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104 views39 pagesElectrical and Electronic Measurements
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MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com
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Electrical Engineering
22325 Electrical and Electronic Measurements
Measurement is the language of science and engineering, It's the bedrock upon which
our understanding of the physical world is built. Every length, weight, time, and quantity we deal
with in everyday life and in scientific endeavors relies on measurement. This article delves into
the significance of measurement, the units that quantify our world, the fundamentals behind
this process, and the standards that ensure accuracy and consistency,
Significance of Measurement:
1. Advancement of Knowledge: Measurement allows us to quantify, compare, and analyze
natural phenomena, driving scientific discovery.
2. Quality Assurance: In manufacturing, measurements ensuré products meet specifications,
enhancing quality and reliability.
3. Safety: Measurements guide safety protocols, from monitoring air quality to constructing safe
infrastructure.
4, Fair Trade: In commerce, standard measurements ensure fairness in trade and accurate
transactions.
5, Innovation: Precise measurements are vital in fields like technology, aerospace, and medicine,
enabling innovations that improve our lives.
Units of Measurement
1. Fundamental Units: These are the base units, like meters (length), kilograms (mass), and
seconds (time).
‘These result from combining fundamental units, e.g., Newton (force) is derived
from mass, length, and time units.
3. SI Units: The International System of Units, or SI, is the global standard for measurements,
ensuring consistency worldwide.
Fundamentals of Measurement:
1. Precision vs. Accuracy: Precision refers to how close multiple measurements are to each
other, while accuracy is how close they are to the true value.
2, Measurement Uncertainty: Every measurement has inherent uncertainty due to limitations in
instruments and the environment.
3. Calibration: Regular calibration of instruments against known standards is essential to
maintain accuracy.
Standards in Measurement:
1. Historical Standards: Early standards were often physical objects like a specific rod for length. MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com
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2. International Prototypes: The SI system relies on physical prototypes for units, such as the
International Prototype of the Kilogram (IPK).
3. Atomic Standards: Modern standards use fundamental properties of atoms for precision, like
the vibration of cesium atoms for the second.
4, Traceability: All measurements should be traceable to a recognized standard for consistency.
1.2 Instruments:
____a-absolute and secondary instruments
Absolute Instrument:
1. Definition:
Absolute instruments provide measurements that are based on constant, unchanging physical
quantities or fundamental laws of nature.
2. Key Features:
+ Direct Measurement: These instruments give the value of the quantity being measured
directly without needing comparison to a known value.
+ Self-sufficiency: No prior calibration againsta standard instrument is required.
3. Applications:
+ Physics Laboratories: Used for fundamental research where measurements are based on
universal constants; like measuring the speed of light.
+ Research Institutions: Employed for first-time discoveries or when establishing new
standards,
4. Examples:
© Force Tabi
Used to measure forces by balancing them with known gravitational forces.
‘+ Absolute Electrometer; Determines electric quantities based on electrostatic principles.
Secondary Instruments:
1. Definition:
Secondary instruments provide measurements by comparing the unknown quantity with
known value, often requiring calibration against absolute instruments.
2. Key Features:
+ Indirect Measurement: They give a value that, after interpretation and/or calibration,
provides the desired measurement.
+ Calibration Needed: These instruments must be calibrated against an absolute or
another standard instrument periodically. MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com
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3. Application:
+ Industrial Settings: Widely used in manufacturing processes, monitoring systems, and
automation.
* Everyday Applications: From household thermometers to electric meters, these
instruments are everywhere.
4, Examples:
+ Ammeters and Voltmeters: Measure current and voltage by comparing against known
resistances or electromagnetic principles.
+ Pressure Gauges: Offer pressure readings by comparing against known spring tensions or
fluid columns,
Analog Instrument:
1. Definition: Analog instruments provide continuous measurements represented by a
physical quantity, such as the position of a pointer on a scale or the deflection of a
needle.
2. Key Features:
‘+ Continuous Output: Analog instruments offer a continuous range of values,
allowing for precise readings.
+ Real-time Response: They provide real-time information without the need for
digital conversion:
+ Visual Representation: Analog instruments often use visual cues like needles or
dial displays.
3. Application:
+ Audio Equipment: Analog meters are common in audio equipment for measuring
voltage levels and signal strength.
+ Environmental Monitoring: Analog sensors are used in monitoring systems for
variables like temperature and pressure.
4, Examples:
+ Analog Voltmeter: Measures voltage by the deflection of a pointer on a scale.
+ Analog Thermometer: Displays temperature through the expansion of a liquid or
metal.
Digital instruments:
1. Definition: Digital instruments provide measurements in discrete, numerical form,
typically displayed on an electronic screen. MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com
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2. Key Features:
‘+ Numerical Precision: Digital instruments offer precise numerical values, making
them suitable for highly accurate measurements.
+ Data Storage: They can store measurement data for future analysis.
+ Ease of Readability: Digital displays are easy to read and interpret.
3. Applications:
* Scientific Laboratories: Digital instruments are prevalent in research settings due
to their accuracy and ease of data collection.
+ Industrial Control: Used in manufacturing processes for monitoring and control.
4, Examples:
+ Digital Multimeter: Measures voltage, current, and resistance with a numerical
readout.
+ Digital Thermometer: Provides temperature feadings in numeric form
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Mechanical Instrument
1. Definition: Mechanical instruments measure a quantity by. means of a physical
movement or-change in a. mechanical system.
2. Key Features:
* Physical Operation: Rely on physical movements stich as rotation, elongation, or
deflection.
+ No Electrical Power: Operate withoutithe need for electricity or electronic
components.
3. Applications:
* Construction: Used to measure angles, levels, and distances.
‘+ Automotive: Devices like speedometers and odometers.
4, Examples:
+ Calipers: Measure the distance between two opposite sides of an object.
‘+ Manometers: Measure pressure of gases or liquids. MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com
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Electrical Instruments:
1. Definition: Electrical instruments measure quantities and parameters using electrical
methods and systems, often translating a physical property into an electrical signal.
2. Key Feature:
* Electrical Output: Generate an electrical output that corresponds to the
measured quantity.
+ Versatility: Can be used in various environments and conditions.
3. Applications:
+ Power Systems: To monitor voltage, current, and resistance.
* Home Appliances: Used in devices like electric ovens to regulate temperature.
4, Examples
+ Voltmeters: Measure the electrical potential difference between two points.
+ Ammeters: Measure the current in a circuit.
Electronic Instruments:
1. Definition: Electronic instruments measure or control quantities u
and components.
9g electronic circuits
2. Key Features:
+ Digital interface: Often come with digital screens or interfaces for readings.
: Offer accurate and repeatable measurements,
* Telecommunieation: For signal processing and transmission
+ Medical Devices: Instruments like ECG and MRI machines.
4, Examples
+ Oscilloscopes: Visualize the change of an electrical signal over time.
+ Digital Multimeters: Offer a digital reading of several electrical parameters,
Static Characteristi
Static characteristics are those that can be measured when the instrument's output is not
changing over time,
1. Accuracy: The degree to which a measured value conforms to the true or accepted
standard value.
2. Precision: How consistently an instrument can reproduce a measurement, even if it's
inaccurate. MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com
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3. Resolution: The smallest change in the input quantity that produces a detectable change
in the output.
4. Sensitivity: The change in output for a given change in input.
5. Dead Zone: The largest change in input which doesn't produce a change in output,
6. Hysteresis: When the output value depends not only on its current input but also on its
past inputs.
Dynamic Characteristics:
Dynamic characteristics are relevant when the instrument's output is changing with time,
1. Speed of Response: Time taken for an instrument to respond to a change in its input.
Bandwidth: The range of frequencies over which the instrument can accurately measure.
Lag: A delay between the output response and the change in input.
Fidelity: The ability of an instrument to reproduce its input without distortion.
Dynamic Error: Difference between the true transientivalue and the value indicated by
the instruments
Types of Errors:
Errors in measurements can arise from various sources and can be classified as follows:
1, Gross Errors: These are caused by human mistakes such as misreading or setting up an
instrument incorrectly.
2. Systematic Errors: These errors are consistent and repeatable. They can be caused by
factors like instrument bias, calibration errors, or environmental conditions.
3. Random Errors: Arising due to Unpredictable fluctuations in readings. These errors might
be due to electronienoise; interference, or external influences.
4, Absolute Error: The difference between the actual and measured values.
5. Relative or Percentage Error: The ratio of the absolute error to the true value, often
expressed as a percentage.
1.4 Calibration: need and procedure
Why is Calibration Needed?
1. Accuracy: Calibration ensures that the measurements provided by an instrument are as
close to the actual value as possible.
2. Consistency: Different instruments or the same instrument over time might provide
varying measurements. Calibration brings consistency.
3. Reliability: Ensures that the instrument performs as expected, eliminating or minimizing
errors in readings.
4, Safety: Especially in critical applications, @ misreading could be catastrophic. Calibration
ensures safety by confirming that instruments work correctly,
5. Compliance & Quality: Many industries have standards that require regular calibration
of instruments to maintain quality. MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com
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6. Cost Savings: Inaccurate instruments can lead to wastage or costly mistakes. Calibration
helps in avoiding these unnecessary costs.
Calibration Procedure:
‘The exact procedure can vary based on the instrument and its use, but here's a general
approach:
1. Preparation
‘+ Ensure the instrument is clean and in good working condition.
+ Choose a controlled environment to minimize the impact of external factors.
+ Assemble the necessary calibration standards and equipment.
2. Preliminary Check:
+ Take initial measurements to establish a baseline.
+ This helps in determining the extent of deviation from the standard
3. Comparison with a Standard:
+ Use a reference or standard instrument known to have high precision and
accuracy.
‘+ Measure the same parameter with both the instrument being calibrated and the
standard instrument.
+ Note the differences.
4, Adjustment:
+ Ifdiscrepancies exist, adjust the instrument settings or make repairs as needed,
‘+ Some modern instruments self-calibrate when provided with the correct input
5. Documentation:
* Record all measurements, adjustments, and other relevant data.
* This records erucial for traceability and future calibrations.
6. Verification:
+ After calibration, re-measure with the standard instrument to verify that the
adjustments have brought the instrument into alignment with the standard,
7. Frequency:
+ Determine the next calibration based on the instrument's performance, usage,
and criticality,
8. Maintain & Store:
+ After calibration, ensure the instrument is stored in an appropriate environment
to maintain its accuracy.
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In the contemporary era dominated by digital displays, the analog meters, especially the
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) and Permanent Magnet Moving Iron (PMM) meters,
still hold a significant place. Their reliability, simplicity, and precise measurements have made
them favorites in various applications. Let’s delve deeper into their construction, working, and
standout features.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Meter
Construction:
1. Magnetic System: It consists of a permanent magnet that provides a radial magnetic.
field
2. Moving Coil: Placed between the pole pieces of the permanent magnet. The coil carries
the current to be measured.
3. Spring: Attached to the coil to provide necessary controlling torque.
4. Pointer & Scale: Connected to the coil to display the measurement.
‘Working:
When a current flows through the coil, a force acts on it due to the magnetic field. This causes
the coil to rotate. The rotation is opposed by the spring, and an equilibrium position is achieved
The pointer attached to the coil indicates this position of the scale, representing the magnitude
of the current.
Salient Features:
1. High Accuracy: Suitable for, both DC and AC measurements.
2. Uniform Scale: Almost linéar scale.
3. Good Frequency Response: Effective in a range of frequencies.
4. Low Power Consumption: Due to the air friction damping used.
Permanent Magnet Moving Iron (PMMII) Meter
Construction:
1, Permanent Magnet: Provides a stable magnetic field.
2. Moving Iron: Positioned in proximity to the permanent magnet,
3. Fined Coil: The current to be measured flows through this coil.
4. Spring & Pointer: To control the movement and indicate the measurement on a scale.
Working:
When current flows through the fixed coil, it induces a magnetic field. The moving iron, being
attracted towards the coil due to the magnetic field, moves. The deflection of the moving iron is
proportional to the square of the current flowing through the coil. The spring opposes this
movement, and equilibrium is achieved. The pointer indicates the position on the scale. MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com
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Salient Features:
1. Versatility: Can measure both AC and DC currents,
2. Non-Uniform Scale: Generally, it’s a squared scale because deflection is proportional to
the square of the current.
3. Economical: Less expensive compared to other meters.
4, Robust Construction: Due to its simple design, it's quite durable.
DC ammeters are crucial instruments for measuring direct current in electrical circuits.
As technology evolved, so did the variants of these ammeters, leading to the development of,
basic, multi-range, and universal shunt ammeters. Let's journey through their intricacies.
Basic DC Ammeter
Construction & Working:
Abasic DC ammeter is essentially a PMMC (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil) instrument
modified to measure current. It consists of a moving coil placed between the poles of a
permanent magnet. When current flows through the coil it induces a magnetic field that
interacts with the permanent magnet. This interaction caUses the coil to rotate, with the
deflection indicating the magnitude of the current.
However, the coil can't handle high currents directly. Therefore, a low resistance called a shunt
resistor is connected in parallel-to the coil, allowing most of the current to bypass the coil
Features:
1, Accuracy: Provides accurate DC measurements.
2. Limited Range: Typically measures low currents directly.
Multi-Range DC Ammeter
Construction & Workin
A multi-range DC ammeter is designed to measure currents over different scales. It
contains multiple shunt resistors and a switch to select the desired range. Depending on the
range selected, a particular shunt resistor is connected in parallel to the moving coil
Features:
1. Versatility: Allows measurement of currents over various scales.
2. Compactness: Eliminates the need for multiple ammeters for different ranges. MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com
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Universal Shunt DC Ammeter
Construction & Workin
A universal shunt ammeter is a more advanced form designed for maximum flexibility.
Instead of fixed value shunt resistors, it uses a potentiometer-style shunt. This allows the user to
set a precise shunt resistance, making it adaptable for a wide range of current measurements.
Features:
1. Preci
n: Allows for fine-tuning the shunt resistance.
Adaptable to a broad spectrum of current measurements without the need
for switching fixed resistances.
2.3 DC Voltmeter: Basic, Multi range, simple numerical based on Rs, concept of loading effect
and sensitivity
\Voltmeters play an indispensable role in measuring potential difference across
components in a circuit. Whenit comes to DC circuits, understanding the variants and nuances
of DC voltmeters is crucial. Let's delve into the foundational to the advanced facets of DC
voltmeters.
Basic DC Voltmeter
Construction & Working:
Abasic DC voltmeter is primarily a PMMC (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil) instrument
with a high resistance (known as series resistance, Rs) connected in series. This configuration
enables it to measure potential differences. When a voltage is applied across its terminals, a
current flow through the coil, producing a deflection that corresponds to the measured voltage.
Features:
1. Direct Readings: Suitable for straightforward voltage measurements in DC circuits.
2. Accuracy: Typically aecurate for low voltage readings.
Multi-Range DC Voltmeter
Construction & Working:
A multi-range DC voltmeter incorporates multiple series resistances with a selector
switch, permitting voltage measurements over various scales. Depending on the selected range,
a specific resistance is connected in series with the PMMC.
Features:
1. Versatility: Enables voltage measurements over diverse scales.
2. User-Friendly: Eliminates the need for several voltmeters for different voltage ranges. MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com
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Simple Numerical Based on Rs
Suppose a PMMC has a coil resistance of 50 ohms and full-scale deflection current of 1 mA. If we
desire to design a 0-100V DC voltmeter, we'd determine Rs as:
Rs=(V/I)-Rcoil Rs=(100V/0.001A)-50 Rs=100,000-50 Rs=99,950ohms
Concept of Loading Effect
The loading effect arises when the introduction of a voltmeter changes the circuit's voltage,
causing inaccurate readings. High resistance voltmeters minimize this effect, drawing minimal
current and thus causing lesser disturbance.
Sensitivity
Sensitivity refers to the smallest change in input quantity thatthe instrument can detect. For
voltmeters, it's often given as ohms per volt. A voltmeter with higher sensitivity is more
desirable as it draws lesser current, minimizing the loading effect.
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2.4 AC voltmeter: Rectifier type (half wave and full wave)
AC Voltmeters - The Rectifier Type
Rectifier-type AC voltmeters employ semiconductor diodes to convert alternating current
voltage into direct current voltage. Once converted, the measurement essentially becomes a DC
voltage measurement, which is straightforward and familiar.
Half-Wave Rectifier AC Voltmeter
Construction & Working:
The half-wave rectifier AC voltmeter uses a single diode in its circuit. When an AC voltage
is applied, the diode conducts during the positive half-cycles of the waveform and blocks during
the negative half-cycles. This results in an output that retains only the positive half-cycles, thus
converting the AC voltage to pulsating DC. A PMMC instrument, calibrated to read RMS or
average value, can then measure this pulsating DC.
Features:
1. Simplicity: Due to its single-diode design, it's simpler and often more affordable.
2. Wastage: As it only considers half of the input waveform, it's less efficient. MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com
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Full-Wave Rectifier AC Voltmeter
Construction & Workin
‘The full-wave rectifier AC voltmeter employs two diodes. These diodes are configured to
conduct on both positive and negative half-cycles of the input AC voltage, thereby converting the
entire waveform into pulsating DC. Again, a PMMC instrument is used for measurement,
providing a more accurate reading as it considers the full waveform,
;ncy: Utilizes both half-cycles of the waveform, ensuring more efficient and
accurate measurements,
2. Complexity: With two diodes and sometimes additional components, it's slightly more
complex than its half-wave counterpart.
The Ohmmeter —A Brief Overview
An ohmmeter measures resistance by passing a constant current through the resistance
and measuring the voltage drop across it. then calculates the resistance using Ohm's Law.
Depending on the circuit arrangement and the purpose of the measurement, ohmmeters can be
Classified into series and shunt types.
Series Ohmmeter
Construction & Workin
A series ohmmeter places its measurement circuitty in series with the resistance being
measured. The instrument essentially contains a battery, a meter, and a fixed resistor all in
series. When the probes are open (infinite resistance], the meter shows zero deflection. When
the probes are short-circuited (zero resistance], the meter shows full-scale deflection.
Features:
1. Simplicity: The series configuration is straightforward, making it easy to construct and
understand.
2. Versatility: Suitable for a broad range of resistance measurements.
3. Battery Dependency: The reading can vary with battery voltage, hence regular battery
checks are crucial
Shunt Ohmmeter
Construction & Working:
Ina shunt ohmmeter, the meter and the resistance being measured are connected in
Parallel or 'shunt' to a fixed resistor and battery. This configuration is generally used for
measuring low resistances. The meter has a coil of low resistance, and when connected across a
low-value resistor, the deflection is proportional to the resistance value. MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com
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Features:
1. Precision for Low Values: Shunt ohmmeters are particularly suitable for measuring very
low resistances accurately.
2. Battery Dependency: Like the series ohmmeter, readings can vary with battery voltage.
3. Specialized Use: Typically not as versatile as the series type and is designed for specific
measurement ranges.
2.6 Clamp-on meter.
What is a Clamp-on Meter?
A clamp-on meter is a versatile instrument that can measure electrical current without
disconnecting or making direct contact with the circuits The device literally ‘clamps’ around an
electrical conductor to meastire the current flow, capitalizingon the principles of
electromagnetic induction.
How Does It Work?
‘The underlying principle behind the clamp-on meter is Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic
Induction, When electrical current flows through a conductor, it produces a magnetic field
around it. The clamp-on meter senses this magnetic field when clamped around the conductor
and converts t into an electrical current or voltage proportional to the current flowing through
the conductor. This is then displayed as a reading on the meter.
Key Features of Clamp-on Meters:
1. Non-intrusive Measurements: Unlike traditional meters, there's no need to disconnect
the circuit or touch the conductor, ensuring safer measurements.
2. Versatility: Many modern clamp-on meters come with additional features, allowing
measurements of voltage, resistance, and even temperature.
3. Quick Readings: The tool is designed for quick and easy measurements, making it ideal
for troubleshooting and routine checks.
le Measurement Range: Capable of measuring from very low to very high currents,
depending on the model.
Advantages of Using Clamp-on Meters:
1. Safety: The biggest advantage is safety. By eliminating the need to break a circuit or
make direct contact, the risk of electric shock or short circuits is greatly reduced.
2. Convenience: For electricians and technicians, the ability to quickly clamp the device
around a conductor without disrupting the circuit is invaluable.
3. Accuracy: With advancements in technology, modern clamp-on meters provide highly
accurate readings, rivaling traditional measurement methods. MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com
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Considerations When Using a Clamp-on Meter:
1. Positioning: For accurate measurements, ensure the conductor is centered within the
clamp.
2. External Interference: Other conductors or devices can influence readings. It's vital to
isolate the target conductor as much as possible.
3. Battery Life: As with any electronic device, ensure the clamp-on meter's battery is in
good condition for consistent performance.
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Unit-Ill Measurement of Electric Power
3.1 Dynamometer type wattmeter: Construction and working
Dynamometer Type Wattmeter: A Brief Overview
‘The dynamometer type wattmeter is used to measure both AC and DC powers. Its design
is based on the dynamometer principle, where the mechanical force between two coils results
from the current and voltage of the circuit
Construction of Dynamometer Type Wattmeter:
1. Fixed Coils: Often referred to as the ‘current coils’, these are typically placed in the
Circuit in series and carry the current of the load. They produce a magnetic field
proportional to the load current.
2. Moving Coils: Known as the ‘pressure’ or 'voltage coils’, these are connected in parallel
with the circuit and carryaeurrent proportionalito the voltage. The moving coil is,
mounted on a spindle that allows it to rotate.
3. Spring Control: A spring provides the necessary control torque to bring the pointer to
zero when no power is being measured
4, Damping Mechanism: To prevent ostillations and help the pointer settle quickly to a
reading, an air damping mechanism is usually employed.
5. Scale and Pointer: The deflection of the pointer over the calibrated scale provides the
power reading,
Working Principle:
‘The operation of the dynamometer type wattmeter is based on the mechanical
interaction of two magnetic fields. One field is produced by the fixed coil due to the load current,
and the other is produced by the moving coil due to the load voltage:
The torque, of twisting force, produced on the moving coils proportional to the product
of the current in both coils, which in turn is proportional to the voltage and current in the load.
This means the torque is a representation of the power in the circuit, The pointer's deflection,
against the control of thespring, gives a direct reading of the power on the scale.
For AC measurement)the wattmeter reads true power. The design inherently accounts
for the phase difference between voltageand:current.
Advantages of Dynamometer Type Wattmeter:
1. Accuracy: Provides accurate measurements over a wide range of frequencies.
2. Versatility: Suitable for both AC and DC power measurements.
3. Sturdy Construction: Relatively robust against usual wear and tear. MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com
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3.2 Range: Multiplying factor and extension of range.
1. What is Range?
Range refers to the span of values between the minimum and maximum limits that a
‘measuring instrument can accurately measure. For instance, if an ammeter can measure current
between 0 to 10 A, this is its range.
2. The Role of the Multiplying Factor:
In many scenarios, the intrinsic range of an instrument might not suffice for certain
measurements. This is where the multiplying factor comes into play.
The multiplying factor is a value by which the reading of an instrument is multiplied to obtain
the actual measurement. For instance, if you're using a voltmeter with a range of 0-10V to
measure a voltage of SOV, a multiplying factor can be used. If the multiplying factor is 5, 2
reading of 10V on the voltmeter would correspond tolan actual value of SOV (10V x5).
3. Extending the Range: Why and How?
In various applications, the basic range of ah instrument may not be sufficient. There might be a
need to measure values that fall outside this ranges Instead of purchasing anew instrument, the
range can often be extended using specific techniques.
Methods of Range Extension:
1. Shunts: For ammeters,shunts (low-resistance devices) can be used. By bypassing most of
the current arouind the meter, only a proportionate amount flows through the ammeter,
thus extending its range.
2. Multiplier Resistors: For voltmeters, high-resistance devices known as multiplier
resistors are used in series. This.allows the voltmeter to. measure higher voltage values
than its basic range.
3. Transformers: For AC measurements, especially in high-voltage systems, potential
transformers (PT) and current transformers (CT) can be employed to step down the
voltage or current to a level suitable for the instrument.
4, Electronic Amplifiers: in some scenarios, electronic amplifiers can be used to boost the
signal level to match the range of the measuring instrument.
4, Considerations for Range Extension:
1. Accuracy: While extending the range, i's essential to ensure that the accuracy of
measurements is not compromised.
2. Calibration: Post the application of multipliers or shunts, recalibrating the instrument
might be necessary to ensure precise readings.
3. Safety: Especially in high-voltage or high-current scenarios, ensure that all components
used for range extension are rated appropriately to handle the increased values. MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com
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1. What are Errors in Measurement?
Errors in measurement refer to the difference between the measured value and the true
value of the quantity being measured, These discrepancies can arise due to various reasons,
impacting the accuracy and reliability of measurements.
2. Categories of Errors:
a. Systematic Errors:
Systematic errors result from consistent, identifiable causes that can potentially be adjusted,
They can be categorized into:
+ Instrumental Errors: These arise due to imperfections in the measuring instruments.
+ Environmental Errors: External conditions like temperature, humidity, and pressure can
affect measurements,
* Observational Errors! Human errors fall into this category, including misreading or
misinterpreting instrument readings.
b, Random Errors:
These errors occur unpredictably and are due to unknown causes. They might arise from sudden
changes in environmental conditions or intrinsic noise in electronic instruments.
©. Gross Errors:
Gross errors, often termed as blunders, occur due to mistakes such as reading the wrong scale or
recording data incorrectly.
3. Compensation of Etro
Errors, once identified, can be-corrected of minimized using various techniques:
a. Calibration
This involves comparing the instrument with a standard device and noting the discrepancies.
Calibration can help in identifying and rectifying systematic efrors.
be
By maintaining constant environmental conditions, many environmental errors can be minimized
or eliminated. For instance, measurements can be taken in a temperature-controlled room.
mental Control:
c. Repeated Measurements:
Random errors can be minimized by taking multiple readings and computing the average.
d. Error Correction Circ
In electronic measurements, circuits can be designed to correct predictable errors.
e. Using High Precision Instruments:
Higher quality, precision instruments tend to have fewer instrumental errors compared to their
cheaper counterparts. MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com
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f. Training and Practice:
Many observational errors can be minimized through rigorous training and consistent practice,
making the person taking the measurements more adept.
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1. Introduction to Active and Reactive Power
a. Active Power (P)
Active Power, often just referred to as "power’, is the real power consumed by devices to
perform useful work. It is measured in Watts (W).
b. Reactive Power (Q)
Reactive Power does not perform any real work but is essential to maintain voltage levels for the
system's function. It is measured in Volt-Amps Reactive (VAR).
2. One Wattmeter Method
Typically used for balariced two-wire systems:
+ The wattmeter’s current coil is connected in series with the line, and its potential coil is
connected atross the load.
+ The reading directly gives the active power for the system.
3, Two Wattmeter Method.
Commonly used for three-phase systems with a three-Wire star or delta connection:
= Two wattmeters are used, with each wattmeter's current coil connected to one line and
the potential coil connected between the two other lines.
+ The total active power is the sum of the readings of the two wattmeters.
+ This method can measure both active and reactive power.
4, Three Wattmeter Method
Used for three-phase systems with a four-wire star connection:
+ Each wattmeter's current coil is connected in series with each line, while the potential
coil is connected between the respective line and the neutral.
+ The total power is the sum of the readings from the three wattmeters.
+ It gives a more accurate measurement for unbalanced loads compared to the two-
wattmeter method. MSBTE Diploma All Branch Notes Available in FREE Visit Now: www.diplomasolution.com
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5. Why the Need for Different Methods?
‘The choice of watt meter method depends largely on the type of system (two-wire or
three-phase) and the connection (star or delta). While the one wattmeter method is suitable for
simpler systems, the two and three wattmeter methods provide more accuracy for complex,
three-phase systems, especially when loads are unbalanced.
1. Basics of Power Factor (PF)
‘The Power Factor is a dimensionless number between -1 and 1, and it's a measure of how
effectively electrical power is converted into useful Work. It’s the cosine of the angle between
the current and voltage waveforms.
+ APF of 1 indicates that voltage and current are perfectly in phase, resulting in optimal
system efficiency.
+ APF less than 1 indicates that part of the electrical power is used. to sustain the magnetic
and electric fields (reactive power).
2. The Two-Wattmeter Method
This method involves using two.wattmeters to measurelthe power in a three-phase system,
making it especially vallable for balanced and unbalanced loads in star or delta connections.
3. Power Factor’s Impact
Here's how the power factor affects the wattmeter readings in the two-wattmeter method:
a, PF = 1 (Unity Power Factor)
When power factor isunity:
+ Both wattmeterswill read equal values.
+ The total power is simply the sum of the two readings:
b.0
