahmameans'sacrifice'.
elaborately discussed in
The various sacrifices
the Brahamanas. Every
Rig Brahamanas attached to it :

SamVeda-Aitareya
and Kaushitiki/
Sankhyan.
Veda-Panchvisha
Chhandogya and (Tandya
Jaiminaya. Maha Brahamana), Shadvinsh,
Yajur
Veda--Shatapatha (the oldest and the largest Brahamana) and
Taittariya.
Atharva Veda--Gopatha.
 Lucent's General Knowledge
6
> The word Aranya means "the forest'. The forest texts' were called
Aranyaka, because they were written mainly for the hermits and the
students living in jungles. The Aranyaka are the concluding portions
of the Brahamanas.
as theypanishadas
The arephilosphical
came towards
texts. They are generally called Vedanta
the end of the Veda. There are 108 Upanishadas,
Vrihadaranyaka is the oldest Upanishada.
Literature of Vedic Tradition (600BC-600 AD)
literature)
Literature of Vedic Tradition (Smriti i.e. rememberance
/Sutras Smritia
2.
comprises of 6 literary works : 1. Vedangas Upvedas
Dharmashastras 3. Mahakavyas (Epics) 4. Puranas 5.
6.Shad-Dharshanas.
There are six Vedangas :
(i) Shiksha (Phonetics):"Pratishakhya'-the oldest texton phonetics.
Sutras-deal
(ii) Kalpa Sutras (Rituals): a. Shrauta Sutras/Shulva
with the sacrifices, b. Grihya Sutrasdeal with family ceremonies,
c. Dharma Sutrasdeal with Varnas, Ashramas etc.
(ii) Vyakarana (Grammar):Ashtadyayi (Panini)the oldest grammar
of the word.
(iv) Nirukta (Etymology): Nirukta' (Yask) based on Nighantu'
(Kashyapa collection of difficult vedic words-(Nighantu'-the
oldest word-collection oftheworld; Nirukta'-the oldest dictionary
of the world),.
(v) Chhanda (Metrics): Chhandasutras'(Pingal)-famous text.
(vi) Jyotisha (Astronomy):VedangaJyotisha (Lagadh Muni)-theoldest
yotisha text.
There are six famous Smritis : (i) ManuSmriti (Pre-Gupta Period)
the oldest Smriti text; Commentators : ishwarupa, Meghatithi,
Gobindraj Kulluk Bhatt. (i) Yajnvalkya Smriti (Pre-Gupta Period)
Commentators : Vishwarupa, Vijnyaneshwar Apararka (a king of
Shilahar Dynasty) (ii) Narad Smriti (Gupta period) (iv) Parashara Smriti
(Gupta period), (v) Brihaspati Smriti (Gupta period) (vi) Katyayana
Smriti (Gupta period).
> There are mainly two Mahakavyas (Epics):
(i) The Ramayana (Valmiki): It is known as 'Adi Kavya' (the oldest
epic of the world). At present, it consists of 24,000 shlokas i.e. verses
(Originally 6,000, Later - 12,000, Finally - 24,000) in7 Kandas
i.e. sections. 1st and 7th Kandas were the latest additions to the
Ramayana.
(ii) The Mahabharata (Ved Vyasa): The longest epic of the world. At
present, itconsists of 1,00,00 shlokas i.e. verses (Originally-8,800
Jay Samhita, Later-24,000-Chaturvinshati Sahastri Samhita/Bharata
Finally-1,00,000-Shatasahastri Samhita/Maha Bharata) in
Parvans i.e. chapters,plusthe Harivamsasupplement. Bhagava
Gita is extracted from Bihshma Parvan of Mahabharata. Shan.
Parvan is the largest parvan (chapter) of the Mahabarata.
 Indian History 7
A The Purana means the old'. There are18
Matsva Puranais the oldest famous 'Puranas'. The
the Puranic text. The other
Bhagavata, The Vishnu, The Vayu and The important Puranas are
genealogies of various royal dynasties. Brahamnda, They describe
A The Upavedas (the auxiliary
vedas : vedas) were traditionally associated with
Upavedas
Ayurveda i.e. Medicine Associated with
i) Gandharvaveda i.e. Music Rig Veda
Atii) Dhanurveda ie. Sama Veda
tiv) Archery Yajur Veda
Shilpveda/Arthaveda i.e. the science of Atharva Veda
Craft/wealth (Vishwakarma)
There are 6 schools of Indian
philosophy known as Shad-Darshanas.
Darshana Founder
(1) Sankhya Darshana Basic Text
Kapila Sankhya Sutra
(ii) Yoga Darshana s Patanjali
(iii) Nyaya Darshana v Yoga Sutra
Akshapada Gautama Nayaya Sutra
(iv) Vaishesika Darshana Uluka Kanada v
(v) Mimansa/Purva Jaimini
VaishesikaSutra
Mimansa Purva Mimansa
(vi) Vedant/Uttara Sutra
Mimansa Badarayana Brahma Sutra/
Vedant Sutra
Rig Vedic/Early Vedic Period (1500
Geographical Area BC-1000BC)
Rig Veda is the only source of
From thenames of rivers, knowledge for this period.
mountains
i.e. Hindukush) and ocean (Himvanti.e.
in Rig Veda Himalaya, Munjavant
we
geographical area inwhich Rigvedic people have a clear idea of the
Rig Veda mentions 40 lived.
mentions 21 rivers whichrivers.
include
The Nadisukta hymn of the
Rig Veda
the Ganges in the east and the
(Kabul) in the west. Kubha
Rigvedic people, who
area which came to becalled themselves
known as Sapta Aryans, were confined in the
rivers.Sapta Sindhui.e.
Sindhu comprises Sindhuand their five land of the- seven
Asikani, Vipas, Parushni &Sutuadri and tributaries Vitasta,
According to the Rig Veda, the most Saraswati.
most pious
of Yamuna-3riverSaraswati,
times.
mentioned river Sindhu, the
mention of the Ganges-1 time, mention
The Dasrajan War (The
Battle of Ten Kings)
According
war of the
to Rig Veda, the famous Dasrajan war
Aryans. The Dasrajan war gives nameswasof the internecine
ten kings who
 Lucent's General Knowledge

against Sudas who was Bharata king of To:,

family. Theten
participated war were of thestates of Purus, Yadus, Turvasas,,Anus
in akings
with five others viz. Alinas, Pakhtas, Bhalanas,
Sibis
and Druhyus along battle was fought on the bank of Parushni (Ravi) in
and Vishanins. The
Awhich Sudas enmerged victorious. Region
Modern Name
Rigvedic Name Punjab
Sindhu Indus
Jhelum Punjab
Vitasta
Chenab Punjab
Asikani
Beas Punjab
Vipas Punjab
Ravi
Parushni
Sutlej Punjab
Sutudri
Saraswati Sarsuti Rajasthan
Drishadvati Ghaggar Rajasthan
Kabul Afghanistan
Kubha
Swäti Afghanistan
Suvastu
Kurram Afghanistan
Krumu
Gomati Gomal Afghanistan

Polity Unit Head

The Kula (the family) was the Kula (the family) Kulapa
basis ofboth socialandpolitical Gramani
organisations. Above the Kula Grama(the village)
were the Grama, the Vis, the Vis (the clan) Vispati
Jana and the Rashtra. Agroupof Jana (the people) Gopa/Gopati
Kula (families)formed a Grama Rashtra (the coutry) Rajan
(the village) and so on.
> Regarding the form ofgovernmentit was of patriarchalnature. Monarchy
was normal, butnon-monarchical polities were also there.
royal descent was
> The Rashtra was ruled by a King or Rajan and the Probably elective
by hereditary based on the law of primogeniture.
monarchy was also known.
or domestic
Very little is known about ministers of the king. The Purohita
priest was thefirst ranking official. He was the king's preceptor, friend,
philosopher and guide. Other important royal officials were Senani
(army chief) and Gramani (head of village).
bone
The armny consisted of foot-soldiers and charioteers. Wood, stone,
and metals were used in weapons. Arrows were tipped with pot
moving fort
of metal or poisoned horn. References are made to the
(Purcharishnu) andamachine for assaulting strongholds.
established
The king had religious duties also. He was the upholder ofthe
order and moral rules.
Garna
Rig Veda speaks of assemblies such as the Sabha. Samiti. Vidath,
Sabhawas committee of few privileged and important
 Indian History
individuals. Two popular assemblies, Sabha and
checks on the arbitrary rule of kings. Later Vedas Samiti, acted as
functioned as a court of justice. record that the Sabha
Theft, burglary, stealing of cattle and cheating were some of
prevent crimes. the then
Society
> The Rigvedic society comprised four varnas,
Kshatriya, Vaisyaand Shudra. namely Brahmana,
professions or occupations ofThisclassification
the individuals. ofsociety wasbased on the
Teachers and priests were called
were called Kshatriyas, farmers,Brahamanas;, rulers and administrators
Vaishyas, and artisans and labourers merchants and bankers were called
were reckoned as Shudras.
These vocations were followed by
liking,and the occupations had notpersons according to their ability and
later on. become hereditary as they became
Members of the same familytook to different
to different varnas as well
illustrated by professions and belonged
ahymn ofthe Rig Veda.
hymn a person says:"Iam a singer; my father isa In this
is agrinder of corn.' physician, mother
my
>
A The unit ofsociety was family,
A Child marriage was not in primarily monogamousand patriarchal.
> A widow could marry the
vogue.
younger brother of her deceased husband
(Niyoga).
The father's property was
> inherited by son.
Right to property existed in respect of
gold and ornaments and also in moveable things like cattle, horse,
and house. respect of immovable
property like land
The home of the teacher was the
sacred texts. school where he taught the
particular
> Milk and its
products-curd,
of the diet. There butter and ghee-formed an
isalso themention of grain important part
pakamodanam) cooked with milk (Kshira
The meat of fish, birds and
The cow was already deemned
animals was eaten.
Rig Veda prescribes a penalty Aghanya
i.e. not to be killed.
to those who kill or of death or expulsion from the kingdom
injure cows.
Alcoholicdrinks, Suraand Soma were also
A
Aryans were consumed.
their wealth inprimarily agricultural
terms of cows.
and pastoral people who reckoned
Amusements
Stanzain
included music, dancing, chariot-racing and
theRig Veda known as the dicing. One
rejects me and her mother hates me'.
gambler's lament says:Mywite
 Lucent's General'Knowledge
10

Religion the gods worshipped were generally

> During the Rigvedic time
personified powersof Nature. It was believed that
divine powers the
on man, Firoe
capable of conferring both boons and punishmentsbetween
intermediary
sacred as it was regarded to be the man
and
God.
classified them
There were nearly 33 gods. Later day tradition intermedi
3 categories of terrestrial (prithvisthana), aerial or
(antarikshasthana) and celestial (dyusthana) god.
(i) Terrestrial (Prithvisthaniya): Prithivi, Agni, Soma, Brihaspati and
rivers.
(ii) Aerial/Intermediate(Antarikshasthaniya):Indra, Rudra, Vayu-Vata
Parjanya.
(ii) Celestial (Dyusthaniya): Daus, Surya (In5forms : Surya, Savitri.
Mitra, Pushan, Vishnu), Varuna, Adit, Usha
Usna and
al Asvin.
Indra, Agni and Varuna were the most popular deities of Rigvedic
Aryans.
Indra or Purandara (destroyer of fort): The most important god (250
Rigvedic hymns are devoted to him); who played the role of warlord
and was considered to be the rain god.
Agni:The second most important god (200 Rigvedichymns are devoted
to him); fire god was considered to be the intermediary between the
gods and the people.
Varuna:Personified water;was supposed to uphold 'Rita or the natural
order (Ritasyagopa ).
Surya(Sun) was worshiped in 5 forms : Surya, Savitri, Mitra, Pushan
and Vishnu.
Surya (Sun):God whoused to drive daily across the sky in his chariot
driven by seven horses.
Savitri (the god of light) : The famous Gayatri Mantra is addressed to
her.
Mitra: A solar god.
Pushan : The god of marriage; main function-guarding of roads.
herdsmen and straying cattle.
Vishnu:Agod which covered earth in three steps (Upakrama).
º Soma : Originally a plantproducing apotent drink during courses o
Agnishtomasacrifice, could be hemp / bhang, called king of plants
identified later with the moon. The 9th mandala of Rig Veda, wh
contains 114 hymns, is attributed to the Soma. That's why it is called
"the Soma Mandala'.
A Other Gods/Goddesses: Rudra(the god of animals), Dyaus (the ou
god and the father of the world), Yama (the god of death). Ashwinl
Nastya (the god of health, youth and immortality); Aditi(the great
mother of gods), Sindhu (river goddess). animal
A Sometimes gods were visualised as animals but there was no
worship.