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6 Logarithmic Functions
6.1 Exponential Growth and Decay Functions
6.2 The Natural Base e
6.3 Logarithms and Logarithmic Functions
6.4 Transformations of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
6.5 Properties of Logarithms
6.6 Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations
6.7 Modeling with Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
STEM
When archaeologists discover
organic matter, they can use
carbon dating to approximate
when the organic matter died. In
the Performance Task, you will
use carbon dating to approximate
the age of an ancient manuscript
made from a plant called papyrus.
Andean Prehistory
6
GO DIGITAL
Mathematical Practices
Look for and Express Regularity in Repeated Reasoning
Mathematically proficient students notice if calculations are repeated, and look both
for general methods and for shortcuts.
Work with a partner. The table shows the percents y of carbon-14 remaining in an
organism, where t is the amount of time (in thousands of years) since the organism died.
2. Use the relationships that you described in Exercise 1 to find the percents of
carbon-14 remaining after 6000, 7000, and 8000 years.
291
6
GO DIGITAL
Prepare WITH
WATCH
Example 1 Simplify ( 4p3 ) .
—
3
( 4p3 ) = (4p)3
3 3
— — Power of a Quotient Property
3
43p3
=— Power of a Product Property
33
64p3
=— Simplify.
27
Simplify the expression. Write your answer using only positive exponents.
1. 6b0 2. (−2n)5
3. ( 3w2x )
—
4
4. —
3g
4
22
y
3
−3 1 x range
−1
−3
domain
The domain is −3 ≤ x ≤ 3.
The range is −2 ≤ y ≤ 1.
Find the domain and range of the function represented by the graph.
5. y 6. y 7. y
6 2
2
4
−4 −2 2 4x
−4 −2 2 4x
2 −2
−2
−4
−4 −2 2 4 x
8. STRUCTURE Consider the expressions −an and (−a)n, where a > 0 and n is an integer.
For what values of n is each expression negative? positive? Explain your reasoning.
Decay Functions
Learning Target Write and graph exponential growth and decay functions.
Success Criteria • I can identify and graph exponential growth and decay functions.
• I can write exponential growth and decay functions.
• I can solve real-life problems using exponential growth
and decay functions.
Time (hours), t 0 1 2 3 4 5
Population, P
b. Write a model that represents the population P of the bacteria after t hours.
c. Use the model in part (b) to complete the table. By what factor does the
population increase every half hour? Explain your reasoning.
1 3 5
Time (hours), t 0 —2 1 —2 2 —2 3
Population, P
d. Use the model in part (b) to complete the table. By what factor does the
population increase every 20 minutes? Explain your reasoning.
1 2 4 5
Time (hours), t 0 —3 —3 1 —3 —3 2
Population, P
e. Create a graph that shows the population P after t hours. Would you
expect the actual bacteria population to closely follow this model as
t increases? Explain your reasoning.
KEY IDEA
Parent Function for Exponential Decay Functions
The function f (x) = b x, where 0 < b < 1, is the parent function for the family
of exponential decay functions with base b. The graph shows the general
shape of an exponential decay function.
y
f(x) = b x
(0 < b < 1)
SOLUTION
a. Step 1 Identify the value of the base. The base, 2, is greater than 1, so the function
represents exponential growth.
Step 2 Make a table of values.
y
x −2 −1 0 1 2 3 8
(3, 8)
1 1 6
y —4 —2 1 2 4 8
y = 2x
4
Step 3 Plot the points from the table. (2,
2 4)
(−1, 12 ( 2
Step 4 Draw, from left to right, a smooth curve that
begins just above the x-axis, passes through (−2, 14 ( (0,(1,
1)
2)
b. Step 1 Identify the value of the base. The base, —12 , is greater than 0 and less than 1,
so the function represents exponential decay.
Step 2 Make a table of values.
y
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 (−3, 8)
8
1 1 6
y 8 4 2 1 —2 —4
( 12 (
x
y=
4
(−2, 4)
Step 3 Plot the points from the table. ( 1, 12 (
Step 4 Draw, from right to left, a smooth curve that (−1, 2)
begins just above the x-axis, passes through (0, 1)) (2, 14 (
the plotted points, and moves up to the left. −4 −2 2 4x
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
Exponential Models
Some real-life quantities increase or decrease by a fixed percent each year (or some
other time period). The amount y of such a quantity after t years can be modeled by
one of these equations:
Exponential Growth Model Exponential Decay Model
y = a(1 + r)t y = a(1 − r)t
Note that a is the initial amount and r is the percent increase or decrease written as a
decimal. The quantity 1 + r is the growth factor, and 1 − r is the decay factor.
SOLUTION
a. The base, 0.85, is greater than 0 and less than 1, so the model represents
exponential decay.
Math Practice
b. Because t is given in years and the decay factor
Understand Quantities 0.85 = 1 − 0.15, the annual percent decrease is y = 25(0.85)x
What are the meanings 0.15, or 15%. 20
of the percent decrease
and the decay factor in c. Use technology to determine that y ≈ 8 when 10
(7, 8.014)
this situation? t = 7. After 7 years, the value of the car will be
about $8000.
4 8 12
In 2015, the world population was about 7.38 billion. During the next 5 years, the
world population increased by about 1.09% each year. Write an exponential model
that represents the population y (in billions) t years after 2015. Then estimate the
world population in 2020.
SOLUTION
The initial amount is a = 7.38. The percent increase is r = 0.0109, so use an
exponential growth model.
y = a(1 + r)t Write exponential growth model.
= 7.38(1 + 0.0109) t Substitute 7.38 for a and 0.0109 for r.
= 7.38(1.0109)t Simplify.
To estimate the world population in 2020, evaluate the model when t = 5.
y = 7.38(1.0109)5 ≈ 7.79 billion
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
6. WHAT IF? In Example 2, the value of the car can be approximated by the model
y = 25(0.9)t. Identify the annual percent decrease in the value of the car. Estimate
when the value of the car will be $8000.
7. WHAT IF? In Example 3, assume that starting in 2020, the world population increases
by 0.98% each year for the next 5 years. Use a model to estimate when the world
population will be 8 billion.
8. WHICH ONE DOESN’T BELONG? Which characteristic of an exponential decay
function does not belong with the other three? Explain your reasoning.
base of 0.8 percent decrease of 20% decay factor of 0.8 80% decrease
SOLUTION
y = a(0.5)t/28 Write original function.
= a[(0.5)1/28]t Power of a Power Property
≈ a(0.9755)t Evaluate power.
= a(1 − 0.0245)t Rewrite in form y = a(1 − r)t.
Compound interest is interest paid on an initial investment, called the principal, and on
previously earned interest. Interest earned is often expressed as an annual percent, but
the interest is usually compounded more than once per year. So, the exponential growth
model y = a(1 + r)t must be modified for compound interest problems.
Chromium-51 is used in medical
research. It can be used as a tracer in KEY IDEA
blood for studies of red blood cells.
Compound Interest
Consider an initial principal P deposited in an account that pays interest at an
annual rate r (expressed as a decimal), compounded n times per year. The
amount A in the account after t years is given by
( ).
r nt
A=P 1+—
n
You deposit $9000 in an account that pays 1.46% annual interest. Find the balance
after 3 years when the interest is compounded quarterly.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
9. The amount y (in grams) of the radioactive isotope iodine-123 remaining after t hours
is y = a(0.5)t/13, where a is the initial amount (in grams). What percent of the iodine-123
decays each hour?
10. You deposit $500 in an account that pays 2.5% annual interest. Find the balance after
2 years when the interest is compounded daily.
In Exercises 1– 6, evaluate the expression for (a) x = −2 20. MODELING REAL LIFE The population P (in millions)
and (b) x = 3. of Peru during a recent decade can be approximated
by P = 28.22(1.01)t, where t is the number of years
1. 2x 2. (—)
1 x
4
since the beginning of the decade.
a. Determine whether the model represents
3. 8(3)x 4. 6( — )
1 x
2 exponential growth or exponential decay.
5. 5(1.03)x 6. −2(0.8)x b. Identify the annual percent increase or decrease
in population.
In Exercises 7–16, determine whether the function c. Estimate when the population was about
represents exponential growth or exponential decay. 30 million.
Then graph the function. Example 1
21. MODELING REAL LIFE In 2012, there were about
7. y = 6x 8. y = 7x
6.26 billion cell phone subscribers in the world.
During the next 5 years, the number of cell phone
9. f (x) = () 1 x
—6 10. f (x) = () 1 x
—8
subscribers increased by about 4% each year.
Example 3
11. y = (—)
4 x
3
12. y = (—) 2 x
5
a. Write an exponential model that
13. f (x) = (1.2)x 14. f (x) = (0.75)x represents the number of cell
phone subscribers y (in billions)
15. y = (0.6)x 16. y = (1.8)x t years after 2012. Then estimate
the number of cell phone
subscribers in 2016.
ANALYZING RELATIONSHIPS In Exercises 17 and 18, use
the graph of f (x) = b x to identify the value of the base b. b. Estimate when the number
of cell phone subscribers
17. y 18. y was about 7 billion.
6 6
4 (1, 5)
4 22. MODELING REAL LIFE You take a 325-milligram
(1, 3) dosage of ibuprofen. The amount of medication in
2 2
your bloodstream decreases by about 29% each hour.
(−1, (1
3 (0, 1) (−1, ( 1
5 (0, 1)
−2 2 4x −2 2 4x a. Write an exponential model that represents the
amount y (in milligrams) of ibuprofen in your
bloodstream t hours after the initial dose.
19. MODELING REAL LIFE The value of a mountain bike
y (in dollars) can be approximated by the model b. Estimate when you will have 100 milligrams of
y = 200(0.65)t, where t is the number of years since ibuprofen in your bloodstream.
the bike was purchased. Example 2
JUSTIFYING STEPS In Exercises 23 and 24, justify each
a. Determine whether the model represents step in rewriting the exponential function.
exponential growth or exponential decay.
23. y = a(3)t/14 Write original function.
b. Identify the annual percent increase or decrease
in the value of the bike. = a[(3)1/14]t
c. Estimate when the ≈ a(1.0816)t
value of the bike
= a(1 + 0.0816)t
will be $50.
24. y = a(0.1)t/3 Write original function.
= a[(0.1)1/3]t
≈ a(0.4642)t
= a(1 − 0.5358)t
25. MODELING REAL LIFE When a plant or an In Exercises 39– 42, use the given information
animal dies, it stops acquiring carbon-14 from the to find the balance in the account earning GO DIGITAL
atmosphere. The amount y (in grams) of carbon-14 compound interest after 6 years when the
in the body of an organism t years after the organism principal is $3500.
dies is y = a(0.5)t/5730, where a is the initial amount
(in grams). What percent of the carbon-14 is released 39. r = 2.16%, compounded quarterly
each year? Example 4
40. r = 2.29%, compounded monthly
26. MODELING REAL LIFE The number y of Salmonella 41. r = 1.26%, compounded monthly
cells on an egg after t minutes is y = a(4.7)t/45, where
a is the initial number of cells. By what percent does 42. r = 1.83%, compounded daily
the number of Salmonella cells increase each minute?
43. STRUCTURE In the compound interest formula
In Exercises 27–34, rewrite the function in the form for interest compounded yearly, A = P(1 + r)t, what
y = a(1 + r) t or y = a(1 − r) t. State the growth or decay does P represent? What does (1 + r)t represent? Does
rate, and describe the end behavior of the function. P depend on (1 + r)t? Does (1 + r)t depend on P?
Explain.
27. y = a(2)t/3 28. y = a(4)t/6
44. STRUCTURE A website recorded the number y
29. y = a(0.5)t/12 30. y = a(0.25)t/9
of referrals it received from social media websites
over a 10-year period. The results can be modeled by
31. y = a —3()
2 t/10
()
32. y = a —4
5 t/22
y = 2500(1.50)t, where t is the year and 0 ≤ t ≤ 9.
Interpret what the numbers 2500 and 1.50 represent
33. y = a(2)8t 34. y = a (—)
1 3t
3 in this situation. What is the annual percent increase?
Explain.
35. PROBLEM SOLVING You deposit $5000 in an
account that pays 2.25% annual interest. Find the
45. COMPARING FUNCTIONS y
balance after 5 years when the interest is compounded
Compare the graph of
quarterly. Example 5 4
g
f (x) = 2(1.5)x to the graph of g.
Which graph has a greater 2
36. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS You deposit $2200 into
y-intercept? Which graph is
each of three separate bank accounts that pay 3%
increasing at a faster rate? 2 4 x
annual interest. Interest is compounded quarterly in
Explain your reasoning.
Account 1, monthly in Account 2, and daily in
Account 3. How much interest does each account
earn after 6 years? 46. HOW DO YOU SEE IT?
The graph shows an y
37. ERROR ANALYSIS You invest $500 in the stock of a exponential function f
company. The value of the stock decreases 2% each of the form f (x) = ab x. (−1, 4)
year. Describe and correct the error in writing a model a. Determine whether
for the value of the stock after t years. f represents (0, 1) (1, 14 (
exponential growth
( amount ) ( factor ) (2, 161 (
t x
✗
Initial Decay or exponential decay.
y=
b. What are the domain
y = 500(0.02)t and range of the function? Explain.
( )⋅
4 3
✗
1.25
A = 250 1 + — 48. THOUGHT PROVOKING
4 The function f (x) = b x represents exponential
= $6533.29 decay. Write another exponential decay function
in terms of b and x.
C 10.0 g D 1209.4 g a. Identify the decay factor and the percent decrease.
b. Graph the equation.
50. REASONING Consider the exponential function c. Estimate the egg production of a chicken that is
f (x) = ab x. 2.5 years old.
f (x + 1)
a. Show that — = b. d. Explain how you can rewrite the given equation
f (x) so that time is measured in years rather than
b. Use the equation in part (a) to explain why there in weeks.
is no exponential function of the form f (x) = ab x
whose graph passes through the points in the table. 52. You buy a new laptop for $1300 and
sell it 4 years later for $275. Assume that the resale
x 0 1 2 3 4 value of the laptop decays exponentially with time.
y 4 4 8 24 72 Write an equation that represents the resale value V
(in dollars) of the laptop as a function of the time t
(in years) since it was purchased.
55. ( )
4x8
—6
2x
4
12x
56. — + 5x
4x
65. y = (3.25)x
66. y = —4()3 x
()
f
— (x) and state the domain of each. Then evaluate
g
recorded by their fitness trackers, are shown.
1.86, 5.31, 7.18, 5.20, 1.49, 2.25,
f
()
( fg)(4) and — (4).
g 3.43, 3.93, 4.70, 6.18, 12.28
a. Make a box-and-whisker plot that represents the
In Exercises 61– 64, let f(x) = x2 − 6, g(x) = −—12 x + 5, data. Describe the shape of the distribution.
and h(x) = 4x−1. Perform the indicated composition
and state the domain. b. Does the data set contain any outliers? If so,
explain how the outlier(s) affect the mean and
61. g(h(x)) 62. f (g(x)) five-number summary.
Learning Target Use the natural base e and graph natural base functions.
( 1 + 1x ) .
x
—
( )
x
1
1+—
x
x −2 −1 0 1 2
y = ex
e. Repeat part (d) for the natural base exponential function y = e−x. Compare
the graphs of y = e x and y = e−x.
( )
x
1 2
1+— 1 x
x
1
y= 1+x( (
approaches e as x increases, as shown in the graph
and table. 4 8 12 x
( )
x
1
1+— 2.59374 2.70481 2.71692 2.71815 2.71827 2.71828
x
KEY IDEA
The Natural Base e
The natural base e is irrational. It is defined as follows:
( )
x
1
As x approaches +∞, 1 + — approaches e ≈ 2.71828182846.
x
a. e3 e6⋅ 16e5
b. —
4e4
—
c. (3e−4x)2 d. √ 4e2x
Check
You can use technology to SOLUTION
check the equivalence of
numerical expressions ⋅
a. e3 e6 = e3 + 6
16e5
b. —
4e4
= 4e5 − 4
involving e.
= e9 = 4e
e3 ∙ e6
⋅ √e
= 8103.08392758 — — —
c. (3e−4x)2 = 32(e−4x)2 d. √ 4e2x = √4 2x
e9 = 8103.08392758 = 9e−8x ⋅
= 2 (e2x)1/2
9
=— = 2ex
e8x
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
√19e
—
2. e7 ⋅ e4 3. —
24e8
58e
4. (10e−3x)3 5. — 8x
271,801
6. REASONING Can the natural base e be written as —? Explain.
99,990
KEY IDEA
Natural Base Functions
A function of the form y = aerx is called a natural base exponential function.
• When a > 0 and r > 0, the function is an exponential growth function.
• When a > 0 and r < 0, the function is an exponential decay function.
The graphs of the basic functions y = e x and y = e−x are shown.
y y
7 7
exponential
exponential decay
5 5
growth y = ex y = e−x
3 3
(1, 2.718)
(0, 1)
(0, 1) (1, 0.368)
−4 −2 2 4 x −4 −2 2 4 x
SOLUTION
a. Because a = 3 is positive and b. Because a = 1 is positive and
Math Practice r = 1 is positive, the function is r = −0.5 is negative, the function
Look for Structure an exponential growth function. is an exponential decay function.
Show how you can Use a table to graph the function. Use a table to graph the function.
rewrite the function in
Example 2(b) to find the x −2 −1 0 1 x −4 −2 0 2
percent rate of change.
y 0.41 1.10 3 8.15 f (x) 7.39 2.72 1 0.37
y y
16 (−4, 7.39)
12 6
8
(1, 8.15) 4
(−1, 1.10)
(−2, 2.72) 2
(−2, 0.41) (0, 3) (2, 0.37)
(0, 1)
−4 −2 2 4x −4 −2 2 4x
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
( r nt
)
is given by A = P 1 + — . As the frequency n of compounding approaches
n
positive infinity, the compound interest formula approximates the following formula.
KEY IDEA
Continuously Compounded Interest
When interest is compounded continuously, the amount A in an account after
t years is given by the formula
A = Pe rt
where P is the principal and r is the annual interest rate expressed as a decimal.
Your Friend’s Account You and your friend each have accounts that earn annual interest compounded
continuously. The balance A (in dollars) of your account after t years can be modeled
A by A = 4500e0.04t. The graph shows the balance of your friend’s account over time.
12,000 Which account has a greater principal? Which has a greater balance after 10 years?
SOLUTION
Balance (dollars)
10,000
8,000 1. Understand the Problem You are given a graph and an equation that represent
account balances. You are asked to identify the account with the greater principal
6,000 and the account with the greater balance after 10 years.
4,000 2. Make a Plan Use the equation to find your principal and account balance after
(0, 4000)
10 years. Then compare these values to the graph that shows your friend’s account.
2,000
3. Solve and Check The equation A = 4500e0.04t is of the form A = Pe rt, where
0
0 4 8 12 16 t
P = 4500. So, your principal is $4500. Your balance A when t = 10 is
Year A = 4500e0.04(10) = $6713.21.
Because the graph passes through (0, 4000), your friend’s principal is $4000. The
graph also shows that the balance is about $7250 when t = 10.
So, your account has a greater principal, but your friend’s account has a greater
balance after 10 years.
Check Reasonableness Because your friend’s account has a lesser principal but
Math Practice a greater balance after 10 years, the average rate of change from t = 0 to t = 10
Make Conjectures should be greater for your friend’s account than for your account.
How can you use the
A(10) − A(0) 6713.21 − 4500
average rates of change Your account: —— = —— = 221.321
10 − 0 10
to compare the annual
interest rates of the
accounts?
A(10) − A(0) 7250 − 4000
Your friend’s account: —— ≈ —— = 325
10 − 0 10
✓
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
11. You deposit $4250 in an account that earns 5% annual interest compounded continuously.
a. Compare the balance after 10 years with the balances of the accounts in Example 3.
b. How much more money does this account earn after 10 years with interest
compounded continuously than with interest compounding monthly? yearly?
In Exercises 1–10, simplify the expression. In Exercises 17–24, determine whether the function
Example 1 represents exponential growth or exponential decay.
Then graph the function. Example 2
1. ⋅
e3 e5 2. e−4 e6 ⋅ 17. y = e3x 18. y = e−0.8x
11e9 27e7
3. — 4. —
10
22e 43e 19. y = 2e−x 20. y = 3e2x
5. (5e7x)4 6. (4e−2x)3 1
21. y = —2 e x
1
22. y = —4 e−3x
— 3—
7. √ 9e6x 8. √ 8e12x 23. y = 0.4e−0.25x 24. y = 0.6e0.5x
⋅ ⋅
9. e x e−6x e8 ⋅ ⋅
10. ex e4 e x + 3
STRUCTURE In Exercises 25–28, use the properties
of exponents to rewrite the function in the form
ERROR ANALYSIS In Exercises 11 and 12, describe and y = a(1 + r) t or y = a(1 − r) t. Then find the percent
correct the error in simplifying the expression. rate of change.
11. 25. y = e−0.75t 26. y = e−0.25t
✗ (4e3x)2 = 4e (3x)(2)
= 4e 6x
27. y = 2e0.4t 28. y = 0.5e0.8t
✗
e5x
—
e−2x
= e 5x − 2x the domain and range.
= e 3x 29. y = e x − 2 30. y = e x + 1
31. y = 2e x + 1 32. y = 3e x − 5
ANALYZING EQUATIONS In Exercises 13–16, match the
function with its graph. Explain your reasoning. 33. MODELING REAL LIFE Investment accounts for a
house and education earn annual interest compounded
13. y = e2x 14. y = e−2x
continuously. The balance A (in dollars) of the
house account after t years can be modeled by
15. y = 4e−0.5x 16. y = 0.75e x
A = 3224e0.05t. The graph shows the balance of the
education account over time. Which account has
A. y B. y
8 8 a greater principal? Which account has a greater
(−1, 7.39) balance after 12 years? Example 3
6 (−1, 6.59)
−4 −2 2 4x −4 −2 2 4x 8,000
C. y D. y 6,000
8 8
(1, 7.39) (0, 4856)
4,000
6 6
2,000
4 4
0
2 2 0 4 8 12 16 t
(0, 0.75) (1, 2.04)
(0, 1) Year
−4 −2 2 4x −4 −2 2 4x
(milligrams)
20
Amount
sample of tritium, the an x-intercept of 1000. Is your friend correct?
amount y (in milligrams) 10 Explain your reasoning.
remaining after t years is
given by y = 10e−0.0562t. 0
0 10 20 t 38. HOW DO YOU SEE IT?
The graph shows the Year Use the graph to complete y
amount of sodium-22 each statement. f
remaining in a sample over time. Which sample has 2
a greater initial amount? Which sample has a greater a. f (x) approaches ____
amount remaining after 5 years? as x approaches +∞. −2 2 x
b. f (x) approaches ____
35. OPEN-ENDED Find values of a, b, r, and q such that as x approaches −∞.
f (x) = aerx and g(x) = be qx are exponential decay
f (x)
functions, but — represents exponential growth.
g(x) 39. PROBLEM SOLVING The number of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria after t hours can
36. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS You want to invest $2500 be modeled by the function N(t) = ae 0.166t, where a
in an account to save for college. Account 1 pays 6% is the number of bacteria at 12:00 p.m. At 1:00 p.m.,
annual interest compounded quarterly. Account 2 pays there are 30 M. tuberculosis bacteria in a sample. Find
4% annual interest compounded continuously. Which the number of bacteria in the sample at 3:45 p.m.
account should you choose to obtain the greater
amount in 10 years? Justify your answer.
40. THOUGHT PROVOKING
( r nt
)
Explain why A = P 1 + — approximates
n
A = Pe rt as n approaches positive infinity.
43. y = 3(x + 2)(x − 2) 44. y = −(x + 6)2 + 1 In Exercises 51 and 52, graph the inequality.
45. Write the cubic function whose graph is shown. 51. y < x2 − 6x 52. y ≥ x2 + 3x − 4
y
4 In Exercises 53–56, find the inverse of the function.
(−5, 0) (1, 0) (4, 0) Then graph the function and its inverse.
−8 8x
53. y = 3x + 5 54. y = x2 − 1, x ≤ 0
−4
—
55. y = √ x + 6 56. y = x3 − 2
(−4, −8)
−12 57. MODELING REAL LIFE The function f (t) = 9.75t
represents your earnings (in dollars) for working
t hours. The function t(x) = 15x represents the total
46. REASONING When a polynomial f (x) is number of hours you work after x weeks.
divided by x − 2, the remainder is −11. Find one
point on the graph of y = f (x). a. Find f (t(x)). Interpret the coefficient.
b. Evaluate f (t(12)) and explain what it represents.
Functions
Learning Target Understand logarithms and graph logarithmic functions.
b. Use your results in part (a) to describe the relationship among the values
of b, x, and y in the equation shown.
logb y = x
d. Plot the points (x, log10 x) from part (c). Draw a smooth curve through
the points. Make several observations about the graph.
Math Practice 4
log10 x
−4
SOLUTION
Logarithmic Form Exponential Form
a. log2 16 = 4 24 = 16
b. log4 1 = 0 40 = 1
c. log12 12 = 1 121 = 12
d. log1/4 4 = −1 (—)
1 −1
4
=4
SOLUTION
Exponential Form Logarithmic Form
a. 52 = 25 log5 25 = 2
b. 10−1 = 0.1 log10 0.1 = −1
c. 82/3 =4 log8 4 = —23
1 1
d. 6−3 = —
216
log6 —
216
= −3
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
SOLUTION
To help you find the value of logb y, ask yourself “What power of b gives you y?”
a. What power of 4 gives you 64? 43 = 64, so log4 64 = 3.
b. What power of 5 gives you 0.2? 5−1 = 0.2, so log5 0.2 = −1.
c. What power of —15 gives you 125? (—)
1 −3
5
= 125, so log1/5 125 = −3.
d. What power of 36 gives you 6? 361/2 = 6, so log36 6 = —12.
Evaluate (a) log 8 and (b) ln 0.3 using technology. Round your answer to
Check Rewrite each logarithm three decimal places.
in exponential form and
evaluate. SOLUTION
10 0.903 = 7.99834255 a. log 8 ≈ 0.903
log 8 = 0.903089987
b. ln 0.3 ≈ −1.204
e−1.204 = 0.2999918414
ln 0.3 = −1.203972804
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
Evaluate the logarithm. If necessary, use technology and round your answer to three
decimal places.
9. log2 32 10. log27 3 11. log 12 12. ln 0.75
13. DIFFERENT WORDS, SAME QUESTION Which is different? Find “both” answers.
SOLUTION
a. 10log 4 = 4 blogb x = x
b. log5 25x = log5(52)x Express 25 as a power with base 5.
= log5 52x Power of a Power Property
= 2x logb b x = x
SOLUTION
a. From the definition of logarithm, the inverse of f (x) = 6 x is f −1(x) = log6 x.
b. Set y equal to f (x). Switch the roles of x and y and solve for y.
y = ln(x + 3) Set y equal to f(x).
x = ln( y + 3) Switch x and y.
STUDY TIP ex =y+3 Write in exponential form.
From the definition of ex −3=y Subtract 3 from each side.
ln x, x = loge(y + 3).
In exponential form, The inverse of f is f −1(x) = e x − 3.
this is written as
ex = y + 3.
Check
a. f ( f −1(x)) = 6log6 x = x ✓
f −1( f (x)) = log6 6 x =x ✓
b. ✓
f ( f −1(x)) = ln(e x − 3 + 3) = ln e x = x
f −1( f (x)) = e ln(x + 3) −3=x+3−3=x ✓
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
14. 8log8 x 15. log7 7−3x 16. log2 64x 17. eln 20
18. Find the inverse of (a) f (x) = 4x and (b) f (x) = ln(x − 5).
KEY IDEA
Graphing Logarithmic Functions
The graph of f (x) = logb x is shown below for b > 1 and for 0 < b < 1.
Because f (x) = logb x and g(x) = bx are inverse functions, you can graph f by
reversing coordinates of points on the graph of g. The graph of f is the reflection
of the graph of g in the line y = x.
Graph of f (x) = logb x for b > 1 Graph of f (x) = logb x for 0 < b < 1
y y
g(x) = b x
g(x) = b x
(0, 1)
(0,
0 1)
(0
(1, 0) x (1, 0) x
Note that the y-axis is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f (x) = logb x. The
domain of f (x) = logb x is x > 0, and the range is all real numbers.
SOLUTION
Step 1 Find the inverse of f. From the definition of logarithm, the inverse of
f (x) = log3 x is f −1(x) = 3x.
y
10
Step 2 Make a table of values for f −1.
f −1(x) = 3x x −2 −1 0 1 2
8
1 1
f −1(x) —9 —3 1 3 9
6
4
Step 3 Make a table of values for f. 1 1
x —9 —3 1 3 9
2 Reverse the coordinates of the
points represented by the table
f (x) −2 −1 0 1 2
−2 2 4 6 8 x in Step 2.
−2 f(x) = log3 x
Step 4 Plot the points from each table. Connect each set of points with
a smooth curve.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
In Exercises 1–6, rewrite the equation in exponential 30. MODELING REAL LIFE Skydivers use an altimeter
form. Example 1 to track their altitudes as they fall. The altimeter
determines altitude by measuring air pressure. The
1. log3 9 = 2 2. log4 4 = 1 altitude h (in meters) above sea level is related to the
air pressure P (in pascals) by the function shown in
3. log6 1 = 0 4. log7 343 = 3 the diagram. What is the altitude above sea level when
1
the air ppressure is 57,000 ppascals?
5. log1/2 16 = −4 6. log3 —3 = −1
1 1
9. 16−1 = —
16
10. 5−2 = —
25
h=?
h = 3552 m P = 57,000 Pa
1 P = 65,000 Pa
11. 1252/3 = 25 12. 49−1/2 = —7 Not drawn to scale
In Exercises 13–20, evaluate the logarithm. In Exercises 31–38, simplify the expression.
Example 3 Example 5
13. log3 81 14. log7 49 31. 7log7 x 32. 3log3 5x
21. NUMBER SENSE Order the logarithms from 39. WRITING Describe the relationship between y = 7x
least value to greatest value. and y = log7 x.
log5 23 log6 38 log7 8 log2 10
40. COLLEGE PREP Which expression is equal to 1?
A log 1 B log2 1
22. STRUCTURE How many times greater is the
value of log10 1020 than the value of log10 105? C ln 1 D log2 2
In Exercises 23–28, evaluate the logarithm using 41. ERROR ANALYSIS Describe and correct the error in
1
technology. Round your answer to three decimal places. rewriting 4−3 = —
64
in logarithmic form.
Example 4
23. log 6
25. ln —13
24. ln 12
2
26. log —7
✗ log4 (−3) = —
1
64
49. f (x) = e3x 50. y = e x − 4 65. MAKING AN ARGUMENT Does the graph of every
function of the form y = logb x pass through the point
51. y = 5x − 9 52. y = 13 + log x (1, 0)? Explain your reasoning.
53. MODELING REAL LIFE The wind speed (in miles per 66. ANALYZING RELATIONSHIPS Order the functions
hour) near the center of a tornado can be modeled from the least average rate of change to the greatest
by f (x) = 93 log x + 65, where x is the distance average rate of change when 1 ≤ x ≤ 10.
(in miles) the tornado travels.
a. y = log6 x b. y = log3/5 x
a. In 2019, a tornado traveled 2.05 miles through
c. y d. y
Georgia. Estimate the wind speed near the center 8 8
g
of the tornado.
4 4
b. Find and interpret f −1(x).
x
2 4 8 x
f
In Exercises 55–60, graph the function. Example 7 a. Compare the end behavior of the logarithmic
function g to that of the exponential function f.
55. f (x) = log4 x 56. y = log6 x b. Determine whether the functions are inverse
functions. Explain.
57. y = log1/3 x 58. y = log1/4 x
c. What is the base of each function? Explain.
59. y = log2 x − 1 60. f (x) = log3(x + 2)
−4
4 2x Male 12 3 5
−4 f(x) = −2 f(x) = (x +22)2
−2 −1 Female 10 5 5
75. y 76. y
In Exercises 88 and 89, determine whether the
f(x) = 2 − .x − 1. f(x) = −x − 1
function represents exponential growth or exponential
2
−2 2 4x decay. Then graph the function.
x
−2
−4 2 88. y = (0.8)x
— 90. y = 3 − log4 x
79. (2ex)4 80. √ 4e8x
91. f(x) = log7(x − 1)
In Exercises 81 and 82, solve the equation.
92. MODELING REAL LIFE The volume of the largest
81. 0 = x2 + 12x + 11 82. n2 − n = 0
of the six pyramids constructed by the Norte Chico
people in Caral, Peru is about 4,500,000 cubic feet.
In Exercises 83 and 84, find the real solution(s) of
What is the height of the pyramid?
the equation. Round your answer(s) to two decimal
places when appropriate.
−4 2 x
−2 2 4 x
−2
g
−4
Math Practice e. y f. y
4 4
Look for Structure g
2
How can you use the
asymptotes to match the
−4 2 4x −4 −2 2 x
functions and graphs?
−2 g −2
−4 −4
KEY IDEAS
Transformation f(x) Notation Examples
Horizontal Translation g(x) = 4x − 3 3 units right
f (x − h)
Graph shifts left or right. g(x) = 4x + 2 2 units left
Vertical Translation g(x) = 4x + 5 5 units up
f(x) + k
Graph shifts up or down. g(x) = 4x − 1 1 unit down
Reflection f (−x) g(x) = 4−x in the y-axis
Graph flips over a line. −f (x) g(x) = −4x in the x-axis
Horizontal Stretch or Shrink g(x) = 42x shrink by a
Graph stretches away from 1
factor of —
or shrinks toward y-axis f(ax) 2
1 g(x) = 4x/2 stretch by a
by a factor of —.
a factor of 2
Vertical Stretch or Shrink g(x) = 3(4x) stretch by a
Graph stretches away from factor of 3
or shrinks toward x-axis ⋅
a f(x) 1
g(x) = — (4x) shrink by a
by a factor of a. 4 1
factor of —
4
() ()
x x
Describe the transformation of f (x) = —12 represented by g(x) = —12 − 4.
Then graph each function.
SOLUTION
()
x
Notice that the function is of the form g(x) = —12 + k.
STUDY TIP
Notice in the graph that Rewrite the function to identify k.
g f y
()
x
the vertical translation g(x) = —12 + (−4)
also shifts the asymptote 3
4 units down, so the range
of g is y > −4. k
−3 1 3 x
Because k = −4, the graph of g −1
is a translation 4 units down of
the graph of f.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
SOLUTION
Notice that the function is of the form
STUDY TIP g(x) = e x − h + k. Rewrite the function to
g y f
Notice in the graph that identify h and k. 7
the vertical translation
g(x) = e x − (−3) + 2 5
also shifts the asymptote
2 units up, so the range 3
of g is y > 2. h k
Because h = −3 and k = 2, the graph
of g is a translation 3 units left and −6 −4 −2 2x
2 units up of the graph of f.
SOLUTION
a. Notice that the function is of the b. Notice that the function is
form g(x) = 3ax − h, where a = 3 of the form g(x) = ae−x,
and h = 5. where a = − —18 .
4
−4 2 4x
2 −2
g −4
−2 2 4 x
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
KEY IDEAS
Transformation
Tran f(x) Notation Examples
Hori
Horizontal Translation g(x) = log(x − 4) 4 units right
f (x − h)
Graph shifts left or right.
Grap g(x) = log(x + 7) 7 units left
Vert
Vertical Translation g(x) = log x + 3 3 units up
f(x) + k
Grap
Graph shifts up or down. g(x) = log x − 1 1 unit down
Refleection f (−x) g(x) = log(−x) in the y-axis
Grap
Graph flips over a line. −f (x) g(x) = −log x in the x-axis
Hori
Horizontal Stretch or Shrink g(x) = log(4x) shrink by a
Grap
Graph stretches away from 1
factor of —
f (ax) 4
( )
or sh
shrinks toward y-axis 1
1 g(x) = log — x stretch by a
by a factor of —. 3
a factor of 3
Vertical Stretch or Shrink
Vert g(x) = 5 log x stretch by a
Graph stretches away from
Grap factor of 5
shrinks toward x-axis
or sh ⋅
a f(x) 2
g(x) = — log x shrink by a
by a factor of a. 3 2
factor of —
3
EXAMPLE 4
EXAM Transforming Logarithmic Functions
SOLUTION
SOLUT
Notice that the function is of the form g(x) = log(ax), where a = − —12 .
a. Notic
Let the graph of g be a reflection in the x-axis, followed by a translation 4 units right
of the graph of f (x) = 2x. Write a rule for g.
SOLUTION
Check Step 1 First write a function h that represents the reflection of f.
f h(x) = −f (x) Multiply the output by −1.
2
= −2x Substitute 2x for f (x).
Let the graph of g be a translation 2 units up, followed by a vertical stretch by a factor
of 2 of the graph of f (x) = log1/3 x. Write a rule for g.
SOLUTION
Step 1 First write a function h that represents the translation of f.
Check h(x) = f (x) + 2 Add 2 to the output.
6
g = log1/3 x + 2 Substitute log1/3 x for f (x).
4 Step 2 Then write a function g that represents the vertical stretch of h.
2
h ⋅
g(x) = 2 h(x) Multiply the output by 2.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
13. Let the graph of g be a reflection in the y-axis, followed by a translation 4 units left
of the graph of f (x) = log x. Write a rule for g.
In Exercises 1– 4, match the function with its graph. In Exercises 15–22, describe the transformation
Explain your reasoning. of f represented by g. Then graph each function.
Example 3
1. y = 2x + 2 − 2
4
15. f (x) = e x, g(x) = e2x 16. f (x) = e x, g (x) = —3 e x
2. y = 2x + 2 +2
17. f (x) = 2x, g(x) = −2x − 3
3. y = 2x − 2 − 2
18. f (x) = 4x, g(x) = 40.5x − 5
4. y = 2x − 2 + 2
19. f (x) = e−x, g(x) = 3e−6x
A. B.
y y 20. f (x) = e−x, g(x) = e−5x + 2
4 6
21. f (x) = 0.5x, g(x) = 6(0.5)x + 5 − 2
2 4
−4 −2 4x
()3 x
22. f (x) = —4 , g(x) = − —4 ()
3 x−7
+1
✗
3 y
−4 2 4x g f
−1 1 8
−6 −4 −2 2x
7. f (x) = e x, g(x) = e x − 1 −4 −2 2 4x
−2
8. f (x) = e x, g(x) = e x + 4 g
12. f (x) = e−x, g(x) = e−x − 9 25. f (x) = log4 x, g(x) = 3 log4 x − 5
()
2 x
36. f (x) = —3 ; reflection in the x-axis, followed by a
x vertical stretch by a factor of 6 and a translation
4 units left
1
37. f (x) = ex; horizontal shrink by a factor of —2 , followed
by a translation 5 units up
29. y = f (x − 2) 30. y = f (x + 2)
38. f (x) = e−x; translation 4 units right and 1 unit down,
31. y = 2f (x) 32. y = f (2x) followed by a vertical shrink by a factor of —13
x x
39. f (x) = log6 x; vertical stretch by a factor of 6,
followed by a translation 5 units down
40. f (x) = log5 x; reflection in the x-axis, followed by a
translation 9 units left
g (x) = h(x + 3) + 1
=4 ⋅8 x+3 +1 Up to 12 miles
per hour
58.
Balance (dollars)
Months, x 3 6 9 12 40
Attendance 30
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 (0, 30)
(thousands), y
20
Logarithmic Form of mn = b x + y
mn = b x + y logb mn = x + y
Math Practice
Make Conjectures
Do you think you can
extend the Product Product Property
Property of Logarithms to of Logarithms
more than two factors? logb mn = logb m + logb n
6.5
65 Properties
Pro
Propertiies of Logarithms 323
Properties of Logarithms
GO DIGITAL
You know that the logarithmic function with base b is the inverse
function of the exponential function with base b. Because of this relationship,
it makes sense that logarithms have properties similar to properties of exponents.
KEY IDEA
Properties of Logarithms
STUDY TIP Let b, m, and n be positive real numbers with b ≠ 1.
These three properties of Product Property logb mn = logb m + logb n
logarithms correspond to
m
these three properties Quotient Property logb — = logb m − logb n
n
of exponents.
Power Property logb mn = n logb m
aman = am + n
am
— n
= am − n
a EXAMPLE 1 Using Properties of Logarithms
(am)n = amn
Use log2 3 ≈ 1.585 and log2 7 ≈ 2.807 to evaluate each logarithm.
SOLUTION
a. log2 —37 = log2 3 − log2 7 Quotient Property
COMMON ERROR ≈ 1.585 − 2.807 Use the given values of log2 3 and log2 7.
Note that in general
= −1.222 Subtract.
m logb m
logb — ≠ — and
n logb n
logb mn ≠ (logb m)(logb n).
b. log2 21 = log2(3 7) ⋅ Write 21 as 3 7.⋅
= log2 3 + log2 7 Product Property
≈ 1.585 + 2.807 Use the given values of log2 3 and log2 7.
= 4.392 Add.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
5. STRUCTURE Without using technology, can you use the approximations given below
to evaluate ln x for all integer values of x between 1 and 10? Explain your reasoning.
ln 2 ≈ 0.6931, ln 3 ≈ 1.0986, ln 5 ≈ 1.6094
5x7
Expand ln —.
y
STUDY TIP
When you are expanding SOLUTION
or condensing an
5x7
expression involving ln — = ln 5x7 − ln y Quotient Property
y
logarithms, you can
assume that any variables = ln 5 + ln x7 − ln y Product Property
are positive. = ln 5 + 7 ln x − ln y Power Property
SOLUTION
log 9 + 3 log 2 − log 3 = log 9 + log 23 − log 3 Power Property
⋅
= log(9 23) − log 3 Product Property
9 ⋅2 3
= log — Quotient Property
3
= log 24 Simplify.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
Change-of-Base Formula
Logarithms with any base other than 10 or e can be written in terms of common or
natural logarithms using the change-of-base formula. This allows you to evaluate any
logarithm using a calculator.
KEY IDEA
Change-of-Base Formula
If a, b, and c are positive real numbers with b ≠ 1 and c ≠ 1, then
logb a
logc a = — .
logb c
log a ln a
In particular, logc a = — and logc a = —.
log c ln c
SOLUTION
log 8 log a
log3 8 = — logc a = —
log 3 log c
ANOTHER WAY
≈ 1.893 Use technology.
You can also evaluate
log3 8 using natural
logarithms. EXAMPLE 5 Changing a Base Using Natural Logarithms
ln 8
log3 8 = — ≈ 1.893 Evaluate log6 24 using natural logarithms.
ln 3
Notice that you get the
SOLUTION
same answer whether you
use natural logarithms or ln 24 ln a
log6 24 = — logc a = —
common logarithms in the ln 6 ln c
change-of-base formula. ≈ 1.774 Use technology.
For a sound with intensity I (in watts per square meter), the loudness L(I ) of the
sound (in decibels) is given by the function
I
L(I) = 10 log —
I0
where I0 is the intensity of a barely audible sound (about 10−12 watt per square meter).
An artist in a recording studio turns up the volume of a track so that the intensity of the
sound doubles. By how many decibels does the loudness increase?
SOLUTION
Let I be the original intensity, so that 2I is the doubled intensity.
increase in loudness = L(2I ) − L(I ) Write an expression.
2I I
= 10 log — − 10 log — Substitute.
I0 I0
( 2I
= 10 log — − log —
I0
I
I0 ) Distributive Property
( I
= 10 log 2 + log — − log —
I0
I
I0 ) Product Property
= 10 log 2 Simplify.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
In Exercises 11–18, expand the logarithmic expression. MODELING REAL LIFE In Exercises 37 and 38, use the
Example 2 I
function L(I ) = 10 log — given in Example 6.
I0
11. log3 2x 12. log8 3x
37. The intensity of the sound of a television commercial
13. log 10x5 14. ln 3x4 is 10 times greater than the intensity of the television
program it follows. By how many decibels does the
x 6x2 loudness increase? Example 6
15. ln — 16. ln —4
3y y
— 3— 38. The blue whale can produce sound with an intensity
17. log7 5√ x 18. log5 √ x2y
that is 1 million times greater than the intensity of
the loudest sound a human can make. Find the
ERROR ANALYSIS In Exercises 19 and 20, difference in the loudness of the sounds made by
describe and correct the error in expanding a blue whale and a human.
the logarithmic expression.
19.
20.
✗ ln 7x3 = 3 ln 7x
= 3(ln 7 + ln x)
= 3 ln 7 + 3 ln x 39. COLLEGE PREP Which of the following is not
y4
equivalent to log5 —?
3x
In Exercises 21–28, condense the logarithmic A 4 log5 y − log5 3x
expression. Example 3
B 4 log5 y − log5 3 + log5 x
21. log4 7 − log4 10 22. ln 12 − ln 4
C 4 log5 y − log5 3 − log5 x
23. 6 ln x + 4 ln y 24. 2 log x + log 11 D log5 y4 − log5 3 − log5 x
Logarithmic Equations
Learning Target Solve exponential and logarithmic equations and inequalities.
i. 4x = 2 ii. log4 x = 1
y y
4 4
−4 −2 2 4x −4 −2 2 4x
−2 −2
−4 −4
i. e x = 2
ii. ln x = −1
iii. 2x = 3−x
d. Solve one of the equations in part (b) using an analytical approach, such as
using properties of exponents and logarithms. Explain your reasoning.
Math Practice
Look for Structure
What are some e. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of the solution methods
characteristics of an in parts (b)–(d)?
equation that can
help you choose your
solution method?
The property above is useful for solving an exponential equation when each side has
the same base (or can be rewritten using the same base). When it is not convenient to
rewrite each side of an exponential equation using the same base, you can try to solve
the equation by taking a logarithm of each side.
SOLUTION
Check
a. 100x = —1
10 ( ) x−3
Write original equation.
? 1
( )
1001 = —1
10
1−3 (102)x = (10−1)x − 3 Rewrite 100 and —
10
as powers with base 10.
Check
Use technology to graph y = 2x and 8
1 2 3 4
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
1. (—)
1 1−x
5
= 252x + 1 2. 82x − 1 = 24x − 4 3. 2x = 5 4. 79x = 15
SOLUTION
SOLU
Newton’s Law of Cooling with T = 100, T0 = 212, TR = 70, and r = 0.046.
Use N
T = (T0 − TR)e−rt + TR Newton’s Law of Cooling
100 = (212 − 70)e−0.046t + 70 Substitute for T, T0, TR, and r.
30 = 142e−0.046t Subtract 70 from each side.
0.211 ≈ e−0.046t Divide each side by 142.
ln 0.211 ≈ ln e−0.046t Take natural log of each side.
−1.556 ≈ −0.046t
− ln e x = loge e x = x
33.8 ≈ t Divide each side by −0.046.
Y
You should wait about 34 minutes before serving the stew.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
KEY IDEA
Property of Equality for Logarithmic Equations
Algebra If b, x, and y are positive real numbers with b ≠ 1, then
logb x = logb y if and only if x = y.
Example If log2 x = log2 7, then x = 7. If x = 7, then log2 x = log2 7.
The property above implies that if you are given an equation x = y, then you can
exponentiate each side to obtain an equation of the form bx = by.
SOLUTION
a. ln(4x − 7) = ln(x + 5) Write original equation. Check
?
4x − 7 = x + 5
Property of Equality for
Logarithmic Equations
⋅
ln(4 4 − 7) = ln(4 + 5)
?
ln(16 − 7) = ln 9
Check
3x − 7 = 5 Subtract x from each side.
ln 9 = ln 9 ✓
? x=4 Solve for x.
⋅
log2(5 5 − 17) = 3
? b. log2(5x − 17) = 3 Write original equation.
log2(25 − 17) = 3
? 2log2(5x − 17) = 23 Exponentiate each side using base 2.
log2 8 = 3
5x − 17 = 8
Because 23 = 8, log2 8 = 3. ✓ blogb x = x
x=5 Solve for x.
SOLUTION
log 2x + log(x − 5) = 2 Write original equation.
STUDY TIP log[2x(x − 5)] = 2 Product Property of Logarithms
Because the domain of
a logarithmic function
10log[2x(x − 5)] = 102 Exponentiate each side using base 10.
generally does not include 2x(x − 5) = 100 blogb x = x
all real numbers, be sure
to check for extraneous
2x2 − 10x − 100 = 0 Use Distributive Property and write in standard form.
solutions of logarithmic x2 − 5x − 50 = 0 Divide each side by 2.
equations. You can do this
algebraically or graphically.
(x − 10)(x + 5) = 0 Factor.
x = 10 or x = −5 Zero-Product Property
? ?
⋅
Check log(2 10) + log(10 − 5) = 2
?
⋅
log[2 (−5)] + log(−5 − 5) = 2
?
log 20 + log 5 = 2 log(−10) + log(−10) = 2
?
log 100 = 2 Because log(−10) is not defined,
2=2 ✓ −5 is not a solution. ✗
The apparent solution x = −5 is extraneous. So, the only solution is x = 10.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
SOLUTION
3x < 20 Write original inequality.
log3 3x < log3 20 Take log3 of each side.
x < log3 20 logb b x = x
The solution is x < log3 20. Because log3 20 ≈ 2.727, the approximate solution
is x < 2.727.
Solve log x ≤ 2.
SOLUTION
Method 1 Use an algebraic approach.
log x ≤ 2 Write original inequality.
10log10 x ≤ 102 Exponentiate each side using base 10.
x ≤ 100 blogb x = x
Because log x is only defined when x > 0, the solution is 0 < x ≤ 100.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
In Exercises 1–12, solve the equation. Example 1 In Exercises 17–26, solve the equation. Example 3
7. 1005x + 2 = —
10 ( )
1 11 − x
8. 5125x − 1 = —8()1 −4 − x
23. log(12x − 9) = log 3x 24. log6(5x + 9) = log6 6x
11. 3e4x + 9 = 15 12. 2e2x − 7 = 5 In Exercises 27–34, solve the equation. Check your
solution(s). Example 4
13. MODELING REAL LIFE The length (in centimeters)
of a scalloped hammerhead shark can be modeled by 27. log2 x + log2(x − 2) = 3
the function
28. log6 3x + log6(x − 1) = 3
= 266 − 219e−0.05t
29. ln x + ln(x + 3) = 4 30. ln x + ln(x − 2) = 5
where t is the age (in years) of
the shark. How old is a shark that
31. log3 3x2 + log3 3 = 2
is 175 centimeters long?
32. log4(−x) + log4(x + 10) = 2
✗
14. MODELING REAL LIFE One hundred grams of radium
log3(5x − 1) = 4
are stored in a container. The amount R (in grams)
of radium present after t years is modeled by 3log3(5x − 1) = 43
R = 100e−0.00043t. After how many years will only 5x − 1 = 64
5 grams of radium be present? 5x = 65
x = 13
In Exercises 15 and 16, use Newton’s Law of Cooling to
solve the problem. Example 2
15. You are driving on a hot day when your car overheats 36.
and stops running. The car overheats at 280°F and can
be driven again at 230°F. When it is 80°F outside, the
cooling rate of the car is r = 0.0058. How long do
✗ log4(x + 12) + log4 x = 3
log4[(x + 12)(x)] = 3
4log4[(x + 12)(x)] = 43
you have to wait until you can continue driving? (x + 12)(x) = 64
16. You cook a turkey until the internal temperature x + 12x − 64 = 0
2
45. log (x − 1) > log 2 46. ln 3 > ln(x + 2) 63. OPEN-ENDED Write an exponential or logarithmic
equation that has a solution of x = 4.
47. ln x ≥ 3 48. log4 x < 4
64. THOUGHT PROVOKING
49. 34x − 5 < 8 50. e3x + 4 > 11 Give an example of an exponential or logarithmic
inequality that has no solution.
51. −3 log5 x + 6 ≤ 9 52. −4 log5 x − 5 ≥ 3
53. COMPARING METHODS Solve log5 x < 2 CRITICAL THINKING In Exercises 65–70, solve the
algebraically and graphically. Which method do equation.
you prefer? Explain your reasoning.
65. 2x + 3 = 53x − 1 66. 103x − 8 = 25 − x
54. PROBLEM SOLVING You buy an autographed
67. log3(x − 6) = log9 2x 68. log4 x = log8 4x
jersey for $55. The value of the jersey is expected to
increase by 8% each year. How long will it take the
jersey to double in value? ⋅
69. 22x − 7 2x + 6 = 0 70. 52x + 3 ⋅ 5 − 40 = 0
x
77. Use the graph to solve 3 = x 2 − 2x. 85. log5 2x2 + log5 4 = 4
2 ( 2, 32 ) 2
( 2, 27
16 )
−1 1 2 3 x −2 −1 1 2 x
b.
x −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4
y −1 8 7 2 −1 4 23
SOLUTION
a. The inputs are equally spaced. Look for a pattern in the outputs.
x −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
y 0.5 1 2 4 8 16 32
×2 ×2 ×2 ×2 ×2 ×2
As x increases by 1, y is multiplied by 2. So, the common ratio is 2, and the
data represent an exponential function.
b. The inputs are equally spaced. The outputs do not have a common ratio.
So, analyze the finite differences.
REMEMBER x −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4
First differences of linear y −1 8 7 2 −1 4 23
functions are constant,
second differences of 9 −1 −5 −3 5 19 first differences
quadratic functions are
constant, and so on. −10 −4 2 8 14 second differences
6 6 6 6 third differences
The third differences are nonzero and constant. So, the data represent
a cubic function.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
1. WRITING Given a table of values, explain how you can determine whether an exponential
function can be used to model the data.
Determine the type of function represented by the table. Explain your reasoning.
2. 3.
x 0 10 20 30 x 0 2 4 6
y 15 12 9 6 y 27 9 3 1
REMEMBER
6
b ()
54 = — b3
6
Substitute — for a in Equation 2.
b
By the definition of an
54 = 6b2 Simplify.
exponential function,
b must be positive. 9= b2 Divide each side by 6.
3=b Take the positive square root because b > 0.
6 6
Step 3 Substitute 3 for b to determine that a = — = — = 2.
b 3
So, the exponential function is y = 2(3)x.
Data do not always show an exact exponential relationship. When the data in a scatter
plot show an approximately exponential relationship, you can model the data with an
exponential function.
SOLUTION
Step 1 Make a scatter plot of the data.
Number of Machu
The data appear exponential. Picchu Visitors
Step 2 Choose any two points to write a function, y
1600
Number of visitors
√
— Years after 1990
20 700
to obtain b = —
150
≈ 1.08.
So, an exponential function that models the data is y = 150(1.08)x.
(−2, −1.39)
Use the data from Example 3. Create a scatter plot of the data pairs (x, ln y) to show
that an exponential model should be a good fit for the original data pairs (x, y). Then
write an exponential model for the original data.
SOLUTION
Step 1 Create a table of data pairs (x, ln y).
x 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
ln y 5.01 5.35 5.89 6.15 6.55 6.55 7.05 7.37
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
Write an exponential function y = ab x whose graph passes through the given points.
4. (2, 12), (3, 24) 5. (1, 2), (3, 32) 6. (2, 16), (5, 2)
7. A store sells gaming laptops. The table shows the numbers y of gaming laptops sold during
the xth month that the store has been open. Repeat Examples 3 and 4 using these data.
Month, x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of gaming laptops, y 12 16 25 36 50 67 96
Use technology to find an exponential model for the data in Example 3. Then use this
model and the models in Examples 3 and 4 to estimate the number of visitors in 2020.
Compare the estimates.
SOLUTION
Use technology to enter the data and perform y = ab x
an exponential regression. The model is
PARAMETERS
y = 163.73(1.08)x. a = 163.729 b = 1.08489
Substitute x = 30 into each model to estimate STATISTICS
The atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude. At sea level, the average
air pressure is 1 atmosphere (1.033227 kilograms per square centimeter). The table
shows the air pressures p (in atmospheres) at several altitudes h (in kilometers). Use
technology to find a logarithmic model of the form h = a + b ln p that represents the
data. Estimate the altitude when the air pressure is 0.75 atmosphere.
SOLUTION
Use technology to enter the data and perform
a logarithmic regression. The model y = a + b ln(x)
is h = 0.86 − 6.45 ln p. PARAMETERS
a = 0.862658 b = −6.44738
Substitute p = 0.75 into the model to obtain STATISTICS
Weather balloons carry instruments that h = 0.86 − 6.45 ln 0.75 ≈ 2.7. R2 = 0.9926
send back information such as wind
speed, temperature, and air pressure. So, when the air pressure is 0.75 atmosphere, the altitude is about 2.7 kilometers.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
8. Use technology to find an exponential model for the data in Exercise 7. Then use this model
and the models you found in Exercise 7 to predict the number of gaming laptops sold during
the eighth month. Compare the predictions.
9. Use technology to find a logarithmic model of the form p = a + b ln h for the data in
Example 6. Explain why the result is an error message.
✗ x
y
0
1
—9
1
1
—3
2
1
3
3
4
9
21.
x
y
0
66
10
58
20
48
30
42
40
31
50
26
60
21
×3 ×3 ×3 ×3
22. x −20 −13 −6 1 8 15
The outputs have a common ratio of 3,
so the data represent a linear function. y 25 19 14 11 8 6
Age 30
15 cm
Age 40
25 cm
Age 50
40 cm
Age 60
100 cm
24. MODELING REAL LIFE Use the data from Exercise 17.
Create a scatter plot of the data pairs (x, ln y) to show
31. USING TOOLS A clay pot with a temperature
that an exponential model should be a good fit for the
of 160°C is removed from a kiln and placed in a room
original data pairs (x, y). Then write an exponential
with a temperature of 20°C. The table shows the
model for the original data.
temperatures d (in degrees Celsius) of the clay pot
at several times t (in hours) after it is removed from
In Exercises 25–28, create a scatter plot of the points
the kiln. Use technology to find a logarithmic model
(x, ln y) to determine whether an exponential model fits
of the form t = a + b ln d that represents the data.
the data. If so, find an exponential model for the data.
Estimate how long it takes for the clay pot to cool
25. to 50°C. Example 6
x 1 2 3 4 5
y 18 36 72 144 288 d 160 90 56 38 29 24
t 0 1 2 3 4 5
26. x 1 4 7 10 13
32. USING TOOLS The f-stops on a camera control
y 3.3 10.1 30.6 92.7 280.9 the amount of light that enters the camera. Let s be
a measure of the amount of light that strikes the film
27. and let f be the f-stop. The table shows several f-stops
x −13 −6 1 8 15 on a 35-millimeter camera. Use technology to find
y 9.8 12.2 15.2 19 23.8 a logarithmic model of the form s = a + b ln f that
represents the data. Estimate the amount of light that
strikes the film when f = 5.657.
28. x −8 −5 −2 1 4
y 1.4 1.67 5.32 6.41 7.97 f s
1.414 1
29. USING TOOLS Use technology to find an 2.000 2
exponential model for the data in Exercise 17. Then
use the model to predict the number of electric 2.828 3
scooters sold during the tenth year. Example 5 4.000 4
11.314 7
x 1 2 3 4 5
y p 2p 4p 8p 16p
In Exercises 41 and 42, use the change-of-base 51. ln(8x + 5) = ln 9 52. log2(3x − 1) = 5
formula to evaluate the logarithm.
5 53. Show that x + 5 is a factor of
41. log3 20 42. log4 —
12 f (x) = x3 − 2x2 − 23x + 60. Then factor
f (x) completely.
In Exercises 43 and 44, write an exponential function
y = ab x whose graph passes through the given points.
54. Complete the square for x2 − 4x. Then factor
43. (3, 1), (5, 4) 44. (−1, 4), (7, 0.4) the trinomial.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 I do not understand. 2 I can do it with help. 3 I can do it on my own. 4 I can teach someone else.
6. A substance decays 10% each year. Find the initial amount of the substance
when there are about 5.8 grams remaining after 9 years.
⋅
7. e4 e11 8. —6
20e3
10e
9. (−3e−5x)2
24. Find the domain and range of f (x) = a(ex + h − k), where a < 0.
42. The equation y = 0.95x represents the percent chance y (in decimal form) that a
player on a football team successfully kicks x extra points in a row. For what
number x does the percent chance fall to 25%?
43. A scientist studying memory determines that the percent y of new information
that a certain individual remembers after x minutes can be modeled by
184
y = ——. After how long does the person remember 50% of
(log x) + 1.84
1.25
new information?
Write an exponential function y = abx whose graph passes through the given points.
44. (3, 8), (5, 2) 45. (1, 3), (4, 648) 46. (−1, 16), (2, 6.75)
47. A shoe store sells a new type of basketball shoe. The table shows the pairs sold s
over time t (in weeks). Use technology to find a logarithmic model of the form
s = a + b ln t that represents the data. Estimate the number of pairs of shoes
sold after 6 weeks.
Week, t 1 3 5 7 9
Pairs sold, s 5 32 48 58 65
Mathematical Practices
Look for and Express Regularity in Repeated Reasoning
Mathematically proficient students notice if calculations are repeated, and look
both for general methods and for shortcuts.
1. In Exercise 71 on page 314, you evaluated expressions of the form logbx, where
b and x can be rewritten as powers of the same base. In general, what is the value
of a logarithmic expression of this form? Justify your answer.
2. Explain how you can distinguish among data that are represented by a linear,
a quadratic, or an exponential function.
y g y g y
4 5
2 g 2
x
1
2 −4 −2 2 4x
−4 −2 2 4x
−2
11. The percent L of surface light that filters down through a particular body of
water can be modeled by the exponential function L(x) = 100e −0.1x, where x
is the depth (in meters) below the surface. 0m
13. The table shows the values y (in dollars) of a video game console x years after
it is purchased. Describe three different ways to find an exponential model that 40 m
represents the data. Then write and use a model to determine when the console
is worth $150.
Year, x 0 2 4 6 8
Value, y 250 202.50 164.03 132.86 107.62
14. Consider functions f and g. Solve f (g(x)) = g( f (x)). Justify your answer.
f (x) = 2(3)x
g(x) = 4x
15. The amount of oil and gas (in billions of barrels of oil equivalent) discovered
after drilling x wells in a region can be modeled by f (x) = 3.4 ln x − 14.3,
where 0 ≤ x ≤ 3000.
a. About how much oil and gas were discovered after drilling 1000 wells?
b. Find the inverse of the given function. Describe what the inverse represents.
Carbon Dating
measures the amount
of carbon-14 in an
organism in order to
approximate when
it died.
Concentration:
1.2 parts per trillion
Carbon-12 Carbon-13 Carbon-14 There are about 1.2 atoms of
carbon-14 in the atmosphere
6 Protons 6 Protons 6 Protons for every 1 trillion atoms of
6 Neutrons 7 Neutrons 8 Neutrons non-radioactive carbon.
6 Electrons 6 Electrons 6 Electrons
Non-radioactive Radioactive
The concentration
of carbon-14 in
living organic matter
is equal to the
Half-life of Carbon-14: 5730 years concentration found
Due to radioactive decay, the amount of in the atmosphere.
carbon-14 in a sample is halved every
5730 years after an organism dies.
349
6 College and Career Readiness
Tutorial videos are available for each exercise.
WITH GO DIGITAL
1.08 0.94 e2
x
5
2.04 e−1/2 —
4
A x 5 ln 8
log 8 2 2
B x5—
3
8
e 22
C x5—
3
ln 8 2 2
D x5—
3
A. ( f + g)(x) B. (hg)(x)
C. (h − f )(x) D. ( f h)(x)
y
x 2 3 4 5 6
80
f
g(x) 4.5 13.5 40.5 121.5 364.5
60
40
20
2 4 6x
—
7. Which graph represents f (x) = √ x − 3 + 2?
y
A y B
4 2
2
2 4 x
−2 2 x
C y D 2
y
4
2 4 6x
2
2 4 6x
A −(x 1 3)(x − 1) ≥ y y
Angle (degrees), x 20 30 40 50 60 70