10.17951/j.2021.34.2.

245-264

ANNALES
U N I V E R S I TAT I S M A R I A E C U R I E - S K Ł O D O W S K A
LUBLIN – POLONIA
VOL. XXXIV, 2 SECTIO J  2021

Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz. Faculty of Psychology

PAVEL LARIONOV, KAROLINA MUDŁO-GŁAGOLSKA

ORCID: 0000-0002-4911-3984; [email protected]
ORCID: 0000-0001-8079-3781; [email protected]

Polish Adaptation of the Personal and General Belief

in a Just World Scales
Polska adaptacja Skali Personalnej i Ogólnej Wiary w Sprawiedliwy Świat

How to quote this paper: Larionov, P., Mudło-Głagolska, K. (2021). Polish Adaptation of the Per-
sonal and General Belief in a Just World Scales. Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska.
Sectio J, Paedagogia-Psychologia, 34(2), 245–264. DOI: 10.17951/j.2021.34.2.245-264.

ABSTRACT

The article presents the adaptation process and psychometric properties of the Polish version of
the Belief in a Just World Scale (BJW) developed by Dalbert. The BJW Scale contains two subscales:
Personal Belief in a Just World (PBJW) and General Belief in a Just World (GBJW). The survey was
conducted in four samples (N = 579) among students, workers, mothers of disabled children and
the adolescent. The convergent and divergent validity was assessed on the basis of the correlation
between the PBJW and the GBJW with the scale of rumination about the self and the rumination
about the social world (Rumination Questionnaire), the personality traits of the Big Five Model (Ten
Item Personality Inventory) and the sense of safety (Safety Experience Questionnaire). The reliability
(Cronbach’s alpha coefficient α) of the PBJW was 0.92 and the GBJW was 0.84 in the sample of adults.
The two-factor structure of the BJW Scale was confirmed. The parameters of model fit took the next
values: RMSEA (0.035; 90% CI: 0.022; 0.048), GFI (0.990), CFI (0.994), TLI (0.992), SRMR (0.055)
and χ2/df (1.59). The results indicate that the Polish version of the BJW Scale is valid and reliable and
has very good psychometric properties. The study has shown that Polish respondents slightly tend to
agree that the world is fair on them (mean of PBJW is 3.77; SD = 0.94), but they slightly disagree
that it is fair in general (mean of GBJW is 3.10; SD = 0.95). In order to make appropriate hypotheses
about the functional role of BJW for the unit, it was recommended to examine both the PBJW and
the GBJW at the same time, as well as the relationship between these forms of BJW.

Keywords: belief in a just world; scale; psychometric properties; adaptation process

246 PAVEL LARIONOV, KAROLINA MUDŁO-GŁAGOLSKA

BELIEF IN A JUST WORLD

The entire history of human life in the world is permeated by the idea of jus-
tice, which regulates human relations in almost all areas of life (Nartova-Bochaver,
Astanina, 2014). With Lerner’s introduction of the concept of “Belief in a Just
World” to psychology, psychologists began to conduct intensive research on justice,
especially in the context of social behaviour (Lerner, 1980). Belief in a just world
is the idea that an individual believes that the world is just and everyone in life gets
what they deserve and deserves what they get (Lerner, 1980). Despite the fact that
in culture, religion or human history the presence of injustice in the world has been
pointed out, people are not willing to give up their faith in a just world. Believing
in the world’s justice is a cognitive delusion, but it has an adaptive meaning for
a man because it allows him to perceive life as safe and structured. Therefore, belief
in a just world can be seen as a human need, a lack of satisfaction of which can be
traumatic and cause existential shock.
Not only is a man an observer of just and unjust phenomena in the world,
which he interprets and judges, but also acts as a participant in it. Since these life
phenomena directly affect a man, researchers (Lipkus, Dalbert, Siegler, 1996)
distinguish, in addition to general belief in the just world (GBJW), another form
of a belief – a personal belief in the just world (PBJW). The GBJW reflects the
belief that the world is a just place where everyone gets what they deserve. The
PBJW reflects the belief that an individual is treated fairly in their life. GBJW is
expressed in the question: Is the world fair?, and PBJW: Am I treated fairly in
my life? GBJW is a broad concept and is characterised by a too generalised and
imperceptible character. The GBJW reflects a set of beliefs about reality, which
may be consciously or unconsciously developed, influenced by upbringing during
childhood or accepted as a stereotypical template existing in society, culture and
state history (Skrzypińska, 2003). The phenomenological meaning of PBJW for an
individual is much more personally significant than that of GBJW.

THE TWO FORMS OF BELIEF IN A JUST WORLD

The PBJW contains not only a collection of an individual’s beliefs about the
world’s justice towards them, but also a cognitive-emotional evaluation of the
“individual-worldˮ relationship, which is a subject to analysis when the individ-
ual experiences just or unjust life situations. On the basis of the analysis of the
relationship between PBJW and GBJW, different life attitudes may be presented.
Nartova-Bochaver, Hohlova and Podlipnyak (2013) concluded that an individual’s
antisocial attitudes may lead to the belief that the world is a just place, but where
they do not feel it being fair to them. In turn, a weak belief in justice in all dimen-
sions of BJW can result in reduced well-being, depressive symptoms and a feeling
 Polish Adaptation of the Personal and General Belief… 247

of being a victim. Describing an attitude characterised by a belief in an unjust

world, but in which there is hope that the individual will be treated righteously,
Nartova-Bochaver et al. (2013) referred to Schopenhauer, who believed that “the
world is hellˮ, but everyone can find a fireproof asylum for themselves in it. Such
an attitude in life can be considered realistic and positive for an individual who,
by means of altruistic actions, seeks to restore humanity in life.
The presented examples show the phenomenological differences between the
two dimensions of BJW, which is also reflected in the role played by the two forms
of BJW in the psychosocial functioning of the individual.

PERSONAL BELIEF IN A JUST WORLD

In a meta-analysis of BJW relationships with personality traits in the Big

Five Model, the presence of negative P/GBJW relationships with neuroticism and
positive relationships with extraversion and agreeableness, a positive PBJW rela-
tionship with conscientiousness and a lack of P/GBJW relationships with openness
to experience was noted (Nudelman, 2013). A broad overview of research on the
role of PBJW was presented by Bartholomaeus and Strelan (2019), who conclude
that PBJW is related to emotional well-being and adaptive coping in difficult life
situations. PBJW is a protective factor against mental and physical illnesses (Bart-
holomaeus, Strelan, 2019). It has been found that students who strongly believe that
the world is fair to them feel more happiness, are optimistic and are more satisfied
with life (Yasien, 2015). A relation between PBJW and good subjective well-being
and low intensity of negative emotions was also observed (Nartova-Bochaver,
Donat, Rüprich, 2019). The prosocial role of PBJW was demonstrated, which
is expressed in altruistic acts, donations to charity, etc. (Bartholomaeus, Strelan,
2019). In the workplace psychology, PBJW can be considered in the context of
organisational justice. It has been noted that PBJW (but not GBJW) has to do with
the sense of well-being at work, which, in turn, can contribute to a greater job
satisfaction (Johnston, Krings, Maggiori, Meier, Fiori, 2016). The role of P/GPJW
was also considered in the psychology of interpersonal relationships, including
intimate relationships (Rovenská, Daduľáková, 2018).
In contemporary research, scientists focus on the search for mechanisms by
which the beneficial role of PBJW for personality can be explained (Furnham,
2003). In a sample of Russian students, it was found out that mental resilience
played a mediating role in the relationship between PBJW and psychological
well-being and positive affect. It was also noted that the relationship between
PBJW and mental well-being is mediated by self-esteem (Nartova-Bochaver et al.,
2019). PBJW is positively linked to self-efficacy, achievement and self-discipline,
and the relationship is mediated by an inner sense of locus of control (Nudelman,
Otto, 2019). The Polish authors Przepiórka and Błachnio (2016) noted that PBJW
248 PAVEL LARIONOV, KAROLINA MUDŁO-GŁAGOLSKA

is negatively associated with feelings of envy and malicious joy, i.e. the joy of
someone else’s misfortune.
The researchers conclude that beliefs about justice are important not only for
adults but also for children. Thus, it has been noted that students with a strong
belief in the world’s justice towards them (PBJW) have a positive attitude towards
school, a high academic self-esteem, and greater satisfaction with school. It was
also noted that among pupils PBJW is a protective factor against somatisation
(Donat, Peter, Dalbert, Kamble, 2016). It was noted that an increase in the level of
P/GBJW, especially PBJW, is related to the decrease of aggression in both groups
of Belarusian and Ukrainian teenagers (Larionov, Ageenkova, Smeyan, 2021).
Thus, for both adults and children, PBJW is an individual’s resource and is asso-
ciated with good psychological functioning (Donat, Umlauft, Dalbert, Kamble,
2012; Bartholomaeus, Strelan, 2019; Nartova-Bochaver et al., 2019). It should be
noted that according to Nartova-Bochaver, Donat, Astanina and Rüprich (2018),
the research shows mixed results for gender differences in the level of PBJW and
GBJW in various cultures.
In conclusion, an individual with a strong belief that the world is fair to them,
is adaptable, copes with problems well, has a positive attitude towards the world,
experiences fewer psychological problems and is characterised by social interest.

GENERAL BELIEF IN A JUST WORLD

It should be emphasised that in the majority of psychological studies the role of

PBJW was rather considered from the intrapersonal position, while the role of GBJW
was more often considered from the interpersonal position. It can be observed that
conclusions concerning PBJW are consistent and reflect the positive role of PBJW.
However, GBJW conclusions are not entirely clear (Nartova-Bochaver, Astanina,
2014). The adaptive and maladaptive potential of GBJW is emphasised. From the
intrapersonal position, the adaptive importance of the GBJW has been noted, which
is positively related to resilience (Wu et al., 2010). GBJW, through the development
of optimism and gratitude, positively influences mental well-being and is a protec-
tive factor against depression (Jiang, Yue, Lu, Yu, Zhu, 2015). However, it is worth
stressing that these effects are more characteristic of collective than individual cultures
(Nartova-Bochaver, Astanina, 2014). From an interpersonal point of view, it can be
noted that GBJW is associated with unfair behaviour (Wenzel, Schindler, Reinhard,
2017), discrimination of the elderly, stigmatisation of poverty and the choice of
higher penalties for crimes (Bègue, Bastounis, 2003). It was also found that GBJW is
positively associated with the feeling of malicious joy (Przepiórka, Błachnio, 2016).
To sum up, the role of GBJW is ambiguous and is associated with both positive
and negative aspects of human life. It is, therefore, possible that in order to under-
stand the system of relations between an individual and the surrounding reality, it
 Polish Adaptation of the Personal and General Belief… 249

is necessary to study both PBJW and GBJW at the same time. It was found that
people suffering from depression perceive the world as unfair to them, but they are
at the same time convinced that the world is fair in general. There was no such gap
between PBJW and GBJW among people without depression (Uğur, Akgün, 2015).
This underlines that the study of the relationship between the PBJW and the GBJW
allows for an adequate understanding of the role of the forms of BJW in an individ-
ual’s psychosocial functioning. From this point of view, a separate study of the level
of PBJW or GBJW becomes less meaningful and does not fully allow for valuable
hypotheses about the functional role of belief in a just world for the individual.

MEASURES OF PERSONAL AND GENERAL BELIEF IN A JUST WORLD

One of the best-known tools of investigating both PBJW and GBJW levels
is the Belief in a Just World (BJW) Scale, which contains two separate subscales:
the Personal Belief in a Just World Scale and the General Belief in a Just World
Scale. In 1987, the GBJW Scale was developed in Germany by Dalbert, Montada
and Schmitt (1987). Thus, in 1999, in a publication in English, Dalbert (1999)
presented the PBJW Scale and at the same time indicated the possibility of merging
the GBJW and PBJW Scales into one BJW Scale. At present, it is possible to use
these two separate PBJW and GBJW Scales or a combined BJW Scale for scientific
research. The BJW Scale consists of 13 questions: 7 questions refer to the PBJW
Scale and 6 questions refer to the GBJW Scale. During the construction of these
scales Dalbert (1999) used a 6-point response scale.
The BJW Scales have been broadly used worldwide and have been translated
into Chinese (Wu et al., 2010), urdu (Fatima, Khalid, 2007), Portuguese (Modesto,
Figueredo, Gama, Rodrigues, Pilati, 2017; Gouveia et al., 2018), Russian (Narto-
va-Bochaver, Donat, Astanina, Rüprich, 2018), Latvian (Nesterova, Ignatjeva, Ruza,
2015), Hungarian (Dalbert, Katona-Sallay, 1996), Spanish in Argentina (Barreiro,
Etchezahar, Prado-Gascó, 2018) and others.

PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH

Due to the growing interest in the problems of justice in almost all fields of
psychology and related sciences in the world, this study aims to develop the Pol-
ish version of the Belief in a Just World Scale by Dalbert (1999) and present its
psychometric features.

HYPOTHESES

H1. PBJW and GBJW are separate but interrelated constructs that show different
correlation patterns to various psychological variables.
250 PAVEL LARIONOV, KAROLINA MUDŁO-GŁAGOLSKA

H2. Based on data that rumination about the social world is associated with com-
plaining about the world and believing in its injustice (Baryła, Wojciszke,
2005), a negative correlation between GBJW and rumination about the social
world is assumed. As PBJW is positively associated with a sense of well-being
(Nartova-Bochaver et al., 2019) and rumination about self is associated with
lower self-esteem, mood and satisfaction with life (Baryła, Wojciszke, 2005),
a negative correlation between PBJW and rumination about self is expected.
H3. It was found that GBJW was positively associated with such values as con-
formity and security (Wolfradt, Dalbert, 2003). It is assumed that P/GBJW
correlate positively with sense of safety.
H4. Based on meta-analysis by Nudelman (2013), it is assumed that P/GBJW
correlate negatively with neuroticism and positively with extraversion and
agreeableness. It is also expected that PBJW positively correlate with con-
scientiousness. P/GBJW are unrelated to openness to experience.

Method

At the first stage of adaptation, the original version of the scale was translated
into Polish. In the second stage, the linguistic equivalence of the tool was checked.
At the third stage, the scale structure was evaluated by means of Confirmatory
Factor Analysis (CFA). At the fourth stage, the reliability of the scale was assessed.
At the fifth stage, the convergent and divergent validity was assessed.
Statistical analysis was carried out using Statistica 13.3 and the lavaan statis-
tical package in the R software environment.
The original version of the BJW Scale has been translated into Polish by three
translators. The translations were consistent and on their basis a common Polish
version of the BJW Scale was established. Then the Polish version of the scale
was translated into English by a translator who was not familiar with the original
version of the scale. This translated questionnaire was sent to M. Donat, who as
a German specialist in justice psychology and an associate of the author of Dalbert’s
BJW Scale, participated in the validation work of the Russian version of the scale
(Nartova-Bochaver et al., 2018), checked the linguistic equivalence of the tool.
The meaning of the Polish statements and the original version of the scale were
found to be consistent. It was concluded that the Polish version of the BJW Scale
was correct and subjected to further adaptation procedures.

Characteristics of the examined groups

The validation study was carried out in four samples with a total of 579 people.
The survey was conducted online (samples I, II and III), while the adolescent survey
was conducted using a pencil-and-paper method. The sample of students, workers and
 Polish Adaptation of the Personal and General Belief… 251

mothers of disabled children was collected by posting a link to the study in groups
on Facebook. Participation in the survey was anonymous and voluntary. The study
among adolescents was carried out in one of the primary schools in the Greater Po-
land region. The sample consisted of 74 people (39 girls and 34 boys, one participant
did not indicate the gender). They were aged between 11 and 15. Sociodemographic
characteristics of the studied groups and the aim of the survey are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Characteristics of the examined groups

N (% of Age
Sample Participants Aim of the study
women) M SD
Assessment of the convergent
Students and
I 216 (77.78) 25.06 8.87 and divergent validity, reliabi-
workers
lity analysis
II 257 (84.05) Workers 31.92 11.73 Reliability analysis
Evaluation of the theoretical
Mothers of disa-
III 32 (100) 39.03 8.49 validity using an external
bled children
criterion, reliability analysis
IV 74 (52.70) Adolescents 12.57 1.01 Reliability analysis
Total of
Students and Assessment of scale factor
samples 473 (81.18) 28.79 11.06
workers structure, reliability analysis
I + II
Total of Students and wor-
samples I + 505 (82.38) kers, mothers of 29.44 11.19 Reliability analysis
II + III disabled children
M – mean; SD – standard deviation
Source: Authors’ own elaboration.

Research tools

The validated Polish version of the BJW Scale consists of 13 items. The first
7 items refer to the Personal Belief in a Just World Scale and the next 6 items refer
to the General Belief in a Just World Scale. The scale of answers is 6-points: from
1 (I strongly disagree) to 6 (I strongly agree).
The Rumination Questionnaire (RQ) developed by Baryła and Wojciszke
(2005) allows to assess the frequency of recurrence of negative thoughts about
oneself and the social world. The RQ contains two scales: the scale of Rumination
about Self (I think about events from the past, whose course I would like to change)
and the scale of Rumination about the Social World (It hurts that so many wicked
people are never punished). Each of these scales contains 10 questions. The scale
of answers is 5-point: from 1 (never) to 5 (very often). The analysis of the relia-
bility of the RQ indicates satisfactory internal consistency: Cronbach’s alpha for
252 PAVEL LARIONOV, KAROLINA MUDŁO-GŁAGOLSKA

the Rumination about Self scale is 0.89, and for the Rumination about the Social
World scale is 0.88 (Baryła, Wojciszke, 2005).
The Safety Experience Questionnaire (SEQ) developed by Klamut (2019) is
used to examine the level of sense of safety and reflected on safety. The question-
naire consists of 9 questions and contains two scales: Sense of Safety (I experience
the possibility of realising the value of safety) and Reflection (I value the safety of
my relatives). The Sense of Safety scale contains 5 questions, and the Reflection
scale is 4. The scale of answers is 5-point: from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly
agree). According to Klamut (2019), the reliability of SEQ is high for the Sense of
Safety scale (Cronbach’s alpha is 0.85), but slightly lower for the Reflection scale
(Cronbach’s alpha is 0.68).
The Polish version of the Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI-PL) is used to
assess personality traits in the Big Five Model (Sorokowska, Słowińska, Zbieg, So-
rokowski, 2014). The scale consists of 5 subscales: extraversion (I consider myself
to be a person who likes the company of others, active and optimistic), agreeable-
ness (consensual, kind), conscientiousness (conscientious, disciplined), emotional
stability (not worried, emotionally stable) and openness to experience (open to new
experiences, in a complex way perceiving the world). Each of these subscales con-
tains 2 questions, one of which is reversed. TIPI-PL is characterised by relatively
good psychometric properties. In the TIPI-PL validation studies conducted in the
Google Forms, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for extraversion, conscientiousness,
and emotional stability were 0.74, 0.80 and 0.83, respectively, and for the subscale,
agreeableness 0.54 and openness to experience 0.45 (Sorokowska et al., 2014).

Results

1. Descriptive statistics

Table 2 presents descriptive statistics for individual items of the BJW Scale. As the
skewness and kurtosis of all items did not exceed the range from –1 to +1 (Bedyńska,
Książek, 2012), their distributions can be considered approximately normal.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics of BJW Scale items (samples I + II; total N = 473)
Items M SD Skewness Kurtosis
PBJW
I believe that, by and large, I deserve what happens to me 3.76 1.23 –0.43 –0.46
I am usually treated fairly 3.76 1.15 –0.40 –0.56
I believe that I usually get what I deserve 3.83 1.16 –0.49 –0.37
Overall, events in my life are just 3.67 1.14 –0.23 –0.52
In my life injustice is the exception rather than the rule 3.74 1.25 –0.31 –0.75
 Polish Adaptation of the Personal and General Belief… 253

Items M SD Skewness Kurtosis

I believe that most of the things that happen in my life are
3.79 1.13 –0.45 –0.51
fair
I think that important decisions that are made concerning
3.85 1.07 –0.46 –0.33
me are usually just
Overall result of the PBJW 26.40 6.58 –0.38 –0.17
Average total score of the PBJW 3.77 0.94 –0.38 –0.17
GBJW
I think basically the world is a just place 2.53 1.25 0.63 –0.42
I believe that, by and large, people get what they deserve 3.12 1.24 0.17 –0.76
I am confident that justice always prevails over injustice 2.99 1.35 0.37 –0.73
I am convinced that in the long run people will be
3.48 1.37 –0.08 –0.97
compensated for injustices
I firmly believe that injustices in all areas of life (e.g.,
professional, family, politic) are the exception rather than 3.03 1.22 0.27 –0.60
the rule
I think people try to be fair when making important
3.47 1.14 –0.24 –0.73
decisions
Overall result of the GBJW 18.62 5.70 0.24 –0.39
Average total score of the GBJW 3.10 0.95 0.24 –0.39
M – mean; SD – standard deviation
Source: Authors’ own elaboration.

In the samples of adults (I + II) the average score of PBJW is 3.77 (SD = 0.94),
while the average score of GBJW is 3.10 (SD = 0.95). In sample I (N = 216), PBJW
and GBJW intensity in men (N = 48) and women (N = 168) was analysed. Men had
a lower level of GBJW (U = 3146; Z = –2.32; p = 0.02). No differences in level of
PBJW were found.
In the sample of adolescents the average total score of PBJW is 3.41 (SD = 0.82)
and the average total score of GBJW is 3.47 (SD = 1.05). There were no gender
differences in PBJW and GBJW.

2. Analysis of factor structure of the BJW scale

The factor structure of the BJW Scale was verified by Confirmatory Factor
Analysis (CFA) using the lavaan statistical package in the R software environment
of a sample of 473 individuals (total of samples I + II). The multivariate kurtosis
coefficient (60.09) and its critical ratio (33.09) were calculated, which showed
that the conditions were not met in relation to the expected multivariate normal
distribution of variables. Therefore, a diagonally weighted least squares (DWLS)
254 PAVEL LARIONOV, KAROLINA MUDŁO-GŁAGOLSKA

estimator was used. The model fit was estimated on the basis of measures: RMSEA,
GFI, CFI, TLI, SRMR and χ2/df.
According to the theoretical model of the scale and its two-factor structure, a co-
variance between factors was introduced. The model fit parameters reached values
indicating very good fit of the model: RMSEA (0.035; 90% CI: 0.022; 0.048), GFI
(0.990), CFI (0.994), TLI (0.992), SRMR (0.055) and χ2/df (101.865/64 = 1.59).
The values of standardised factor loadings took values from 0.572 to 0.901
(all p < 0.001). The value of correlation between PBJW and GBJW factors was
equal to 0.602 and comparable to the value obtained in the Russian version of the
scale 0.58 (Nartova-Bochaver et al., 2018) and in the Portuguese version adapted
in Brazil – 0.63 (Gouveia et al., 2018). To sum up, the factor structure of the Polish
version of the BJW Scale has been confirmed.

3. Analysis of scale reliability

The reliability of the scale was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient
(α) and McDonald’s omega coefficient (Ꞷ), which were calculated in six different
samples (see table 3). For PBJW, the α and ꞷ values are above 0.90 for all samples
of adults, while for GBJW they are slightly lower (α = 0.85 and ꞷ = 0.84).
In the sample of adolescents for PBJW the α and ꞷ values are 0.72 and 0.73
respectively. The reliability of the GBJW scale is high (α = 0.84 and ꞷ = 0.84).

Table 3. Internal consistency coefficients α and ꞷ for different samples

PBJW GBJW
Sample
α ꞷ α ꞷ
I (N = 216; students and workers) 0.92 0.92 0.93 0.84
II (N = 257; workers) 0.91 0.91 0.85 0.86
III (N = 32; mothers of disabled children) 0.90 0.90 0.87 0.87
IV (N = 74; adolescents) 0.72 0.73 0.84 0.84
Total of samples I + II (N = 473) 0.91 0.91 0.85 0.85
Total of samples I + II + III (N = 505) 0.92 0.92 0.85 0.85
Source: Authors’ own elaboration.

4. Analysis of scale validity

The convergent and divergent validity of the scale was carried out in sample
I (N = 216; students and workers) and was assessed on the basis of the relationship
between PBJW and GBJW with the rumination about self and the social world (the
Rumination Questionnaire was used), personality traits in the Big Five Model (Ten
 Polish Adaptation of the Personal and General Belief… 255

Item Personality Inventory) and with a sense of safety and reflection on security
(Safety Experience Questionnaire). Cronbach’s alpha coefficient values for all var-
iables in the analysed sample were calculated (see table 4). Only the reliability of
measurement of the variables “openness to experience” and “reflection on safety”
was too low, therefore the analysis of the relationship of these variables with PBJW
and GBJW was not performed. All the variables included in the analysis had a dis-
tribution close to normal (skewness and kurtosis ranged from –1 to 1). To assess
the relationships between the variables, Pearson’s r correlation coefficients were
calculated (see table 4).

CONVERGENT AND DIVERGENT VALIDITY

1. Rumination about Self and the Social World

A negative correlation between Rumination about Self and PBJW was noted
(r = –0.14; p < 0.05), but the relationship between Rumination about the Social
World and GBJW was not statistically significant, which, however, can be observed
at the level of statistical trend (r = –0.13; p < 0.055). The lack of relationship be-
tween Rumination about Self and GBJW should be stressed (r = 0.00). These data
suggest that people who are convinced that the world is not fair to them more often
ruminate about themselves (Rumination about Self scale question: I am thinking
about past events, whose course I would like to change). People who are convinced
that the world is fair to them experience fewer negative thoughts about the social
world (Rumination about the Social World scale question: It hurts when some
people get something in their lives that they do not deserve at all).
Polish researchers Baryła and Wojciszke (2005) noted that with age Rumination
about Self decreases strongly, but Rumination about the Social World increases.
It reflects a similar weak but positive correlation (Spearman’s rs coefficient) be-
tween age and faith in the world’s justice towards the individual (PBJW; rs = 0.16;
p < 0.05; sample I).
On the basis of the correlation analysis, it can be concluded that PBJW and
GBJW are separate theoretical constructs that are independent and, respectively,
negatively related to ruminations about self and the social world.

2. Sense of Safety

According to Klamut (2019), a sense of safety is associated with the satisfaction

of needs, the presence of satisfactory living conditions and the absence of threats,
which allows people to act freely. The expected strong positive relationship between
the sense of safety and the PBJW (r = 0.40; p < 0.001) and a slightly smaller one with
the GBJW (r = 0.17; p < 0.05) was demonstrated. Most of the questions raised by
256 PAVEL LARIONOV, KAROLINA MUDŁO-GŁAGOLSKA

the “sense of safety” refer to the belief in one’s own safety (e.g. I currently feel that
I have basic needs that give me confidence in the safety of my life) and some refer
to the belief in the safety of reality (e.g. I feel safe in the current reality). Therefore,
the resulting quantitative differences in relationships can be fully explained. Thus,
the conviction of justice in life is positively correlated with the sense of safety.

Table 4. Correlations of PBJW and GBJW with rumination, personality traits and sense of safety
(sample I: students and workers, N = 216)
Variables PBJW GBJW
Rumination about Self (α = 0.95) –0.14* 0.00
Rumination about the Social World
–0.14* –0.13
(α = 0.89)
Sense of safety (α = 0.85) 0.40*** 0.17*
Reflection on security (α = 0.63) not applicable not applicable
Extraversion (α = 0.80) 0.10 0.20**
Agreeableness (α = 0.66) 0.18** 0.21**
Conscientiousness (α = 0.76) 0.09 0.14*
Emotional stability (α = 0.81) 0.31*** 0.14*
Openness to experiences (α = 0.23) not applicable not applicable
α – Cronbach’s alpha coefficient; * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001
Source: Authors’ own elaboration.

3. Big Five Model

Positive correlations P/GBJW with emotional stability and agreeableness,

relations GBJW with extraversion and conscientiousness were observed.

THEORETICAL VALIDITY

The theoretical validity of the scale was assessed using an external criterion.
The research stresses that parents of children with disabilities are characterised by
lower level of BJW (Hatami, Panahi, Rezaei, Fathi, Zarbakhsh, 2016). This study
compared the intensity of PBJW and GBJW in 32 mothers of disabled children and
in women who do not have any disabled children. The structure of the last group of
women corresponded to that of the mothers of disabled children and did not differ
in terms of age or education. It was found that mothers of disabled children had
a lower level of PBJW (U = 328.5; Z = –2.46; p = 0.01) and did not differ in the
level of GBJW (U = 1155; Z = 1.54; p = 0.12) compared to women without children
with disabilities. Similar results were obtained in the study of Shetty, Roopesh,
 Polish Adaptation of the Personal and General Belief… 257

Dutt, Sneha and Roopesh (2016), which reported no difference in level of GBJW
between parents of children with conduct disorder and parents of healthy children.

Discussion

The aim of this study was to develop the Polish version of the BJW Scale,
which allows to examine an individual’s beliefs about world justice in general
(GBJW) and world justice towards an individual (PBJW). As a result of the val-
idation procedures carried out, it can be concluded that the Polish version of the
BJW Scale is characterised by linguistic equivalence and authenticity in relation
to the original version.
The CFA analysis confirmed the two-factor structure of the scale and showed
an optimal fit of the model to empirical data. As highlighted above, the model fit
parameters proved to be the best in comparison with adapted versions of the BJW
Scale in other languages (Gouveia et al., 2018; Nartova-Bochaver et al., 2018).
In the samples of adults the reliability (Cronbach’s alpha α and McDonald’s
omega ꞷ coefficients) of the PBJW (α = 0.92, ꞷ = 0.92) and GBJW Scales (α = 0.85,
ꞷ = 0.84) is very high. The reliability (α) of the Polish version of the BJW Scale is
higher compared to the original version (0.82 for PBJW and 0.68 for GBJW; Dal-
bert, 1999), Brazilian (0.83 for PBJW and 0.69 for GBJW; Gouveia et al., 2018),
Urdu (0.93 for PBJW and 0.66 for GBJW; Fatima, Khalid, 2007), Portuguese (0.83
for PBJW; Modesto et al., 2017) and Russian (0.89 for PBJW and 0.78 for GBJW;
Nartova-Bochaver et al., 2018). In the sample of adolescents the reliability is also
high (PBJW: α = 0.72, ꞷ = 0.73; GBJW: α = 0.84; ꞷ = 0.84).
During the adaptation of the BJW Scale, the convergent and divergent validity
and the theoretical validity was checked using an external criteria. It was confirmed
that as PBJW increases, the individual experiences less unpleasant and unwanted
thoughts about himself and the social world. The lack of correlation between the
GBJW and the rumination about self was demonstrated, and at the level of statistical
trend a negative correlation between the GBJW and the rumination about the social
world was noted. In terms of examining rumination, a PBJW is more important to
the individual than a GBJW.
BJW is a relatively permanent disposition of the individual (Dalbert, 2001).
It has been found that those who believe in the general justice of the world and its
justice towards them feel more secure, probably by perceiving reality as predictable,
structured and manageable. Based on correlation between P/GBJW and sense of
safety, in the Polish sample the researchers’ conclusion about the role of BJW, and
especially PBJW as an individual resource (Dalbert, Donat, 2015; Nartova-Bo-
chaver et al., 2019) was confirmed.
The analysis of P/GBJW relationships with personality traits in the Big Five
Model revealed the presence of positive correlations between P/GBJW and emo-
258 PAVEL LARIONOV, KAROLINA MUDŁO-GŁAGOLSKA

tional stability and agreeableness, as well as GBJW with extraversion and conscien-
tiousness. Polish results fully reflect data obtained in other cultures (Nudelman,
2013). All observed correlations of PBJW and GBJW with personality dimensions
in the Polish study are very similar (qualitatively and quantitatively) to the data
obtained in the validation study of the Russian version of the BJW Scale (Nar-
tova-Bochaver et al., 2018). However, only in this study no correlation between
extraversion and PBJW was observed and there was a correlation between agree-
ableness and PBJW which was not found in the Russian study (Nartova-Bochaver
et al., 2018). The presence of this correlation in the Polish sample can probably be
explained by the special meaning of the Golden Rule (Behave towards others as if
you want others to behave towards you) (Zecha, 2011) and the ethics of reciprocity
and the related expectations towards each other and the world, which are shaped
in the personality of Poles by the strong position of Christianity in Poland. To sum
up, the convergent and divergent validity has been confirmed by the presence and
absence of significant correlations between BJW dimensions and other theoretical
constructs – rumination, sense of safety and personality traits in the Big Five Model.
Using an external criterion, the theoretical validity of the scale was assessed.
Mothers of disabled children took part in the study. According to the data of other
researchers (Shetty et al., 2016), they were expected to have a reduced level of
PBJW. Similar results were observed in the Polish sample.
It should be noted that the average score of PBJW is 3.77 (SD = 0.94), while
the average score of GBJW is 3.10 (SD = 0.95) among adults. From an existential
point of view, these data show that Polish respondents believe that the world is
a little bit fair to them, but they do not agree that it is fair in general. It can be noted
that according to Polish respondents the level of PBJW is higher than GBJW. This
reflects the results of other studies, which noted that this trend is characteristic of
individualistic societies (Nartova-Bochaver, Astanina, 2014). Similar conclusions
were received by Skrzypińska (2003), who noted that young Poles are unlikely to
believe in a just world. Men had a lower level of GBJW. There were no gender
differences in PBJW. Considering the mixed results of gender differences in PBJW
and GBJW in other cultures (Nartova-Bochaver et al., 2018), these data may char-
acterise the specificity of the Polish sample.
In the sample of adolescents aged 11 to 15 the average score of PBJW is 3.41
(SD = 0.82) and the average score of GBJW is 3.47 (SD = 1.05). It is a less favour-
able situation than the opposite trend (PBJW > GBJW). Nonetheless, the level of
PBJW and GBJW is approximately equal. This reflects data obtained in Belarus
and Ukraine (Larionov et al., 2021). There were no gender differences in PBJW
and GBJW among adolescents. Compared to Belarusian and Ukrainian adolescents
(Larionov et al., 2021) Polish teenagers are characterised by a lower level of PBJW
and GBJW. The average score of PBJW among German (4.23) and Indian school-
children (4.87) (Donat et al., 2016) is much higher compared to Polish adolescents.
 Polish Adaptation of the Personal and General Belief… 259

Considering the positive effects of P/GBJW on psychological well-being, these data

may reflect the poorer mental well-being of Polish adolescents.
In the theoretical part of the article, it was emphasised that the PBJW is par-
ticularly important for the psychological functioning of an individual. It was also
pointed out that in order to understand the system of the individual’s relationship
with the surrounding reality and to put forward appropriate hypotheses about the
functional role of the BJW for the individual, it is necessary to examine both the
PBJW and the GBJW and the relationship between these dimensions of BJW. The
adapted BJW Scale fully serves this purpose.

Limitations

In the study there is an uneven sample structure, which is expressed in the

predominance of women over men. The majority of the respondents are young
people and middle-aged people, while there are few older people in the sample.
The test – retest reliability of the BJW Scale was not assessed.

CONCLUSION

The Polish version of the BJW Scale is valid and reliable and has very good
psychometric properties. It should be stressed that the scale is economic, with
13 short questions, which are clearly formulated. The use of a 6-point response
scale allows for adequate differentiation of the P/BGJW level.
The BJW Scale can be applied in educational psychology, e.g., research on the
role of P/BGJW and distress at school (Dalbert, Stoeber, 2005), workplace psy-
chology (organisational justice perceptions) (Johnston, Krings, Maggiori, Meier,
Fiori, 2016) and clinical psychology (P/BGJW as a personal resource in special
groups, e.g., among deaf individuals) (Nartova-Bochaver et al., 2013), sociology
and political science (the role of P/BGJW on social activity and political motiva-
tion) (Gulevich, Sarieva, Nevruev, Yagiyayev, 2017) and in other areas of human
knowledge.

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ABSTRAKT

W artykule zaprezentowano proces adaptacji i właściwości psychometryczne polskiej wersji

Skali Wiary w Sprawiedliwy Świat (Belief in a Just World Scale, BJW) opracowanej przez Dalbert.
Skala BJW zawiera dwie podskale: Personalnej Wiary w Sprawiedliwy Świat (PBJW) oraz Ogólnej
Wiary w Sprawiedliwy Świat (GBJW). Badanie było przeprowadzone w czterech próbach (N = 579):
wśród studentów, osób pracujących, matek dzieci z niepełnosprawnością i nastolatków. Trafność na-
rzędzia w aspekcie zbieżnym i różnicowym została oceniona na podstawie zależności PBJW i GBJW
z ruminacją o sobie i świecie społecznym (Kwestionariusz Ruminacji), wymiarami osobowości
w modelu Wielkiej Piątki (Inwentarz Osobowości TIPI) oraz z poczuciem bezpieczeństwa (Kwe-
stionariusz Doświadczania Bezpieczeństwa). W próbie osób dorosłych rzetelność (alfa Cronbacha)
PBJW wyniosła 0,92, a GBJW – 0,84. Potwierdzono dwuczynnikową strukturę skali BJW. Wskaźniki
dopasowania modelu przyjęły następujące wartości: RMSEA (0,035; 90% CI: 0,022; 0,048), GFI
(0,990), CFI (0,994), TLI (0,992), SRMR (0,055) i χ2/df (1,59). Polska wersja skali BJW jest trafna
i rzetelna oraz charakteryzuje się bardzo dobrymi właściwościami psychometrycznymi. W badaniu
wykazano, że polscy respondenci trochę się zgadzają z tym, że świat jest sprawiedliwy wobec nich
(średnia PBJW to 3,77; SD = 0,94) oraz trochę się nie zgadzają z tym, że świat jest sprawiedliwy
w ogóle (średnia GBJW to 3,10; SD = 0,95). W celu wysunięcia właściwych hipotez o funkcjonal-
nym znaczeniu BJW dla jednostki rekomenduje się badać jednocześnie zarówno PBJW, jak i GBJW,
a także stosunek między tymi formami BJW.

Słowa kluczowe: wiara w sprawiedliwy świat; skala, właściwości psychometryczne; proces

adaptacji
 Polish Adaptation of the Personal and General Belief… 263

ANNEX

Skala Wiary w Sprawiedliwy Świat

Belief in a Just World Scale
(Dalbert, 1999; adaptacja polska: Larionov, Mudło-Głagolska, 2021)

Instrukcja

Proszę określić, w jakim stopniu zgadzasz się z poniższymi twierdzeniami.

Zakreśl kółkiem właściwą odpowiedź po prawej stronie.

1 – stanowczo się nie zgadzam; 2 – nie zgadzam się; 3 – trochę się nie zgadzam; 4 – trochę się zga-
dzam; 5 – zgadzam się; 6 – stanowczo się zgadzam

1 Wierzę, że na ogół zasługuję na to, co mnie spotyka 1 2 3 4 5 6

2 Zwykle jestem traktowany sprawiedliwie 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 Wierzę, że zwykle dostaję to, na co zasługuję 1 2 3 4 5 6
Ogólnie rzecz biorąc, to co zdarza mi się w moim życiu, jest
4 1 2 3 4 5 6
sprawiedliwe
5 W moim życiu niesprawiedliwość jest raczej wyjątkiem niż regułą 1 2 3 4 5 6
Uważam, że większość rzeczy, które przytrafiają mi się w moim
6 1 2 3 4 5 6
życiu, jest sprawiedliwa
Uważam, że ważne decyzje, które mnie dotyczą, są podejmowane
7 1 2 3 4 5 6
sprawiedliwie
8 Uważam, że w gruncie rzeczy świat jest sprawiedliwym miejscem 1 2 3 4 5 6
9 Wierzę, że ludzie na ogół dostają to, na co zasługują 1 2 3 4 5 6
Jestem przekonany, że sprawiedliwość zawsze zwycięża nad
10 1 2 3 4 5 6
niesprawiedliwością
Jestem przekonany, że na dłuższą metę ludzie otrzymają rekompen-
11 1 2 3 4 5 6
satę za niesprawiedliwość
Mocno wierzę, że niesprawiedliwość we wszelkich sferach życia
12 (np. zawodowej, rodzinnej, politycznej) jest raczej wyjątkiem niż 1 2 3 4 5 6
regułą
Uważam, że podejmując ważne decyzje, ludzie starają się być
13 1 2 3 4 5 6
sprawiedliwi
264 PAVEL LARIONOV, KAROLINA MUDŁO-GŁAGOLSKA

Klucz do Skali Wiary w Sprawiedliwy Świat

Pozycje testowe (pytania) od 1 do 7 odnoszą się do podskali Personalnej Wiary

w Sprawiedliwy Świat (Personal Belief in a Just World). Wynik tej podskali to
średnia sumy punktów odpowiedzi z tych pozycji testowych, tj. wynik = (item 1
+ item 2 + item 3 + item 4 + item 5 + item 6 + item 7) / 7.

Pozycje testowe od 8 do 13 odnoszą się do podskali Ogólnej Wiary w Spra-

wiedliwy Świat (General Belief in a Just World). Wynik tej podskali to średnia
sumy punktów odpowiedzi z tych pozycji testowych, tj. wynik = (item 8 + item 9
+ item 10 + item 11 + item 12 + item 13) / 6.