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THE HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY
OF SCIENCE

This book provides an in-depth analysis of the history and evolution of the major disciplines
of science, which include the basic sciences, bioscience, natural sciences and medical
science, with special emphasis on the Indian perspective. While academic interest shown in
the history and philosophy of science dates back to several centuries, serious scholarship on
how the sciences and the society interact and influence each other can only be dated back
to the twentieth century. This volume explores the ethical and moral issues related to social
values, along with the controversies that arise in relation to the discourse of science from the
philosophical perspectives.
The book sheds light on themes that have proved to have a significant and overwhelming
influence on present-day civilisation. It takes the reader through a journey, on how the
sciences have developed and have been discussed, to explore key themes like the colonial
influences on science; how key scientific ideas have developed from Aristotle to Newton;
history of ancient Indian mathematics; agency, representation, deviance with regard to the
human body in science; bioethics; mental health, psychology and the sciences; setting up
of the first teaching departments for subjects such as medicine, ecology and physiology
in India; recent research in chemical technology; and even the legacy of ancient Indian
scientific discoveries.
A part of the Contemporary Issues in Social Science Research series, this interdisciplinary
work will be of immense interest to scholars and researchers of philosophy, modern history,
sociology of medicine, physical sciences, bioscience, chemistry and medical sciences. It will
be of interest to the general reader also.

Nandan Bhattacharya is currently Assistant Director of UGC-Human Resource

Development Centre, Jadavpur University. Dr Bhattacharya received his MSc (Zoology)
in 1992 and PhD (Zoology) degree in 2004 from Vidyasagar University. He has so far
published several articles in reputed journals and delivered lectures in different national and
international colleges and universities. He has experience in coordinating and designing
the course curriculum of orientation programmes, workshops and short-term courses
especially meant for college and university teachers/librarians under the UGC guideline.
He is interested in ecology, education, communication skill development, science and art
connection, theatre in education, forum theatre, etc. as research fields. Dr Bhattacharya is
also an acclaimed stage actor and director.
Contemporary Issues in Social Science Research
Series editors: Rajat Acharyya and Nandan Bhattacharya
UGC-Human Resource Development Centre,
Jadavpur University, India

Contemporary Issues in Social Science Research is a series dedicated to the advancement

of academic research and practice on emerging 21st century social and cultural
themes. It explores fresh perspectives on a legion of interdisciplinary social
science themes connecting subject areas that have hitherto been unexplored,
underdeveloped or overlooked. This series aims to provide scholars, researchers and
students a ready reference for the new and developing in social science academia
which has come into the fore as focal points of debate and discussion today.

The History and Philosophy of Science

An Indian Perspective
Edited by Nandan Bhattacharya

Peace and Conflict Studies: Theory and Practice

Edited by Shibashis Chatterjee and Anindya Jyoti Majumdar

For more information about this series, please visit https://www.routledge.com/

Contemporary-Issues-in-Social-Science-Research/book-series/CISSC
THE HISTORY AND
PHILOSOPHY OF
SCIENCE
An Indian Perspective

Edited by Nandan Bhattacharya

Cover image: Getty Images
First published 2023
by Routledge
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© 2023 selection and editorial matter, Human Resource
Development Centre, Jadavpur University; individual chapters, the
contributors
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-367-46311-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-47106-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-03344-8 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003033448
Typeset in Bembo
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
This volume is dedicated to those noble martyrs
who sacrificed their lives for Science
CONTENTS

Lists of Figuresx
Lists of Tablesxii
Lists of Contributors xiii
Series Editor’s Note xvii
Acknowledgementsxix

Introduction1
Nandan Bhattacharya

PART I
History of Science 11

1 History of Science: A Brief Overview 13

Samir Kumar Saha

2 Science, Society and Governance in Colonial India 26

Deepak Kumar

3 Evolution of Ideas From Aristotle to Newton: A Journey

Towards the Unification of the Earth and the Heavens 44
Bichitra Kumar Guha

4 History of Ancient Indian Mathematics 88

Manjusha Majumdar (Tarafdar)
viii Contents

5 Surgery in Ancient India and Suśruta-saṃhita̅ 92

Sudipa Bandyopadhyay

6 Dr M.J. Bramley (1803–1837), the First Principal

of Calcutta Medical College 103
Sankar Kumar Nath

PART II
Philosophy of Science 111

7 The Philosophy of Science: A Brief Understanding 113

Pradip Kumar Ghosh

8 Written on the Body: Agency, Representation, Deviance 140

Samantak Das

9 A Rationale of Āryabhata I’s Method for Solving ax+c=by157

Pradip Kumar Majumdar

10 The “Death Drive” in Psychoanalysis 167

Santanu Biswas

PART III
Emerging Issues in Biomedical Sciences and Healthcare 193

11 Origin of Life on Earth 195

Bijan Das

12 Unraveling the Fascinating World of RNA Interference 214

Manika Pal Bhadra, Paromita Das, Akash Mallick
and Deepika Pamarthy

13 Role of Additives and Nutrient Supplementation

for Enhancement of Somatic Embryogenesis
in Momordica charantia L. 255
Subhasree Das, Anwesh Roy, Puja Chakraborty
and Sarmistha Sen Raychaudhuri

14 Application of Cognitive Ergonomics in Communication:

A Social Perspective 277
Somnath Gangopadhyay
 Contents ix

15 Evolutionary Trend of Ecological Concepts, Hypothesis

and Theories: Perspectives on Biodiversity 282
Susanta Kumar Chakraborty
FIGURES

1.1 Idea of Thomas Kuhn of the structure of scientific revolutions

as normal science, paradigms, anomalies, revolution all leading
to new paradigm 19
3.1 Schematic representation of Aristotelian universe 56
3.2 Schematic representation of Ptolemy’s universe 57
3.3 The stellar parallax 58
3.4 Galileo’s experiment with the inclined planes 69
3.5 Galileo’s experiment with the inclined planes to anticipate the
law of inertia 70
3.6 Galileo’s experiment with the ship and the ball 71
3.7 The stone-throwing experiment 79
5.1 Some of the sharp and blunt instruments (śastras and yantras)
as mentioned in the Suśruta Saṃhitā96
5.2 Some trade objects of iron and copper excavated from Taxila 100
5.3 Terracotta from third to fourth century ce showing dissected
abdomen100
8.1 Muscles of the pharynx 144
8.2 Veins of the head and neck 145
8.3 The uterus 145
8.4 The uterus 146
8.5 Human racial differences 147
8.6 From Descent of Man149
8.7 Plate I from Expression (1872) 150
8.8 Plates XVIII and XIX from The Criminal (1890) 152
8.9 Plate I, facing page 20, of The Criminal153
8.10 Plate III, facing page 34 of The Criminal, showing the
technique of mirror photography 154
12.1 Discovery of RNA interference (RNAi) 216
 Figures xi

12.2 Mechanism of gene silencing by siRNA and miRNA 221

12.3 The PIWI-interacting RNA (piRNA) biogenesis pathway
in the Drosophila ovary 226
12.4 The structure of snoRNAs 228
12.5 Chronological series of events in the discovery and further
elucidation of the RNAi pathway 234
12.6 The therapeutic mechanism of Patisiran 236
13.1 Charantin content in M. charantia257
13.2 Zone of inhibition for E. coli258
13.3 Zone of inhibition for S. aureus258
13.4 Fruits of M. charantia (i) variety charantia; (ii) variety muricata 259
13.5 Trace elemental profiling of M. charantia fruit pulp from North
24 Parganas, West Bengal, India 261
13.6 Schematic diagram showing medicinal properties of fruits
of M. charantia261
13.7 Somatic embryogenesis in M. charantia265
13.8 The graph represents the number of globular structures
of somatic embryos per cm² of callus sections of first passage
and prolonged second passage of M. charantia266
13.9 Transverse sections of callus derived from prolonged
second passage culture of M. charantia showing localization
of SERK protein (Das et al., 2021) 268
13.10 Schematic diagram representing plant cellular response against
biotic and abiotic stress 268
13.11 Schematic diagram representing tissue culture of M. charantia269
TABLES

1.1 The classification table of observations of craftsmen at work 18

12.1 Table enlisting selected RNAi-based therapeutics currently
in clinical trials 239
13.1 Organogenesis in M. charantia262
13.2 Somatic embryogenesis in M. charantia263
13.3 Enhancement of somatic embryogenesis by elicitors in
M. charantia264
CONTRIBUTORS

Sudipa Bandyopadhyay is Associate Professor in the Department of Sanskrit,

Vidyasagar College, Kolkata. Since 2007, she is Guest Faculty in the Department
of Sanskrit, University of Calcutta. She is the supervisor of MPhil and PhD pro-
grammes at the University of Calcutta since 2009. She is working on the area
of history, epigraphy and palaeography of ancient India. The thrust area of her
research project is science and technology, that is metallurgy, surgery and medical
treatment, numismatics, iconography, painting and sculpture, art and architecture,
social science as revealed in the glorious civilisation of ancient India. Some of her
publications – Dharma and War Policy of Ancient India, War: Elements of Science in
Ancient India, Influence of Sentiments (Rasa) in Ancient Indian Painting’, ‘Iconography
and Religious Tolerance’ and so on. She was awarded the Shiksha Ratna Award by the
Government of West Bengal.

Manika Pal Bhadra is an eminent and well-reputed scientist in India. She is pres-
ently the chief scientist at the Applied Biology Division, CSIR-IICT-Hyderabad.
She was awarded PhD degree in advanced cytology and molecular genetics from
Calcutta University. She pursued postdoctoral studies at the University of Missouri,
Columbia. She has expertise in RNAi and epigenetics, nanotechnology, drug dis-
covery and authored 120 publications in several international journals. Owing
to her exceptional contribution, she has been bestowed with several prestigious
awards like Young Scientist Award 1991, Welcome Trust Fellow 2005, IICT Roll
of Honour 2007, NASI Reliance 2012, and IICT Best Women Scientist, 2012.

Santanu Biswas is Professor of English at Jadavpur University, and a psychoana-

lyst practising in Kolkata. He is the first psychoanalyst belonging to the ‘Lacan-
ian’ orientation in India. He has been affiliated to the Lacan Circle of Australia
(a chapter of the World Association of Psychoanalysis) since 2005. He has lectured
xiv Contributors

on psychoanalysis at numerous institutions in India and abroad, and has written

extensively on the theory and practice of psychoanalysis. He is a member of the
advisory boards of some of the leading journals of Lacanian psychoanalysis in
France, England, USA, Australia, and Slovenia.

Susanta Kumar Chakraborty, Professor of Zoology, and former Dean, Faculty of

Science at Vidyasagar University, has research specialisation in ecology and envi-
ronmental management. He has been teaching in the postgraduate level for more
than three decades. He has so far published around 200 research papers, supervised
40 PhD candidates, written a number of textbooks, completed 15 research projects
and visited several countries as part of his academic commitments. He is the recipi-
ent of several awards in recognition of his academic and research contributions.

Bijan Das was educated at the University of North Bengal, Darjeeling and Saha
Institute of Nuclear Physics, Kolkata. He carried out advanced research at the Uni-
versity of California, Berkeley, USA; Universitaet Karlsruhe, Germany; and Saint
Francis Xavier University, Antigonish, Canada. He has been Professor of Chem-
istry at Presidency University, Kolkata, since 2012. Previously, he was Professor
of Chemistry at the University of North Bengal for six years, where he served as
a member of the faculty of the department of chemistry from 1989 to 2012. His
research interests include physical chemistry of surfactants, electrolytes, polymers
and biopolymers. He has so far published more than 100 research articles.

Samantak Das is Pro-Vice-Chancellor and Professor of Comparative Litera-

ture, Jadavpur University. He is also Director of the School of Cultural Texts and
Records (SCTR) at Jadavpur University. Samantak has written and lectured on
nineteenth-century literature, translation, the relationships between the biological
sciences and literature, environment, ecology, rural development and education
in journals, magazines and newspapers in India and abroad, including The Times
Higher Education Supplement, Economic and Political Weekly, Interventions: International
Journal of Postcolonial Studies, The Times of India, The Statesman, The Telegraph, The
Indian Express, The Hindu, Biblio, among others. He has led, or jointly led, sev-
eral national and international projects including on language learning, digitising
ephemera, creating databases and so on.

Somnath Gangopadhyay is Professor in the Department of Physiology, University

of Calcutta. He is actively involved in extensive research activities, with more than
250 research publications of his work in national and international peer reviewed
journals and books. He has been conferred FABMS title by the Indian Associa-
tion of Biomedical Scientists. He has been conferred Fellow, Chartered Institute of
Ergonomics and Human Factors and awarded Chartered status title by Chartered
Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors, United Kingdom. Presently, he holds
the post of the secretary of scientific committee of International Commission on
Occupational Health.
 Contributors xv

Pradip Kumar Ghosh was former Lecturer at Maharaja Manindra Chandra Col-
lege. He completed his PhD work in theoretical physics on ‘Stochastic Quantiza-
tion and Some Aspects of Supersymmetry’ in 1991. Then he switched to academic
administration by joining Bangabasi College in Kolkata, and then Jadavpur Uni-
versity as registrar. After retirement, he was appointed Pro-Vice Chancellor of
Jadavpur University.
During his entire career he published a number of papers in theoretical physics
in different journals of repute. Besides, he has written articles on philosophy of
science and academic administration. Also, he has participated as a resource per-
son in national and international seminars and in UGC-organised orientation and
refresher courses and visited different universities.

Bichitra Kumar Guha was Professor of Physics at IIEST, Shibpur, Kolkata,

where he was former Dean, Faculty of Science. He stood first and third in BSc
and MSc respectively. His research interest is in electronic ceramic materials,
especially ferroelectric materials. He introduced a new technology for chemical
doping of niobium in barium titanate. He proposed a material having very high
dielectric constant of about 105. He also found out the exact dopant concen-
tration of niobium at which a material undergoes transition from semiconduc-
tor to insulator. He has published books with several reputed and international
publishers.

Deepak Kumar has worked and published on science and society links in the con-
text of colonial India for more than four decades. Apart from several edited books,
he is known for his Science and the Raj (1995), The Trishanku Nation (2016) and a
recent book in Hindi titled Atam Khabar: Sanskriti, Samaj aur Hum (2022).

Pradip Kumar Majumdar is former Professor of Indian Astronomy, Rabindra

Bharati University and Department of Mathematics, Kalyani University. He is Fel-
low of Asiatic Society. He was awarded Ganit Bhushan, Ganit Acharya, Ganit
Ratna, and Jnan Chandra Ghosh national award. He is the author of 27 books,
including A Dictionary of Sanskrit–English Technical Terms: Mathematics Volume I, A
Dictionary of Sanskrit–English Technical Terms: Astronomy Volume II, A Bibliography of
Islamic Mathematics, M.A.S.S. Mathematics of Ancient India, among others.

Manjusha Majumdar (Tarafdar) is Professor, Department of Pure Mathemat-

ics, University of Calcutta. Her area of teaching and research is geometry. She
has examined more than 25 PhD theses so far. She has published 43 articles,
books, chapters, attended 44 conferences and invited lectures and shared many
administrative responsibilities. She is a reviewer of several national and interna-
tional journals. She has been included in Who’s Who in the World (USA), the
World Who’s Who of Women (USA), Who’s Who in Science and Engineering
(USA), and nominated for 1999 Woman of the Year (American Biographical
Institute).
xvi Contributors

Sankar Kumar Nath was former Professor, Department of Oncology, R.G. Kar
Medical College, Kolkata. He is President of Oncolink Cancer Centre. His field
of research includes history of medicine, astronomy and cancer. He has published
many articles in different reputed journals and written and edited 15 books. He was
awarded Rabindra Puroshkar by Government of West Bengal.

Sarmistha Sen Raychaudhuri graduated from Presidency College, Kolkata, and

obtained both her Masters and PhD degrees from the University of Calcutta. She
was awarded the ISCA Young Scientist Award in the year 1987. In the same year
she went to the Queen Mary University of London, for postdoctoral research. She
was awarded Uma Kant Sinha Memorial Young Scientist Award (ISCA). She was
a visiting scientist at the Yale University, USA. She has published many research
articles in reputed journals. She has guided many students for doctoral degree. At
present she is a professor at the University of Calcutta.

Samir Kumar Saha obtained his Bachelor’s, Master’s and PhD degrees, all in
mechanical engineering from Jadavpur University, specializing in thermal engi-
neering. His teaching career spans a period of 40 years in the mechanical engi-
neering department at Jadavpur University and five years at MCKV Institute of
Engineering. He has guided several PhD and postgraduate candidates. He has
international and national journal publications as well as conference proceedings
publications. Prof. Saha has authored a book Engineering Education in India (2012).
He was a visiting faculty in USA at Virgina Polytechnic and also co-investigator
of an international project on sustainability transition with Eindhoven University,
the Netherlands. He also attended an international seminar on philosophy of sci-
ence at Lille, France, in 2019. He is a fellow and life member of several reputed
organisations.
SERIES EDITOR’S NOTE

Academic interest shown regarding history and philosophy of science dates back
to several centuries but solemn efforts have been taken since the twentieth cen-
tury onwards. Integrated History and Philosophy of Science (HPS) has set forth
a programme for considering it as a unified discipline. Today, almost all the lead-
ing universities across the globe have their research units in this field. In India,
Jadavpur University, University of Calcutta, Jawaharlal Nehru University and
several others regularly practise research on the mentioned fields comprising
copious number of faculty members, scholars and students. Therefore, this book
will be an input and contribution to the international academia about the his-
tory and philosophical thoughts regarding various fields of science. This book
will provide a detailed understanding of history and evolution of different major
disciplines of science including basic sciences, biosciences, natural science and
medical science with special emphasis on Indian perspectives. It also intends to
focus on the philosophical views regarding the disciplines, as well as to explore
the issues related to ethical, moral and social values. The volume will make an
effort to bring to light the philosophical point of view on controversies arising
in relation to use of science for civilisation. The respective chapters are based
on the selected lectures delivered by experts from Jadavpur University, Calcutta
University at several UGC-sponsored orientation programmes and refresher
courses organised by the UGC-Human Resource Development Centre, Jadavpur
University during 2012–2022. These courses were targeted for and attended by
teachers and librarians working at different colleges, universities and institutes
in India. Potential target reader groups of this volume are assumed to be teach-
ers of concerned subjects in different colleges and universities, research scholars
of concerned fields and libraries of different academic institutions. Students of
xviii Series Editor’s Note

undergraduate as well as postgraduate courses like basic disciplines of science

such as mathematics, physics, chemistry and biosciences, sociology, education,
anthropology, philosophy and history from different colleges and/or universities
are also supposed to be the readers of the volume.
February 2022
Nandan Bhattacharya
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The editor deeply acknowledges the authors for their valuable contribution. Heart-
iest thanks are extended to the officials, colleagues and staff of Jadavpur University
and UGC-Human Resource Development Centre, Jadavpur University, for their
support, enthusiasm and logistic support they provided without which this volume
would not have been completed. The editor is also thankful to University Grants
Commission for its kind allotment of the programmes on the basis of which the
content was selected.
INTRODUCTION
Nandan Bhattacharya

Each and every civilisation has its own unique contributions to the overall human
civilisation. This is not and should not be an issue of competition and superior-
ity of a particular civilisation but a matter of understanding the great past to move
forward for a greater future as a whole. Simultaneously, it is not also praiseworthy
to claim blindly the metaphysical or pseudoscientific ideas of the past to be “scien-
tific”. Academic researchers on the contrary should focus on past inventions and
discoveries in a materialistic and truly scientific vista. Indian civilisation, similar
to other great cultures like The Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Chinese or Mayan, has
its noble contributions to mankind. One may list the contributions which are still
used and practised today in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, medicine, metal-
lurgy, geography, etc. (Uttpal and Soni, 2018; Singh and Kaur, 2014). Another fact
should be kept in mind that like other parts of the world, ancient Indian science
also is interwoven with philosophical backdrop. Therefore, talking about history
of science automatically encompasses philosophy of science. While exploring the
past, it is also required to look simultaneously into the future. Hence, the recent
trends in scientific discoveries in India should be considered with due weight.
Though numerous studies are there involving these issues, a compilation of his-
tory and philosophy of science and future trends with special emphasis to Indian
context is necessary. Keeping this in mind, the present edited volume comprises
15 chapters from eminent scholars and specialists to serve the quest of students and
intelligentsia of the world.
Sarton said,

I am convinced that the historical method is the best to convey scientific facts
and ideas to unprepared minds and to make them thoroughly understandable, –
at least that is so in the case of grown-up people.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003033448-1
2 Nandan Bhattacharya

On the other hand, the genius minds of scientists whose discoveries and inventions
created paradigm changes in human civilisation have influenced philosophy as well,
or the scientists borrowed their ideas from philosophical stores. Thus, without
discussing history and philosophy the study of science is incomplete as these three
components are entwined from their beginning. Therefore, this volume tries to
explore the history and philosophy of science from three main points of view in
three parts. The first part of the book addresses the historical aspects of scientific
evolution. The second part deals with the philosophical aspects, and the third one
is dedicated to the emerging issues in biomedical sciences and healthcare from their
historical and philosophical perspectives like ergonomy, psychoanalysis and RNA
interference, with special focus on the discussion of Indian contribution to science.
Thus, in brief overview, the volume not only tries to travel around the world his-
tory and philosophy of different disciplines of science with their counterparts in
India, but also highlights the unique contribution of Indian intellects.
In the first chapter, “History of Science”, Prof. Samir Kumar Saha gives
a brief outline of the journey of science. “The history of science is the study of
the development of science just as one studies the development of a plant or an
animal from its very birth”, said Sarton (1916). Professor Saha therefore describes
the very basic ideas of scientific evolution. He starts from the emergence of sci-
ence and then points out the milestones of discoveries and inventions of science
in different eras and in different countries or continents. A brief description of
notable philosophers and scientists and their discoveries which have changed
the course of scientific evolution at a particular period of history is given in a
nutshell. The chapter depicts the scientific evolution of ancient civilisations like
India, China, Arabia, and Greece. At the end of the chapter the contribution of
modern Indian scientists is portrayed. As a whole, this chapter will serve as a text
of history of science.
Modern science is no doubt an endowment of colonialism. Prof. Deepak
Kumar intends to find out the detailed background of colonial influence on sci-
ence in India. The chapter describes the glorious past of Indian intellects and
their contributions. While during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Europe
developed and flourished their science remarkably and used its fruits for their busi-
ness purpose. Bridges between continents were laid, and the era of ruthless colo-
nialism started. But wherever they stepped they brought their crown in one hand
and science on the other. The new trends and practices which the East observed
were institutionalisation, the adhesion of government and science, science in edu-
cation, the modern scientific research techniques, technological imperatives and
many others. As a whole, the philosophy of Indian scientific tradition and culture
was transformed. This raises a discourse of modernity as well because it “kills and
nourishes almost simultaneously”. Thus, this chapter, in a nutshell, finds out the
whole story of modern Indian science and will be one of the most important dis-
cussions in the field of history of science from Indian perspective.
Goethe once said, “If we look at the problems raised by Aristotle, we are aston-
ished at his gift of observation. What wonderful eyes the Greeks had for many
 Introduction 3

things!” Indeed, another ancient civilisation which, like India, has changed the
course of journey of science in a different era is the Greek civilisation. Both ancient
and modern science of other civilisations are indebted to Greece. Quite a lot of
milestone discoveries and inventions have their roots in ancient Greek science. Ein-
stein remarked that development of Western science is based on two achievements,
namely “formal logical system” (Euclidean geometry) and “to find out the causal
relationships by systematic experiment”. This volume therefore tries to explore the
history of science in Greece. Prof. Bichitra Kumar Guha surveyed the journey
from Aristotle to Newton in Chapter 3, which covers in detail the development
and evolution of physics, mathematics, astronomy and other fields where Greek
philosophers planted their flags. At the same time, he also discusses the social per-
spectives of the discoveries, the role of the Church, the tarnished Inquisition etc.
The chapter deals with the glorious struggle and martyrdom of scientists like Gali-
leo and Bruno to hold the banner up in even the most crucial dark age of irration-
ality in the name of religion.
Peter Gobets of ZerOrigIndia Foundation states, “The Indian (or numerical)
zero, widely seen as one of the greatest innovations in Human History, is the
cornerstone of modern mathematics and physics, plus the spin-off technology”.
Besides, India enlightened the world with other blessings of science like sulya sutras,
astronomy, algebra, trigonometry and analysis and so on. More important is that
ancient Indian science and Indian philosophy always progressed hand in hand. The
very concept of Byom (Mahashunya) was the unique contribution of Indian philoso-
phy. This perception of eternity and entity of nothingness or devoid was described
in several religious and philosophical texts of ancient India. In Chapter 4, Prof.
Manjusha Majumdar (Tarafdar) traces the origin and evolution of these ideas
and concepts chronologically, beginning from the Vedic period onwards. A link to
other civilisations regarding exchange of ideas and comparison between them with
regard to the concepts is also the focus of the chapter.
Ancient Indian medical science started its journey from Ayurveda (science of
life) from where eight branches originated among which surgery (Śalyatantra) was
one of the important fields of research. Dr Sudipa Bandyopadhyay touches
upon the history of surgery in ancient India. But before that, one must have a clear
concept of the Ayurveda. Since the second century bc, Ayurveda flourished in the
ancient schools of Hindu philosophical teachings called Vaisheshika (inferences and
perceptions obtained about a patient’s pathological condition for treatment), the
school of logic named as Nyaya (extensive knowledge of the patient’s condition and
the disease condition before proceeding for treatment). It is related to the mani-
festation framework, well known as Samkhya. Later, Vaisheshika and Nyaya schools
worked together and jointly founded the nyāya–vaiśeṣika school. Like other such
materialistic and scientific ideas, Ayurveda also is said to have divine origin from
Lord Brahma, who framed the process for the well-being of mankind. The first
Shlokas were found in the Vedas complied by the sage Atreya (Ninivaggi, 2008).
Agnivesha compiled the knowledge which was edited by mainly Charaka (Charaka
Samhita). Charaka Samhita describes all aspects of Ayurvedic medicine, and Sushruta
4 Nandan Bhattacharya

Samhita describes the science of surgery. The Ayurvedic practice requires the full
involvement of the patient. It is an interactive system and educational. It encour-
ages self-empowerment of patient. It is a system for empowerment, freedom and
long life (Pandey et al., 2013). Thus, the whole system is beyond just medical
practice and reaches the philosophical horizon from where it originated. During
the last few decades, Ayurveda has been going through paradigm changes. Lots of
interdisciplinary works are now carried out regarding Ayurveda. A new discipline
called “Ayurgenomics”, developed recently, “bridges this gap between genomics
and Ayurveda and serves as an aid in understanding of inter-individual differences
in responses to therapies in various diseases” (Gupta, 2015). The basic concept
of Ayurveda, the Prakriti, is now interpreted from the standpoint of body mass
index (BMI) (Rotti et al., 2014). Rotti et al. (2015) reported “classification method
for human population, with respect to DNA methylation signatures” based on
Prakriti. Thus, this traditional Indian heritage is now supplemented with new flow
of knowledge from other streams of sciences, and at the same time it also ramifies
itself into other disciplinary tributaries. Like Ayurveda, as stated earlier, surgery also
has its long past in Indian medicine.
Tipton, describing about Sushruta, says that he (Sushruta) opined about the
main and true nature of a physician as a preventer of disease rather than invest
efforts in curative medical procedures. Now, when under the severe effect of viral
attack this volume is being processed, this statement seems to be the preamble of
medical science. The development and evolution of medical science in India, is
also presented in a chronological manner. One of the most important aspects put
forward by Sushruta was perhaps the amalgamation of religious ideas and empirical
studies. In his Sushruta Samhita he said,

The different parts of the body as mentioned before the skin, cannot be cor-
rectly described by one who is not well versed in anatomy. Hence, anyone
desirous of acquiring a thorough knowledge of anatomy should prepare a
dead body and carefully observe, by dissecting it, and examine its different
parts.

This Shloka indeed depicts the progressive mindset of the early Indian medical
scientists, vast knowledge and the great heritage of India. This chapter (Chapter 5)
will surely draw the attention of researchers to understand the medical history of
India.
In Chapter 6, Dr Sankar Kumar Nath deals with rather recent past. His focus
is on the establishment of India’s first medical college, Medical College of Bengal
on 28 January 1835, affiliated with the London University.

Prior to this college a few medical schools were there in India offering
mostly insufficient and to some extent unscientific medical education to the
students. Dr Mountford Joseph Bramley (1803–1837) was appointed as the
first Principal of Medical College of Bengal,
 Introduction 5

says Dr Nath. After colonisation, British rulers in India started reforming educa-
tion, science, law and all other infrastructure and superstructures in line with their
own system, as they did in other parts of the world where their colonies were
established. The Western medical footprints were first recorded in around ad 1600,
with the arrival of British medical officials in India. The first medical department
was established in ad 1764 (Mushtaq, 2009). Finally, in the year 1835, after the
opening of the first medical college, Indian Medical Service (IMS) was opened for
the natives. Bramley, one of the pioneer figures of modern Indian medical science,
is as much an important name as any other British legends like Beaton, Long or
others. Therefore, this volume should have the duty to rediscover him and not
to leave him “fallen into oblivion in the history of medical science in India” as
Dr Nath says.
The term “Science” is just a newcomer in the field of academics when Willium
Whewell first coined the term scientist. Previously, science was included under the
broad spectrum of philosophy. Earlier ancient scholars of Greece were called natu-
ral philosophers not analogically the same as modern scientists. The great minds of
the “Age of Renaissance” like Descartes, Galileo or of the “Age of Enlightenment”
like Newton were considered as philosophers rather than as “scientists”. Newton’s
book is named as Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (simply as Principia).
After the nineteenth century, different disciplines emerged as subjects of sciences,
such as biology and physics, and the researchers started to be addressed as biolo-
gists or physicists respectively. Still, the relation of science with philosophy never
departed. Rather, new issues are coming up as science progresses. For example
bioethics is one of the most recent issues dealing with the human genome project
and cloning. Philosophy of science deals with the ultimate purpose of science, its
trajectories, boundaries, reliabilities of scientific theories, relationship of science
and truth, etc. Particularly, the last one is important in the sense that should sci-
ence aim to determine the ultimate truth or some question would be there forever
unsolved. Therefore, without discussing the philosophy the discussion of sciences
is incomplete. Keeping this in consideration, in the second part of this volume
philosophy of sciences is discussed.
“Philosophy always asks questions on justification. To decide: Is there any abso-
lute Truth and Will science be able to arrive at it?” Keeping this in mind, Dr Pradip
Kumar Ghosh tries to encompass the brief overview of philosophy of science in
Chapter 7, by focussing on Western philosophy. He starts with the origin of modern
science pointing out the radical theories which have shaken the world of science.
Then comes the issue of evolution of philosophical thought, the difference between
science and pseudoscience, the debate of science and similar science. As described
earlier, the relation of science and truth is one of the chief issues of philosophy of
science. Prof. Ghosh naturally touches upon the concern. Also, he focuses on the
history of this journey, pointing out issues such as inductive and deductive reason-
ing, logical positivism, and so on. The philosophies of David Hume, Karl Popper,
Imre Lakatos, Kuhn and others are considered. The long existing debate of scientific
realism is another topic emphasised in the discussion on philosophy of science, and
6 Nandan Bhattacharya

he concludes the chapter with this issue. Thus, in brief, induction, explanation,
realism and scientific changes, empiricism, realism and naturalism, conflict of sci-
ence and religion are taken into consideration.
The famous werewolf legend which even took the lives of several innocent
people in ancient times due to superstition was eventually found to be the Ambras
syndrome or hypertrichosis (growth of abnormal hair on body). Once, after discov-
ery “Supermale” or XYY karyotype of human genomic structure was a misnomer
postulation claimed to be linked with criminal activities. Later on, it was proved
to be just a chromosomal aberration like other such kinds, for example Down and
Klinefelter syndromes, and no such scientific evidences supporting the claim were
found. But this fact, during the 1960s, evoked once more the philosophical and
ethical issue of relationship between human anatomy, physiology or genetics with
the characteristic feature of human being that is either good or evil nature. Not
only in criminology but in biology, physiology or in politics, philosophy, literature,
human body has always been a prime focus of attention for thousands of years.
Even in recent days the Human Genome Project still raises many philosophical
debates from the ethical point of view. Prof. Samantak Das in his chapter, Writ-
ten on the Body: Agency, Representation, Deviance, intends to shine the light on
one of such classical issues which has been a matter of discourse in history and in
the contemporary times also.
In Chapter 9, Prof. Pradip Majumder discusses Āryabhata I and his method
of “Continued fraction to find out the integral solution of indeterminate equation
of the type by asrc” and the discussion enters into specific problem. This chapter
surely opens a new window of research that is to review and search in depth any
particular issue.
Psychology is nowadays a very much important field and day by day it is gaining
more emphasis in daily life due to increasing mental disorders as a result of increas-
ing complexity of the fast and complex modern life. The World Health Organiza-
tion (WHO) (2019) reports that every 40 seconds, there is a case of suicide. So, the
subject with its details needs to draw the attention of the academic field also. As a
discipline it was closely related to philosophy for several centuries. The soul, the
mind and other concepts were discussed in Hindu, Greek and Chinese philoso-
phies in the ancient era. In 1890, William James first defined psychology as “The
Science of mental life, both of its phenomena and their conditions”. Psychoa-
nalysis is one of the major wings of psychology. Sigmund Freud established this
discipline in 1890, and soon it attracted people’s attention. Though today science
has described much sophisticated and developed theories and therapies regarding
psychoanalysis, Freudian technique still retains its crown. Prof. Santanu Biswas
in Chapter 10 deals with “The Death Instinct in Psychoanalysis”, an important part
of the Freudian theory.
In the third part of the book, the recent advances of sciences in different fields
are taken into consideration with special emphasis on Indian perspective. India
not only has a great heritage but after Independence, the country has taken quite
a big leap in science. Apart from conventional disciplines, research is pursued on
 Introduction 7

several specialised areas of modern science, such as space science, computer science,
specialised branches of biosciences and bioengineering such as ergonomics. India
has a long heritage regarding conservation of nature and its bioresources. But it
is also one of the leading countries in the world so far as the modern techniques
and strategies are concerned. The principal objective of this part is to point out
the current advancements on those issues. This part intends to focus on rather
specialised attempts of sciences to enhance the quality and magnitude of welfare
and well-being of mankind through scientific discoveries. In this regard, authors
emphasise on the various types of research carried out in Indian laboratories by
Indian intelligentsia.
Prof. Bijan Das addresses the very fundamental question of mankind in Chap-
ter 11: how did life originate on Earth? Indeed, this question has intrigued scien-
tists as well as philosophers from the beginning of human civilisation thousands of
years ago, and it still remains unsolved. New researches are coming up with new
discoveries every day. Though so many doctrines are there from the point of view
of ancient religions (e.g. the Bible, Upanishads), folk beliefs and even tribal pos-
tulations (e.g.) on origin of life, materialistic or scientific investigation was started
nearly 2,000 years back by Aristotle. Prof. Das tries to start with the early “scien-
tific” notion of Aristotle and then takes a journey of discoveries up to recent works
on it.
RNAi or RNA interference is one of the most current techniques and researches
are ongoing in this field from only the past two to three decades. It gains its impor-
tance not only for its role in further research to understand genetic phenomena
further in detail but also for its use in drug production (Kim and Rossi, 2008). After
facing a lot of challenges involving “safety and potency” during August 2018, there
was a paradigm shift when US Food and Drug Administration finally approved
Patisiran, the first RNAi-based drug. Thus, the science of RNAi has now gained
significance as a noble scientific research field for human benefit along with its
academic importance. Prof. Manika Pal Bhadra with her fellow researchers
works in this contemporary and sophisticated field at CSIR-Indian Institute of
Chemical Technology, one of the leading institutes in India. In their chapter, they
discuss the origin and journey of the works done on RNAi, its mechanism, ethics,
applications (in agriculture, in healthcare, e.g. cancer and HIV) and RNAi-based
therapeutics and its advent and evolution. Chapter 12 thus seems to be one of the
most valuable chapters of this volume.
According to WHO the number of people with diabetes rose from 108 mil-
lion in 1980, to 422 million in 2014. The global prevalence of diabetes among
adults over 18 years of age rose from 4.7% in 1980, to 8.5% in 2014 (WHO, 2016).
Between 2000 and 2016, there was a 5% increase in premature mortality due to
diabetes. According to the National Diabetes Statistics Report, 2020, 10.5% of the
US population are suffering from diabetes. “The mean of amount of money spent
on the current visit was 553.15 INR. The direct cost of healthcare for diabetic
individuals was 553 INR, among them medicines accounted for the largest share”,
says Sandhya Rani Javalkar (2019). These statistics show the severity of the disease.
8 Nandan Bhattacharya

Therefore, it can easily be assumed how much benefit the rural and/or poor people
of India would have if low-cost medicines are available in the market. Numer-
ous researches are being conducted around the world to mitigate this silent killer.
Prof. Sarmistha Sen Raychaudhuri and her fellow scholars worked on Momor-
dica charantia L., an antidiabetic medicinal plant, at the Department of Biophysics,
Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics, University of Calcutta. This plant, with
antidiabetic factor charantin, can be propagated through somatic embryogenesis,
an in vitro technique by which plant propagation can be achieved by exploiting its
inherent property of totipotency. Their work certainly creates possibilities for fur-
ther research in this field and hope for betterment of crop production and in turn
betterment of human life (Chapter 13).
The concept and attempts for better user-friendly work tools and places date
back to several millennia. It is assumed to be first exercised in the hominid evolu-
tion in Australopithecus prometheus when they invented handmade tools from stone.
Other civilizations also practised “occupational health and safety” and productivity.
But ergonomics as a well-defined and theorised science has only a few decades of
existence in academic arena, and it is very much a specialised one. Though the
term ergonomics has been coined in 1857, it came into being as a separate subject
during the 1940s, and finally took a definite shape in 1949, with the establishment
of The Ergonomics Society. In India, it started its journey during the late 1950s,
and it was first taught as a subject in the physiology department of Presidency Col-
lege, Calcutta. This is a growing discipline and is still taught in only a few colleges
and universities for Bachelor’s and Master’s degree courses. The importance of this
subject is proved time and again, as even during the current pandemic situation
the Chartered Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors (CIEHF) and its mem-
bers are regularly providing consultation and guidance with their professional and
scholarly expertise. Prof. Somnath Gangopadhyay presents an overview of the
subject, its role and importance in Chapter 14.
Scrupulous focus has already been given to the conservation of bioresources
and sustainable development of them as severe damage is being done due to rapid
and voracious progress of human civilisation and population explosion of man-
kind. The whole concept and research comes under the purview of the subject
ecology. Though the term ecology took birth a few decades ago, the very con-
cept prevails through several thousand years. It is flourishing and gaining more
importance steadily with the increasing degradation of nature by human civilisa-
tion. So, considering the importance, the subject deserves a space in this volume.
Prof. Susanta Kumar Chakraborty in Chapter 15 talks about the origin and
evolution of the subject with special emphasis on the issue of biodiversity which
also is a blazing matter today.
The legacy of ancient Indian scientific discoveries on which modern science
still depends includes medicine, mathematics and metallurgy. Examples such as the
value of pi, the concept of zero are well known and widely described. But there
are a few more which have not been taken into consideration in regular literature.
Metallurgy is one of these heritage topics. Prof. Cyril Stanley Smith has remarked
 Introduction 9

that usually man assays metals. Metals can just as well be used to assay the progress
of mankind. Srinivasan and Ranganathan (1997) discuss in detail the field which
interested readers may go through for further research.

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