Download Full Version ebookmass - Visit ebookmass.

com

Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students Fourth

Edition. Edition Howard D. Curtis

https://ebookmass.com/product/orbital-mechanics-for-
engineering-students-fourth-edition-edition-howard-d-curtis/

OR CLICK HERE

DOWLOAD NOW

Discover More Ebook - Explore Now at ebookmass.com

 Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) ready for you
Download now and discover formats that fit your needs...

Aerodynamics for Engineering Students 7th Edition E.L.

Houghton

https://ebookmass.com/product/aerodynamics-for-engineering-
students-7th-edition-e-l-houghton/

ebookmass.com

Statistical Mechanics: Fourth Edition R.K. Pathria

https://ebookmass.com/product/statistical-mechanics-fourth-edition-r-
k-pathria/

ebookmass.com

Chemistry for Engineering Students 4th Edition Lawrence S.

Brown

https://ebookmass.com/product/chemistry-for-engineering-students-4th-
edition-lawrence-s-brown/

ebookmass.com

Tech SEO Guide: A Reference Guide for Developers and

Marketers Involved in Technical SEO 1st Edition Matthew
Edgar
https://ebookmass.com/product/tech-seo-guide-a-reference-guide-for-
developers-and-marketers-involved-in-technical-seo-1st-edition-
matthew-edgar-2/
ebookmass.com
Sourcing and Procurement with SAP S/4HANA Ashlock

https://ebookmass.com/product/sourcing-and-procurement-with-
sap-s-4hana-ashlock/

ebookmass.com

978-0130387752 Market-Based Management

https://ebookmass.com/product/978-0130387752-market-based-management/

ebookmass.com

Advanced Health Assessment and Diagnostic Reasoning 3rd

Edition, (Ebook PDF)

https://ebookmass.com/product/advanced-health-assessment-and-
diagnostic-reasoning-3rd-edition-ebook-pdf/

ebookmass.com

Pediatric Liver Transplantation: A Clinical Guide 1st

Edition Nedim Hadzic

https://ebookmass.com/product/pediatric-liver-transplantation-a-
clinical-guide-1st-edition-nedim-hadzic/

ebookmass.com

Practical Applications of Coaching and Mentoring in

Dentistry Janine Brooks

https://ebookmass.com/product/practical-applications-of-coaching-and-
mentoring-in-dentistry-janine-brooks/

ebookmass.com
Gilded Artist: A Golden Era Series Small Town Instalove
Romance Hayleigh Davis & Flirt Club

https://ebookmass.com/product/gilded-artist-a-golden-era-series-small-
town-instalove-romance-hayleigh-davis-flirt-club/

ebookmass.com
Orbital Mechanics for
Engineering Students
Orbital Mechanics for
Engineering Students
Fourth Edition

Howard D. Curtis
Professor Emeritus, Aerospace Engineering
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University
Daytona Beach, Florida
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
# 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the
Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance
Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not
warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB®
software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a
particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software.
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden
our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using
any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods
they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a
professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability
for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise,
or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-08-102133-0

For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Katey Birtcher

Acquisition Editor: Steve Merken
Editorial Project Manager: Nathaniel McFadden
Production Project Manager: Maria Bernard
Cover Designer: Victoria Pearson
Typeset by SPi Global, India
 To my beloved wife, Mary
For her patience, encouragement, and love
Preface
The purpose of this book is to provide an introduction to space mechanics for undergraduate engineer-
ing students. It is not directed toward graduate students, researchers, and experienced practitioners,
who may nevertheless find useful review material within the book’s contents. The intended readers
are those who are studying the subject for the first time and have completed courses in physics, dy-
namics, and mathematics through differential equations and applied linear algebra. I have tried my best
to make the text readable and understandable to that audience. In pursuit of that objective I have in-
cluded a large number of example problems that are explained and solved in detail. Their purpose is not
to overwhelm but to elucidate. I find that students like the “teach by example” method. I always assume
that the material is being seen for the first time and, wherever possible, I provide solution details so as to
leave little to the reader’s imagination. The numerous figures throughout the book are also intended to
aid comprehension. All of the more labor-intensive computational procedures are accompanied by
MATLAB® code.
For this, the fourth edition, I have retained the content and style of the previous editions and
corrected all the errors discovered by me or reported to me by readers. Except for the new
Chapter 9 on basic lunar trajectories and an expanded discussion of quaternions in Chapter 11 the book
remains essentially the same. Adding the new chapter required the following reshuffling:

Topic This edition Previous edition

Lunar trajectories Chapter 9 Absent

Introduction to orbital perturbations Chapter 10 Chapter 12
Rigid body dynamics Chapter 11 Chapter 9
Satellite attitude dynamics Chapter 12 Chapter 10
Rocket vehicle dynamics Chapter 13 Chapter 11

The organization of the book remains the same as that of the third edition. Chapter 1 is a review of
vector kinematics in three dimensions and of Newton’s laws of motion and gravitation. It also focuses
on the issue of relative motion, crucial to the topics of rendezvous and satellite attitude dynamics. The
material on ordinary differential equation solvers will be useful for students who are expected to code
numerical simulations in MATLAB or other programming languages. Chapter 2 presents the vector-
based solution of the classical two-body problem, resulting in a host of practical formulas for the anal-
ysis of orbits and trajectories of elliptical, parabolic, and hyperbolic shape. The restricted three-body
problem is covered to introduce the notion of Lagrange points and to present the numerical solution of a
lunar trajectory problem. Chapter 3 derives Kepler’s equations, which relate position to time for the
different kinds of orbits. The universal variable formulation is also presented. Chapter 4 is devoted
to describing orbits in three dimensions. Coordinate transformations and the Euler elementary rotation
sequences are defined. Procedures for transforming back and forth between the state vector and the
classical orbital elements are addressed. The effect of the earth’s oblateness on the motion of an orbit’s
ascending node and eccentricity vector is described, pending a more detailed explanation in Chapter 10.
Chapter 5 is an introduction to preliminary orbit determination, including Gibbs’ and Gauss’ methods
and the solution of Lambert’s problem. Auxiliary topics include topocentric coordinate systems, Julian

xiii
xiv Preface

day numbering, and sidereal time. Chapter 6 presents the common means of transferring from one orbit
to another by impulsive delta-v maneuvers, including Hohmann transfers, phasing orbits, and plane
changes. Chapter 7 is a brief introduction to relative motion in general and to the two-impulse rendez-
vous problem in particular. The latter is analyzed using the Clohessy-Wiltshire equations, which are
derived in this chapter. Chapter 8 is an introduction to interplanetary mission design using patched
conics. Chapter 9 extends the patched conic method and the restricted three-body approach to lunar
trajectory analysis. Chapter 10 is an introduction to common orbital perturbations: drag, nonspherical
gravitational field, solar radiation pressure, and lunar and solar gravity. Chapter 11 presents those el-
ements of rigid body dynamics required to characterize the attitude of a space vehicle. Euler’s equa-
tions of rotational motion are derived and applied in a number of example problems. Euler angles, yaw-
pitch-roll angles, and quaternions are presented as ways to describe the attitude of rigid body.
Chapter 12 describes the methods of controlling, changing, and stabilizing the attitude of spacecraft
by means of thrusters, gyros, and other devices. Chapter 13 is a brief introduction to the characteristics
and design of multistage launch vehicles.
Chapters 1 through 4 form the core of a first orbital mechanics course. The time devoted to
Chapter 1 depends on the background of the student. It might be surveyed briefly and used thereafter
simply as a reference. What follows Chapter 4 depends on the objectives of the course.
Chapters 5 through 10 carry on with the subject of orbital mechanics. Chapter 6 on orbital maneu-
vers should be included in any case. Coverage of Chapters 5, 7, 8, and 9 is optional. However, if
Chapters 8 and 9 on interplanetary and lunar missions is to form a part of the course, then the solution
of Lambert’s problem (Section 5.3) must be studied beforehand.
Chapter 10 is appropriate for a course devoted exclusively to orbital mechanics with an introduction
to perturbations, which is a whole topic unto itself.
Chapters 11 and 12 must be covered if the course objectives include an introduction to spacecraft
dynamics. In that case Chapters 5, 7, 8, and 9 would probably not be studied in depth.
Chapter 13 is optional if the engineering curriculum requires a separate course in propulsion includ-
ing rocket dynamics.
The important topic of spacecraft control systems is omitted. However, the material in this book and
a course in control theory provide the basis for the study of spacecraft attitude control.
To understand the material and to solve problems requires using a lot of undergraduate mathemat-
ics. Mathematics, of course, is the language of engineering. Students must not forget that the English
mathematician and physicist Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) had to invent calculus so he could solve
orbital mechanics problems in more than just a heuristic way. Newton’s 1687 publication Mathemat-
ical Principles of Natural Philosophy (“the Principia”) is one of the most influential scientific works of
all time. It must be noted that his contemporary, the German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm von
Leibnitz (1646–1716) is credited with inventing infinitesimal calculus independently of Newton in
the 1670s.
In addition to honing their math skills, students are urged to take advantage of computers (which,
incidentally, use the binary numeral system developed by Leibnitz). There are many commercially
available mathematics software packages for personal computers. Wherever possible they should be
used to relieve the burden of repetitive and tedious calculations. Computer-programming skills can
and should be put to good use in the study of orbital mechanics. The elementary MATLAB programs
referred to in Appendix D of this book illustrate how many of the procedures developed in the text can
 Preface xv

be implemented in software. All the scripts were developed and tested using MATLAB version 9.2
(release 2017a). Information about MATLAB, which is a registered trademark of The MathWorks,
Inc., may be obtained from
The MathWorks, Inc.
3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2089, USA
www.mathworks.com
Appendix A presents some tables of physical data and conversion factors. Appendix B is a road map
through the first three chapters, showing how the most fundamental equations of orbital mechanics are
related. Appendix C shows how to set up the n-body equations of motion and program them in
MATLAB. Appendix D contains listings of all the MATLAB algorithms and example problems
presented in the text. Appendix E shows that the gravitational field of a spherically symmetric body
is the same as if the mass were concentrated at its center. Appendix F explains how to deal with a
computational issue that arises in some perturbation analyses.

SUPPLEMENTS TO THE TEXT

For purchasers of the book, copies of the MATLAB M-files listed in Appendix D can be freely down-
loaded from this book’s companion website. Also available on the companion website are a set of an-
imations that accompany the text. To access these files, please visit https://www.elsevier.com/books-
and-journals/book-companion/9780081021330.
For instructors using this book for a course, please visit www.textbooks.elsevier.com to register for
access to the solutions manual, PowerPoint lecture slides, and other resources.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Since the publication of the first three editions and during the preparation of this one, I have received
helpful criticism, suggestions, and advice from many sources locally and worldwide. I thank them all
and regret that time and space limitations prohibited the inclusion of some recommended additional
topics that would have enhanced the book.
It has been a pleasure to work with the people at Elsevier, in particular Joseph P. Hayton, Publisher;
Steve Merken, Senior Acquisitions Editor; and Nate McFadden, Senior Developmental Editor.
I appreciate their enthusiasm for the book, their confidence in me, and all the work they did to move
this project to completion.
Finally and most importantly, I must acknowledge the patience and support of my wife, Mary, who
was a continuous source of optimism and encouragement throughout the revision effort.

Howard D. Curtis
Daytona Beach, FL, United States
 CHAPTER

DYNAMICS OF POINT MASSES

1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter serves as a self-contained reference on the kinematics and dynamics of point masses as
well as some basic vector operations and numerical integration methods. The notation and concepts
summarized here will be used in the following chapters. Those familiar with the vector-based dynamics
of particles can simply page through the chapter and then refer back to it later as necessary. Those who
need a bit more in the way of review will find that the chapter contains all the material they need to
follow the development of orbital mechanics topics in the upcoming chapters.
We begin with a review of vectors and some vector operations, after which we proceed to the prob-
lem of describing the curvilinear motion of particles in three dimensions. The concepts of force and
mass are considered next, along with Newton’s inverse-square law of gravitation. This is followed
by a presentation of Newton’s second law of motion (“force equals mass times acceleration”) and
the important concept of angular momentum.
As a prelude to describing motion relative to moving frames of reference, we develop formulas for
calculating the time derivatives of moving vectors. These are applied to the computation of relative
velocity and acceleration. Example problems illustrate the use of these results, as does a detailed con-
sideration of how the earth’s rotation and curvature influence our measurements of velocity and accel-
eration. This brings in the curious concept of Coriolis force. Embedded in exercises at the end of the
chapter is practice in verifying several fundamental vector identities that will be employed frequently
throughout the book.
The chapter concludes with an introduction to numerical methods, which can be called upon to
solve the equations of motion when an analytical solution is not possible.

1.2 VECTORS
A vector is an object that is specified by both a magnitude and a direction. We represent a vector graph-
ically by a directed line segment (i.e., an arrow pointing in the direction of the vector). The end opposite
the arrow is called the tail. The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the vector. Ve-
locity is a good example of a vector. We say that a car is traveling eastward at 80 km/h. The direction is
east and the magnitude, or speed, is 80 km/h. We will use boldface type to represent vector quantities
and plain type to denote scalars. Thus, whereas B is a scalar, B is a vector.
Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102133-0.00001-5
# 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1
2 CHAPTER 1 DYNAMICS OF POINT MASSES

FIG. 1.1
All of these vectors may be denoted A, since their magnitudes and directions are the same.

FIG. 1.2
Parallelogram rule of vector addition. A + B ¼ C.

Observe that a vector is specified solely by its magnitude and direction. If A is a vector, then all
vectors having the same physical dimensions, the same length, and pointing in the same direction as A
are denoted A, regardless of their line of action, as illustrated in Fig. 1.1. Shifting a vector parallel to
itself does not mathematically change the vector. However, the parallel shift of a vector might produce
a different physical effect. For example, an upward 5-kN load (force vector) applied to the tip of an
airplane wing gives rise to quite a different stress and deflection pattern in the wing than the same load
acting at the wing’s midspan.
The magnitude of a vector A is denoted kAk, or, simply A.
Multiplying a vector B by the reciprocal of its magnitude produces a vector that points in the di-
rection of B, but it is dimensionless and has a magnitude of one. Vectors having dimensionless mag-
nitude are called unit vectors. We put a hat (^) over the letter representing a unit vector. Then we can tell
simply by inspection that, for example, u ^ is a unit vector, as are B^ and ^e.
^A . As pointed out above,
It is convenient to denote the unit vector in the direction of the vector A as u
we obtain this vector from A as follows:

A
^A ¼
u (1.1)
A

^C ¼ C=C, u
Likewise, u ^F ¼ F=F, etc.
The sum or resultant of two vectors is defined by the parallelogram rule (Fig. 1.2). Let C be the sum
of the two vectors A and B. To form that sum using the parallelogram rule, the vectors A and B are
 1.2 VECTORS 3

FIG. 1.3
Three-dimensional, right-handed Cartesian coordinate system.

shifted parallel to themselves (leaving them unaltered) until the tail of A touches the tail of B. Drawing
dotted lines through the head of each vector parallel to the other completes a parallelogram. The
diagonal from the tails of A and B to the opposite corner is the resultant C. By construction, vector
addition is commutative; that is,
A+B¼B+A (1.2)

A Cartesian coordinate system in three dimensions consists of three axes, labeled x, y, and z,
which intersect at the origin O. We will always use a right-handed Cartesian coordinate system,
which means if you wrap the fingers of your right hand around the z axis, with the thumb
pointing in the positive z direction, your fingers will be directed from the x axis toward the y axis.
Fig. 1.3 illustrates such a system. Note that the unit vectors along the x, y, and z axes are, respectively,
^i, ^j, and k.
^
In terms of its Cartesian components, and in accordance with the above summation rule, a vector A
is written in terms of its components Ax, Ay, and Az as
A ¼ Ax^i + Ay^j + Az k
^ (1.3)

The projection of A on the xy plane is a vector denoted Axy . It follows that

Axy ¼ Ax^i + Ay^j

According to the Pythagorean theorem, the magnitude of A in terms of its Cartesian components is
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
A¼ A2x + A2y + A2z (1.4)

From Eqs. (1.1) and (1.3), the unit vector in the direction of A is
^A ¼ cos θx^i + cos θy^j + cos θz k
u ^ (1.5)
4 CHAPTER 1 DYNAMICS OF POINT MASSES

FIG. 1.4
Direction angles in three dimensions.

where
Ax Ay Az
cos θx ¼ cos θy ¼ cos θz ¼ (1.6)
A A A
The direction angles θx, θy, and θz are illustrated in Fig. 1.4, and they are measured between the vector
and the positive coordinate axes. Note carefully that the sum of θx, θy, and θz is not in general known a
priori and cannot be assumed to be, say, 180 degrees.

EXAMPLE 1.1
Calculate the direction angles of the vector A ¼ ^i  4^j + 8k.
^

Solution
First, compute the magnitude of A by means of Eq. (1.4),
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
A ¼ 12 + ð4Þ2 + 82 ¼ 9
Then Eq. (1.6) yields
   
Ax 1
θx ¼ cos 1 ¼ cos 1 ) θx ¼ 83:62 degrees
A 9
   
Ay 4
θy ¼ cos 1 ¼ cos 1 ) θy ¼ 116:4 degrees
A 9
   
Az 8
θz ¼ cos 1 ¼ cos 1 ) θz ¼ 27:27 degrees
A 9
Observe that θx + θy + θz ¼ 227.3 degrees.

Multiplication and division of two vectors are undefined operations. There are no rules for com-
puting the product AB and the ratio A/B. However, there are two well-known binary operations on
 1.2 VECTORS 5

vectors: the dot product and the cross product. The dot product of two vectors is a scalar defined as
follows:
A  B ¼ AB cos θ (1.7)
where θ is the angle between the heads of the two vectors, as shown in Fig. 1.5. Clearly,
AB¼BA (1.8)
If two vectors are perpendicular to each other, then the angle between them is 90 degrees. It follows
from Eq. (1.7) that their dot product is zero. Since the unit vectors ^i, ^j, and k
^ of a Cartesian coordinate
system are mutually orthogonal and of magnitude 1, Eq. (1.7) implies that
^i  ^i ¼ ^j  ^j ¼ k
^k ^¼1
(1.9)
^i  ^j ¼ ^i  k^ ¼ ^j  k
^¼0

Using these properties, it is easy to show that the dot product of the vectors A and B may be found in
terms of their Cartesian components as
A  B ¼ Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz (1.10)

If we set B ¼ A, then it follows from Eqs. (1.4) and (1.10) that

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
A¼ AA (1.11)
The dot product operation is used to project one vector onto the line of action of another. We can
imagine bringing the vectors tail to tail for this operation, as illustrated in Fig. 1.6. If we drop a per-
pendicular line from the tip of B onto the direction of A, then the line segment BA is the orthogonal
projection of B onto the line of action of A. BA stands for the scalar projection of B onto A. From trig-
onometry, it is obvious from the figure that
BA ¼ B cos θ

FIG. 1.5
The angle between two vectors brought tail to tail by parallel shift.

FIG. 1.6
Projecting the vector B onto the direction of A.
6 CHAPTER 1 DYNAMICS OF POINT MASSES

^A be the unit vector in the direction of A. Then,

Let u
¼1
zffl}|ffl{
^ A ¼ kBk ku
Bu ^A k cos θ ¼ B cos θ
Comparing this expression with the preceding one leads to the conclusion that
A
^A ¼ B 
BA ¼ B  u (1.12)
A
^A is given by Eq. (1.1). Likewise, the projection of A onto B is given by
where u
B
AB ¼ A 
B
Observe that AB ¼ BA only if A and B have the same magnitude.

EXAMPLE 1.2
Let A ¼ ^i + 6^j + 18k
^ and B ¼ 42^i  69^j + 98k:
^ Calculate
(a) the angle between A and B;
(b) the projection of B in the direction of A;
(c) the projection of A in the direction of B.
Solution
First, we make the following individual calculations.
A  B ¼ ð1Þð42Þ + ð6Þð69Þ + ð18Þð98Þ ¼ 1392 (a)
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
A ¼ ð1Þ2 + ð6Þ2 + ð18Þ2 ¼ 19 (b)
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
B ¼ ð42Þ2 + ð69Þ2 + ð98Þ2 ¼ 127 (c)
(a) According to Eq. (1.7), the angle between A and B is
 
AB
θ ¼ cos 1
AB
Substituting Eqs. (a), (b), and (c) yields
 
1392
θ ¼ cos 1 ¼ 54:77 degrees
19  127
(b) From Eq. (1.12), we find the projection of B onto A.
A AB
BA ¼ B  ¼
A A
Substituting Eqs. (a) and (b) we get
1392
BA ¼ ¼ 73:26
19
(c) The projection of A onto B is
B AB
AB ¼ A  ¼
B B
 1.2 VECTORS 7

Substituting Eqs. (a) and (c) we obtain

1392
AB ¼ ¼ 10:96
127

The cross product of two vectors yields another vector, which is computed as follows:
A  B ¼ ðAB sinθÞ^
nAB (1.13)

where θ is the angle between the heads of A and B, and n^AB is the unit vector normal to the plane defined
by the two vectors. The direction of n^AB is determined by the right-hand rule. That is, curl the fingers of
the right hand from the first vector (A) toward the second vector (B), and the thumb shows the direction
^AB (Fig. 1.7). If we use Eq. (1.13) to compute B  A, then n
of n ^AB points in the opposite direction,
which means
B  A ¼ ðA  BÞ (1.14)

Therefore, unlike the dot product, the cross product is not commutative.
The cross product is obtained analytically by resolving the vectors into Cartesian components.
   
A  B ¼ Ax^i + Ay^j + Az k
^  Bx^i + By^j + Bz k
^ (1.15)

Since the set ^i^j k

^ is a mutually perpendicular triad of unit vectors, Eq. (1.13) implies that
^i ^i ¼ 0 ^j  ^j ¼ 0 ^k
k ^¼0
^i  ^j ¼ k
^ ^j  k^ ¼ ^i ^ ^i ¼ ^j (1.16)
k

Expanding the right-hand side of Eq. (1.15), substituting Eq. (1.16), and making use of Eq. (1.14)
leads to
 
A  B ¼ Ay Bz  Az By ^i  ðAx Bz  Az Bx Þ^j + Ax By  Ay Bx k
^ (1.17)

It may be seen that the right-hand side is the determinant of the matrix
2 3
^i ^j ^
k
4 Ax Ay Az 5
Bx By Bz

FIG. 1.7
^AB is normal to both A and B and defines the direction of the cross product A  B.
n
8 CHAPTER 1 DYNAMICS OF POINT MASSES

Thus, Eq. (1.17), can be written as

^i ^j ^
k
A  B ¼ Ax Ay Az (1.18)
Bx By Bz

where the two vertical bars stand for the determinant. Obviously, the rule for computing the cross prod-
uct, though straightforward, is a bit lengthier than that for the dot product. Remember that the dot prod-
uct yields a scalar whereas the cross product yields a vector.
The cross product provides an easy way to compute the normal to a plane. Let A and B be any two
vectors lying in the plane, or, let any two vectors be brought tail to tail to define a plane, as shown in
Fig. 1.7. The vector C ¼ A  B is normal to the plane of A and B. Therefore, n ^ AB ¼ C=C, or
AB
^AB ¼
n (1.19)
kA  Bk

EXAMPLE 1.3
Let A5  3^i + 7^j + 9k
^ and B56^i  5^j + 8k.
^ Find a unit vector that lies in the plane of A and B and is perpendicular to A.

Solution
The plane of vectors A and B is determined by parallel-shifting the vectors so that they meet tail to tail. Calculate the vector
D ¼ A  B.
^i ^j k
^
D ¼ 3 7 9 ¼ 101^i + 78^j  27k
^
6 5 8
Note that A and B are both normal to D. We next calculate the vector C ¼ D  A.
^i ^j ^
k
C ¼ 101 78 27 ¼ 891^i  828^j + 941k
^
3 7 9
C is normal to D as well as to A. A, B, and C are all perpendicular to D. Therefore, they are coplanar. Thus, C is not only
perpendicular to A, but it also lies in the plane of A and B. Therefore, the unit vector we are seeking is the unit vector in the
direction of C. That is

C 891^i  828^j + 941k ^

^C ¼
u ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
C 2
891 + ð828Þ + 9412
2

^C ¼ 0:5794^i  0:5384^j + 0:6119k

u ^

In the chapters to follow, we will often encounter the vector triple product, A  (B  C). By resolving
A, B, and C into their Cartesian components, it can easily be shown that the vector triple product can be
expressed in terms of just the dot products of these vectors as follows:
A  ðB  CÞ ¼ BðA  CÞ  CðA  BÞ (1.20)
Because of the appearance of the letters on the right-hand side, this is often referred to as the “bac–cab
rule.”
 1.3 KINEMATICS 9

EXAMPLE 1.4
If F ¼ E  {D  [A  (B  C)]}, use the bac–cab rule to reduce this expression to one involving only dot products.
Solution
First, we invoke the bac–cab rule to obtain
8 baccab rule
9
>
< zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{>
=
F ¼ E  D  ½BðA  CÞ  CðA  BÞ
>
: >
;

Expanding and collecting terms leads to

F ¼ ðA  CÞ½E  ðD  BÞ  ðA  BÞ½E  ðD  CÞ
We next apply the bac–cab rule twice on the right-hand side.
baccab rule baccab rule
zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{ zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{
F ¼ ðA  CÞ ½DðE  BÞ  BðE  DÞ ðA  BÞ ½DðE  CÞ  CðE  DÞ
Expanding and collecting terms yields the sought-for result.

F ¼ ½ðA  CÞðE  BÞ  ðA  BÞðE  CÞD  ðA  CÞðE  DÞB + ðA  BÞðE  DÞC

Another useful vector identity is the “interchange of the dot and the cross”:
A  ðB  C Þ ¼ ðA  B Þ  C (1.21)
It is so-named because interchanging the operations in the expression A  B  C yields A  B  C.
The parentheses in Eq. (1.21) are required to show which operation must be carried out first, according
to the rules of vector algebra. (For example, (A  B)  C, the cross product of a scalar and a vector,
is undefined.) It is easy to verify Eq. (1.21) by substituting A ¼ Ax^i + Ay^j + Az k,
^ B ¼ Bx^i + By^j + Bz k,
^
^ ^ ^
and C ¼ Cx i + Cy j + Cz k and observing that both sides of the equal sign reduce to the same expression.

1.3 KINEMATICS
To track the motion of a particle P through Euclidean space, we need a frame of reference, consisting of
a clock and a nonrotating Cartesian coordinate system. The clock keeps track of time t, and the xyz axes
of the Cartesian coordinate system are used to locate the spatial position of the particle. In nonrelativ-
istic mechanics, a single “universal” clock serves for all possible Cartesian coordinate systems. So when
we refer to a frame of reference, we need to think only of the mutually orthogonal axes themselves.
The unit of time used throughout this book is the second (s). The unit of length is the meter (m), but
the kilometer (km) will be the length unit of choice when large distances and velocities are involved.
Conversion factors between kilometers, miles, and nautical miles are listed in Table A.3.
Given a frame of reference, the position of the particle P at a time t is defined by the position vector
r(t) extending from the origin O of the frame out to P itself, as illustrated in Fig. 1.8. The components of
r(t) are just the x, y, and z coordinates,
rðtÞ ¼ xðtÞ^i + yðtÞ^j + zðtÞk
^
10 CHAPTER 1 DYNAMICS OF POINT MASSES

FIG. 1.8
Position, velocity, and acceleration vectors.

The distance of P from the origin is the magnitude or length of r, denoted k r k or just r,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
krk ¼ r ¼ x2 + y 2 + z2

As in Eq. (1.11), the magnitude of r can also be computed by means of the dot product operation,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
r¼ rr

The velocity v and acceleration a of the particle are the first and second time derivatives of the position
vector,
dxðtÞ^ dyðtÞ^ dyðtÞ ^
vðtÞ ¼ i+ j+ k ¼ vx ðtÞ^i + vy ðtÞ^j + vz ðtÞk
^
dt dt dt
dvx ðtÞ^ dvy ðtÞ^ dvz ðtÞ ^
aðtÞ ¼ i+ j+ k ¼ ax ðtÞ^i + ay ðtÞ^j + az ðtÞk
^
dt dt dt
The derivatives of ^i, ^j, and k
^ are zero since axes of the Cartesian frame have fixed directions. It is con-
venient to represent the time derivative by means of an overhead dot. In this shorthand notation, if ( ) is
any quantity, then
 dð Þ  d2 ð Þ ⋯ d3 ð Þ
ð Þ¼ ð Þ¼ ð Þ¼ etc:
dt dt2 dt3
Thus, for example,
v ¼ r_
a ¼ v_ ¼ €r
vx ¼ x_ vy ¼ y_ vz ¼ z_
ax ¼ v_ x ¼ x€ ay ¼ v_ y ¼ y€ az ¼ v_ z ¼ z€

The locus of points that a particle occupies as it moves through space is called its path or trajectory.
If the path is a straight line, then the motion is rectilinear. Otherwise, the path is curved, and the motion
 1.3 KINEMATICS 11

^t is the unit vector tangent to the

is called curvilinear. The velocity vector v is tangent to the path. If u
trajectory, then
v ¼ v^
ut (1.22)

where the speed v is the magnitude of the velocity v. The distance ds that P travels along its path in the
time interval dt is obtained from the speed by
ds ¼ vdt

In other words,
v ¼ s_

The distance s, measured along the path from some starting point, is what the odometers in our auto-
mobiles record. Of course, s, _ our speed along the road, is indicated by the dial of the speedometer.
Note carefully that v 6¼ r_ (i.e., the magnitude of the derivative of r does not equal the derivative of
the magnitude of r).

EXAMPLE 1.5
The position vector in meters is given as a function of time in seconds as
  
r ¼ 8t2 + 7t + 6 ^i + 5t3 + 4 ^j + 0:3t4 + 2t2 + 1 k
^ ðmÞ (a)
At t ¼ 10 s, calculate (a) v (the magnitude of the derivative of r) and (b) r_ (the derivative of the magnitude of r).
Solution
(a) The velocity v is found by differentiating the given position vector with respect to time,
dr 
v¼ ¼ ð16t + 7Þ^i + 15t2^j + 1:2t3 + 4t k
^
dt
The magnitude of this vector is the square root of the sum of the squares of its components,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
v ¼ 1:44t6 + 234:6t4 + 272t2 + 224t + 49
Evaluating this at t ¼ 10 s, we get
v ¼ 1953:3m=s
(b) Calculating the magnitude of r in Eq. (a) leads to
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
r ¼ 0:09t8 + 26:2t6 + 68:6t4 + 152t3 + 149t2 + 84t + 53
The time derivative of this expression is
dr 0:36t7 + 78:6t5 + 137:2t3 + 228t2 + 149t + 42
r_ ¼ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
dt 0:09t8 + 26:2t6 + 68:6t4 + 152t3 + 149t2 + 84t + 53
Substituting t ¼ 10 s yields

r_ ¼ 1935:5 m=s

^t in the Cartesian coordinate

If v is given, then we can find the components of the unit tangent u
frame of reference by means of Eq. (1.22):
v vx vy vz ^  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
^t ¼ ¼ ^i + ^j + k
u v ¼ v2x + v2y + v2z (1.23)
v v v v
12 CHAPTER 1 DYNAMICS OF POINT MASSES

The acceleration may be written as

^t + an u
a ¼ at u ^n (1.24)
where at and an are the tangential and normal components of acceleration, given by
v2
at ¼ v_ ð¼ s€Þ an ¼ (1.25)
ρ
where ρ is the radius of curvature, which is the distance from the particle P to the center of curvature of
^n is perpendicular to u
the path at that point. The unit principal normal u ^t and points toward the center of
curvature C, as shown in Fig. 1.9. Therefore, the position of C relative to P, denoted rC/P, is
rC=P ¼ ρ^
un (1.26)

The orthogonal unit vectors u ^t and u

^n form a plane called the osculating plane. The unit normal to the
^b , the binormal, and it is obtained from u
osculating plane is u ^t and u
^n by taking their cross product:
u ^t  u
^b ¼ u ^n (1.27)
From Eqs. (1.22), (1.24), and (1.27), we have
v  a ¼ v^ ^ t + an u
ut  ðat u ^ n Þ ¼ van ðu ^n Þ ¼ van u
^t  u ^b ¼ kv  ak^
ub
That is, an alternative to Eq. (1.27) for calculating the binormal vector is
va
^b ¼
u (1.28)
kv  ak
^t , u
Note that u ^n , and u
^b form a right-handed triad of orthogonal unit vectors. That is
^b  u
u ^t ¼ u
^n ^t  u
u ^n ¼ u
^b ^n  u
u ^b ¼ u
^t (1.29)

FIG. 1.9
Orthogonal triad of unit vectors associated with the moving point P.
 1.3 KINEMATICS 13

The center of curvature lies in the osculating plane. When the particle P moves an incremental distance
ds, the radial from the center of curvature to the path sweeps out a small angle, dϕ, measured in the
osculating plane. The relationship between this angle and ds is
ds ¼ ρdϕ
_ or
so that s_ ¼ ρϕ,
v
ϕ_ ¼ (1.30)
ρ

EXAMPLE 1.6
Relative to a Cartesian coordinate system, the position, velocity, and acceleration of a particle P at a given instant are

r ¼ 250^i + 630^j + 430k

^ ðmÞ (a)

v ¼ 90^i + 125^j + 170k

^ ðm=sÞ (b)

a ¼ 16^i + 125^j + 30k
^ m=s2 (c)
Find the coordinates of the center of curvature at that instant.
Solution
The coordinates of the center of curvature C are the components of its position vector rC. Consulting Fig. 1.9, we observe
that
rC ¼ r + ρ^
un (d)
^n is the unit principal normal vector. The
where r is the position vector of the point P, ρ is the radius of curvature, and u
position vector r is given in Eq. (a), but ρ and u^n are unknowns at this point. We must use the geometry of Fig. 1.9 to
find them.
We begin by seeking the value of u ^n , using the first of Eqs. (1.29),
u ^b  u
^n ¼ u ^t (e)
^t is found at once from the velocity vector in Eq. (b) by means of Eq. 1.23,
The unit tangent vector u
v
^t ¼
u
v
where
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
v¼ 902 + 1252 + 1702 ¼ 229:4 m=s (f)
Thus,

90^i + 125^j + 170k

^
^t ¼
u ¼ 0:39233^i + 0:54490^j + 0:74106k
^ (g)
229:4
^b we insert the given velocity and acceleration vectors into Eq. (1.28),
To find the binormal u
^i ^j ^
k
90 125 170
va 16 125 30 17,500^i + 20^j + 9250k ^
(h)
^b ¼
u ¼ ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
kv  ak kv  ak 2
ð17, 500Þ + 20 + 92502 2

¼ 0:88409^i + 0:0010104^i + 0:46731k

^
14 CHAPTER 1 DYNAMICS OF POINT MASSES

Substituting Eqs. (g) and (h) back into Eq. (e) finally yields the unit principal normal

^i ^j ^
k
^n ¼ 0:88409 0:0010104 0:46731 ¼ 0:25389^i + 0:8385^j  0:48214k
u ^ (i)
0:39233 0:5449 0:74106
The only unknown remaining in Eq. (d) is ρ, for which we appeal to Eq. (1.25),

v2
ρ¼ (j)
an
^n ,
The normal acceleration an is calculated by projecting the acceleration vector a onto the direction of the unit normal u
   
^n ¼ 16^i + 125^j + 30k
an ¼ a  u ^  0:25389^i + 0:8385^j  0:48214k ^ ¼ 86:287m=s2 (k)
Putting the values of v and an from Eqs. (f) and (k) into Eq. ( j) yields the radius of curvature,

229:42
ρ¼ ¼ 609:89m (l)
86:287
Upon substituting Eqs. (a), (i), and (l) into Eq. (d), we obtain the position vector of the center of curvature C,
   
rC ¼ 250^i + 630^j + 430k ^ + 609:89 0:25389^i + 0:8385^j  0:48214k ^

¼ 95:159^i + 1141:4^j + 135:95k

^ ðmÞ
Therefore, the coordinates of C are
x ¼ 95:16 m y ¼ 1141 m z ¼ 136:0 m

1.4 MASS, FORCE, AND NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION

Mass, like length and time, is a primitive physical concept: it cannot be defined in terms of any other
physical concept. Mass is simply the quantity of matter. More practically, mass is a measure of the
inertia of a body. Inertia is an object’s resistance to changing its state of motion. The larger its inertia
(the greater its mass), the more difficult it is to set a body into motion or bring it to rest. The unit of mass
is the kilogram (kg).
Force is the action of one physical body on another, either through direct contact or through a dis-
tance. Gravity is an example of force acting through a distance, as are magnetism and the force between
charged particles. The gravitational force Fg between two masses m1 and m2 having a distance r be-
tween their centers is
m1 m2
Fg ¼ G (1.31)
r2
This is Newton’s law of gravity, in which G, the universal gravitational constant, has the value
G ¼ 6.6742(1011)m3/(kg  s2). Due to the inverse-square dependence on distance, the force of gravity
rapidly diminishes with the amount of separation between the two masses. In any case, the force of
gravity is minuscule unless at least one of the masses is extremely big.
The force of a large mass (such as the earth) on a mass many orders of magnitude smaller (such as a
person) is called weight, W. If the mass of the large object is M and that of the relatively tiny one is m,
then the weight of the small body is
 
Mm GM
W ¼G ¼ m
r2 r2
 1.4 MASS, FORCE, AND NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION 15

or
W ¼ mg (1.32)

where
GM
g¼ (1.33)
r2
g has units of acceleration (m/s2) and is called the acceleration of gravity. If planetary gravity is the only
force acting on a body, then the body is said to be in free fall. The force of gravity draws a freely falling
object toward the center of attraction (e.g., center of the earth) with an acceleration g. Under ordinary
conditions, we sense our own weight by feeling contact forces acting on us in opposition to the force of
gravity. In free fall, there are, by definition, no contact forces, so there can be no sense of weight. Even
though the weight is not zero, a person in free fall experiences weightlessness, or the absence of gravity.
Let us evaluate Eq. (1.33) at the surface of the earth, whose radius according to Table A.1 is
6378 km. Letting g0 represent the standard sea level value of g, we get
GM
g0 ¼ (1.34)
R2E

In SI units,
g0 ¼ 9:807m=s2 (1.35)

Substituting Eq. (1.34) into Eq. (1.33) and letting z represent the distance above the earth’s surface, so
that r ¼ RE + z, we obtain
R2E g0
g ¼ g0 ¼ (1.36)
ðRE + zÞ2 ð1 + z=RE Þ2

FIG. 1.10
Variation of the acceleration of gravity with altitude.
16 CHAPTER 1 DYNAMICS OF POINT MASSES

Commercial airliners cruise at altitudes on the order of 10 km (6 miles). At that height, Eq. (1.36)
reveals that g (and hence weight) is only three-tenths of a percent less than its sea level value.
Thus, under ordinary conditions, we ignore the variation of g with altitude. A plot of Eq. (1.36) out
to a height of 2000 km (the upper limit of low earth orbit operations) is shown in Fig. 1.10. The var-
iation of g over that range is significant. Even so, at space station altitude (400 km), weight is only
about 10% less than it is on the earth’s surface. The astronauts experience weightlessness, but they
clearly are not weightless.

EXAMPLE 1.7
Show that in the absence of an atmosphere, the shape of a low-altitude ballistic trajectory is a parabola. Assume the ac-
celeration of gravity g is constant and neglect the earth’s curvature.
Solution
Fig. 1.11 shows a projectile launched at t ¼ 0 s with a speed v0 at a flight path angle γ 0 from the point with coordinates
(x0, y0).
Since the projectile is in free fall after launch, its only acceleration is that of gravity in the negative y direction:
x€¼ 0
y€¼ g
Integrating with respect to time and applying the initial conditions leads to
x ¼ x0 + ðv0 cos γ 0 Þt (a)
1
y ¼ y0 + ðv0 sin γ 0 Þt  gt2 (b)
2
Solving Eq. (a) for t and substituting the result into Eq. (b) yields
1 g
y ¼ y0 + ðx  x0 Þtan γ 0  ðx  x0 Þ2 (c)
2 v20 cos 2 γ 0
This is the equation of a second-degree curve, a parabola, as sketched in Fig. 1.11.

FIG. 1.11
Flight of a low-altitude projectile in free fall (no atmosphere).
 1.5 NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION 17

EXAMPLE 1.8
An airplane flies a parabolic trajectory like that in Fig. 1.11 so that the passengers will experience free fall (weightlessness).
What is the required variation of the flight path angle γ with speed v? Ignore the curvature of the earth.
Solution
Fig. 1.12 reveals that for a “flat” earth, dγ ¼  dϕ. That is,

γ_ ¼ ϕ_
It follows from Eq. (1.30) that
ρ_γ ¼ v (1.37)
The normal acceleration an is just the component of the gravitational acceleration g in the direction of the unit principal
normal to the curve (from P toward C). From Fig. 1.12, then,
an ¼ g cos γ (a)
Substituting the second of Eqs. (1.25) into Eq. (a) and solving for the radius of curvature yields
v2
ρ¼ (b)
gcos γ
Combining Eqs. (1.37) and (b), we find the time rate of change of the flight path angle,
g cos γ
γ_ ¼ 
v

FIG. 1.12
Relationship between dγ and dϕ for a “flat” earth.

1.5 NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

Force is not a primitive concept like mass because it is intimately connected with the concepts of mo-
tion and inertia. In fact, the only way to alter the motion of a body is to exert a force on it. The degree to
which the motion is altered is a measure of the force. Newton’s second law of motion quantifies this. If
the resultant or net force on a body of mass m is Fnet, then
Fnet ¼ ma (1.38)
18 CHAPTER 1 DYNAMICS OF POINT MASSES

In this equation, a is the absolute acceleration of the center of mass. The absolute acceleration is mea-
sured in a frame of reference that itself has neither translational nor rotational acceleration relative to
the fixed stars. Such a reference is called an absolute or inertial frame of reference.
Force is related to the primitive concepts of mass, length, and time by Newton’s second law. The
unit of force, appropriately, is the Newton, which is the force required to impart an acceleration of 1 m/
s2 to a mass of 1 kg. A mass of 1 kg therefore weighs 9.807 N at the earth’s surface. The kilogram is not
a unit of force.
Confusion can arise when mass is expressed in units of force, as frequently occurs in US engineer-
ing practice. In common parlance either the pound or the ton (2000 lb) is more likely to be used to
express the mass. The pound of mass is officially defined precisely in terms of the kilogram, as shown
in Table A.3. Since 1 lb of mass weighs 1 lb of force where the standard sea level acceleration of gravity
(Eq. 1.35) exists, we can use Newton’s second law to relate the pound of force to the Newton:
11b ðforceÞ ¼ 0:4536kg  9:807m=s2 ¼ 4:448N

The slug is the quantity of matter accelerated at 1 ft/s2 by a force of 1 lb. We can again use Newton’s
second law to relate the slug to the kilogram. Noting the relationship between feet and meters in
Table A.3, we find
1lb 4:448N kg  m=s2
1 slug ¼ 2
¼ 2
¼ 14:59 ¼ 14:59kg
1ft=s 0:3048m=s m=s2

EXAMPLE 1.9
On a NASA mission, the space shuttle Atlantis orbiter was reported to weigh 239,255 lb just prior to liftoff. On orbit 18 at an
altitude of about 350 km, the orbiter’s weight was reported to be 236,900 lb. (a) What was the mass, in kilograms, of
Atlantis on the launchpad and in orbit? (b) If no mass was lost between launch and orbit 18, what would have been the
weight of Atlantis, in pounds?
Solution
(a) The given data illustrate the common use of weight in pounds as a measure of mass. The “weights” given are actually
the mass in pounds of mass. Therefore, prior to launch
0:4536kg
mlaunchpad ¼ 239,255lb ðmassÞ  ¼ 108,500kg
1lbðmassÞ
In orbit,
0:4536kg
morbit 18 ¼ 236,900lb ðmassÞ  ¼ 107,500kg
1lbðmassÞ
The decrease in mass is the propellant expended by the orbital maneuvering and reaction control rockets on the orbiter.
(b) Since the space shuttle launchpad at the Kennedy Space Center is essentially at sea level, the launchpad weight of
Atlantis in pounds (force) was numerically equal to its mass in pounds (mass). With no change in mass, the force of
gravity at 350 km would be, according to Eq. (1.36),
0 12
B 1 C
W ¼ 239,255lbðforceÞ  @ A ¼ 215,000lbðforceÞ
350
1+
6378
 1.5 NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION 19

The integral of a force F over a time interval is called the impulse of the force,
ð t2
I¼ Fdt (1.39)
t1

Impulse is a vector quantity. From Eq. (1.38) it is apparent that if the mass is constant, then
ð t2
dv
I net ¼ m dt ¼ mv2  mv1 (1.40)
t1 dt
That is, the net impulse on a body yields a change mΔv in its linear momentum, so that
I net
Δv ¼ (1.41)
m
If Fnet is constant, then I net ¼ Fnet Δt, in which case Eq. (1.41) becomes
Fnet
Δv ¼ Δt ðif Fnet is constantÞ (1.42)
m
Let us conclude this section by introducing the concept of angular momentum. The moment of the
net force about O in Fig. 1.13 is
MO Þnet ¼ r  Fnet
Substituting Eq. (1.38) yields
dv
MO Þnet ¼ r  ma ¼ r  m (1.43)
dt
But, keeping in mind that the mass is constant,
 
dv d dr d
rm ¼ ðr  mvÞ   mv ¼ ðr  mvÞ  ðv  mvÞ
dt dt dt dt
Since v  mv ¼ m(v  v) ¼ 0, it follows that Eq. (1.43) can be written
dHO
MO Þnet ¼ (1.44)
dt

FIG. 1.13
The absolute acceleration of a particle is in the direction of the net force.
20 CHAPTER 1 DYNAMICS OF POINT MASSES

where HO is the angular momentum about O,

HO ¼ r  mv (1.45)

Thus, just as the net force on a particle changes its linear momentum mv, the moment of that force about
a fixed point changes the moment of its linear momentum about that point. Integrating Eq. (1.44) with
respect to time yields
ð t2
MO Þnet ¼ HO Þ2  HO Þ1 (1.46)
t1

The integral on the left is the net angular impulse. This angular impulse-momentum equation is the
rotational analog of the linear impulse-momentum relation given above in Eq. (1.40).

EXAMPLE 1.10
A particle of mass m is attached to point O by an inextensible string of length l, as illustrated in Fig. 1.14. Initially, the string
is slack when m is moving to the left with a speed v0 in the position shown. Calculate (a) the speed of m just after the string
becomes taut and (b) the average force in the string over the small time interval Δt required to change the direction of the
particle’s motion.
Solution
(a) Initially, the position and velocity of the particle are

r1 ¼ c^i + d^j v1 ¼ v0^i

The angular momentum about O is
^i ^j ^
k
H1 ¼ r1  mv1 ¼ c d ^
0 ¼ mvo d k (a)
mvo 0 0
Just after the string becomes taut,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
r2 ¼  l2  d 2^i + d^j v2 ¼ vx^i + vy^j (b)
and the angular momentum is
^i ^j ^
k  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
H2 ¼ r2  mv2 ¼  l2  d2 d 0 ¼ mvx d  mvy l2  d2 k ^ (c)
mvx mvy 0
Initially, the force exerted on m by the slack string is zero. When the string becomes taut, the force exerted on m passes
through O. Therefore, the moment of the net force on m about O remains zero. According to Eq. (1.46),
H 2 ¼ H1

FIG. 1.14
Particle attached to O by an inextensible string.
 1.6 TIME DERIVATIVES OF MOVING VECTORS 21

Substituting Eqs. (a) and (c) yields

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
vx d + l2  d 2 vy ¼ vo d (d)
The string is inextensible, so the component of the velocity of m along the string must be zero:
v2  r2 ¼ 0
Substituting v2 and r2 from Eq. (b) and solving for vy, we get
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
l2
vy ¼ vx 1 (e)
d2
Solving Eqs. (d) and (e) for vx and vy leads to
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
d2 d2 d
vx ¼  2 vo vy ¼  1  2 vo (f)
l l I
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Thus, the speed, v ¼ vx 2 + vy 2 , after the string becomes taut is
d
v ¼ vo
l
(b) From Eq. (1.40), the impulse on m during the time it takes the string to become taut is
" rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ! #   rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
d2 ^ d2 d ^   d2 d2 d
I ¼ mðv2  v1 Þ ¼ m  2 vo i  1  2 vo j  vo i ¼ 1  2 mvo i  1  2 mvo^j
^ ^
l l l l l l

The magnitude of this impulse, which is directed along the string, is

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
d2
I ¼ kI k ¼ 1  2 mvo
l
Hence, the average force in the string during the small time interval Δt required to change the direction of the velocity
vector turns out to be
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
I d2 mvo
Favg ¼ ¼ 1  2
Δt l Δt

1.6 TIME DERIVATIVES OF MOVING VECTORS

Fig. 1.15(a) shows a vector A inscribed in a rigid body B that is in motion relative to an inertial frame of
reference (a rigid, Cartesian coordinate system, which is fixed relative to the fixed stars). The magni-
tude of A is fixed. The body B is shown at two times, separated by the differential time interval dt. At
time t + dt, the orientation of vector A differs slightly from that at time t, but its magnitude is the same.
According to one of the many theorems of the prolific 18th-century Swiss mathematician Leonhard
Euler (1707–1783), there is a unique axis of rotation about which B, and therefore A, rotates during
the differential time interval. If we shift the two vectors A(t) and A(t + dt) to the same point on the
axis of rotation, so that they are tail to tail, as shown in Fig. 1.15(b), we can assess the difference
dA between them caused by the infinitesimal rotation. Remember that shifting a vector to a parallel
line does not change the vector. The rotation of the body B is measured in the plane perpendicular
to the instantaneous axis of rotation. The amount of rotation is the angle dθ through which a line
element normal to the rotation axis turns in the time interval dt. In Fig. 1.15(b) that line element is
22 CHAPTER 1 DYNAMICS OF POINT MASSES

FIG. 1.15
Displacement of a rigid body. (a) Change in orientation of an embedded vector A. (b) Differential rotation of A
about the instantaneous rotation axis.

the component of A normal to the axis of rotation. We can express the difference dA between A(t) and
A(t + dt) as
magnitude of dA
zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{
dA ¼ ½ðkAk  sinϕÞdθ n ^ (1.47)
where n^ is the unit normal to the plane defined by A and the axis of rotation, and it points in the direction
of the rotation. The angle ϕ is the inclination of A to the rotation axis. By definition,
dθ ¼ kωkdt (1.48)
where ω is the angular velocity vector, which points along the instantaneous axis of rotation, and its
direction is given by the right-hand rule. That is, wrapping the right hand around the axis of rotation,
with the fingers pointing in the direction of dθ, results in the thumb defining the direction of ω. This is
evident in Fig. 1.15(b). It should be pointed out that the time derivative of ω is the angular acceleration,
usually given the symbol α. Thus,
dω
α¼ (1.49)
dt
Substituting Eq. (1.48) into Eq. (1.47), we get
^ ¼ ðkωk  kAk  sinϕÞ^
dA ¼ kAk  sinϕ  kωkdt  n n dt (1.50)
By definition of the cross product, ω  A is the product of the magnitude of ω, the magnitude of A, the
sine of the angle between ω and A, and the unit vector normal to the plane of ω and A, in the rotation
direction. That is,
^
ω  A ¼ kωk  kAk  sinϕ  n (1.51)
Substituting Eq. (1.51) into Eq. (1.50) yields
dA ¼ ω  Adt
 1.6 TIME DERIVATIVES OF MOVING VECTORS 23

Dividing through by dt, we finally obtain

 
dA d
¼ωA if kAk ¼ 0 (1.52)
dt dt

Eq. (1.52) is a formula we can use to compute the time derivative of any vector of constant magnitude.

EXAMPLE 1.11
Calculate the second time derivative of a vector A of constant magnitude, expressing the result in terms of ω and its de-
rivatives and A.
Solution
Differentiating Eq. (1.52) with respect to time, we get
d2 A d dA d dω dA
¼ ¼ ðω  AÞ ¼ A+ω
dt2 dt dt dt dt dt
Using Eqs. (1.49) and (1.52), this can be written

d2 A
¼ α  A + ω  ðω  AÞ (1.53)
dt2

EXAMPLE 1.12
Calculate the third derivative of a vector A of constant magnitude, expressing the result in terms of ω and its derivatives
and A.
Solution
d3 A d d2 A d
¼ ¼ ½α  A + ω  ðω  AÞ
dt3 dt dt2 dt
d d
¼ ðα  AÞ + ½ω  ðω  AÞ
dt
 dt 
dα dA dω d
¼ A+α +  ðω  AÞ + ω  ðω  AÞ
dt dt dt dt
 
dα dω dA
¼  A + α  ðω  AÞ + α  ðω  AÞ + ω  A+ω
dt dt dt
dα
¼  A + α  ðω  AÞ + fα  ðω  AÞ + ω  ½α  A + ω  ðω  AÞg
dt
dα
¼  A + α  ðω  AÞ + α  ðω  AÞ + ω  ðα  AÞ + ω  ½ω  ðω  AÞ
dt
dα
¼  A + 2α  ðω  AÞ + ω  ðα  AÞ + ω  ½ω  ðω  AÞ
dt
d3 A dα
¼  A + 2α  ðω  AÞ + ω  ½α  A + ω  ðω  AÞ
dt3 dt

Let XYZ be a rigid inertial frame of reference and xyz a rigid moving frame of reference, as shown in
Fig. 1.16. The moving frame can be moving (translating and rotating) freely on its own accord, or it can
24 CHAPTER 1 DYNAMICS OF POINT MASSES

FIG. 1.16
Fixed (inertial) and moving rigid frames of reference.

be attached to a physical object, such as a car, an airplane, or a spacecraft. Kinematic quantities mea-
sured relative to the fixed inertial frame will be called absolute (e.g., absolute acceleration), and those
measured relative to the moving system will be called relative (e.g., relative acceleration). The unit
vectors along the inertial XYZ system are ^I, ^ ^ whereas those of the moving xyz system are
J, and K,
^i, ^j, and k.
^ The motion of the moving frame is arbitrary, and its absolute angular velocity is Ω. If, how-
ever, the moving frame is rigidly attached to an object, so that it not only translates but also rotates with
it, then the frame is called a body frame and the axes are referred to as body axes. A body frame clearly
has the same angular velocity as the body to which it is bound.
Let B be any time-dependent vector. Resolved into components along the inertial frame of refer-
ence, it is expressed analytically as
B ¼ BX^I + BY ^ ^
J + BZ K

where BX, BY, and BZ are functions of time. Since ^I, ^J, and K
^ are fixed, the time derivative of B is simply
dB dBX ^ dBY ^ dBZ ^
¼ I+ J+ K
dt dt dt dt
dBX/dt, dBY/dt, and dBZ/dt are the components of the absolute time derivative of B.
B may also be resolved into components along the moving xyz frame, so that, at any instant,
B ¼ Bx^i + By^j + Bz k
^ (1.54)

Using this expression to calculate the time derivative of B yields

dB dBx ^ dBy ^ dBz ^ d^i d^j ^
dk
¼ i+ j+ k + Bx + By + Bz (1.55)
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
The orthogonal unit vectors ^i, ^j, and k ^ are not fixed in space but are continuously changing
direction; therefore, their time derivatives are not zero. They obviously have a constant magnitude
 1.6 TIME DERIVATIVES OF MOVING VECTORS 25

(unity) and, being attached to the xyz frame, they all have the angular velocity Ω. It follows from
Eq. (1.52) that
d^i d^j ^
dk
¼ Ω ^i ¼ Ω  ^j ^
¼ Ωk
dt dt dt
Substituting these on the right-hand side of Eq. (1.55) yields
dB dBx ^ dBy ^ dBz ^     
¼ i+ j+ k + Bx Ω ^i + By Ω  ^j + Bz Ω  k^
dt dt dt dt
dBx ^ dBy ^ dBz ^     
¼ i+ j+ k + Ω  Bx^i + Ω  By^j + Ω  Bz k ^
dt dt dt
dBx ^ dBy ^ dBz ^  
¼ i+ j+ k + Ω  Bx^i + By^j + Bz k
^
dt dt dt
In view of Eq. (1.54), this can be written as

dB dB
¼ + ΩB (1.56)
dt dt rel
where

dB dBx ^ dBy ^ dBz ^
¼ i+ j+ k (1.57)
dt rel dt dt dt
dB/dt)rel is the time derivative of B relative to the moving frame. Eq. (1.56) shows how the absolute
time derivative is obtained from the relative time derivative. Clearly, dB/dt ¼ dB/dt)rel only when the
moving frame is in pure translation (Ω ¼ 0).
Eq. (1.56) can be used recursively to compute higher order time derivatives. Thus, differentiating
Eq. (1.56) with respect to t, we get

d2 B d dB dΩ dB
¼ + B+Ω
dt2 dt dt rel dt dt
Using Eq. (1.56) in the last term yields
 
d2 B d dB dΩ dB
¼ + B+Ω + ΩB (1.58)
dt2 dt dt rel dt dt rel
Eq. (1.56) also implies that
  
d dB d2 B dB
¼ +Ω (1.59)
dt dt rel dt2 rel dt rel

where

d2 B d2 Bx ^ d2 By ^ d2 Bz ^
¼ i+ 2 j+ 2 k
dt2 rel dt2 dt dt
Substituting Eq. (1.59) into Eq. (1.58) yields
  
d2 B d2 B dB dΩ dB
¼ + Ω  +  B + Ω  +ΩB
dt2 dt2 rel dt rel dt dt rel
26 CHAPTER 1 DYNAMICS OF POINT MASSES

Collecting terms, this becomes

 
d2 B d2 B _  B + Ω  ðΩ  BÞ + 2Ω  dB
¼ 2 +Ω (1.60)
dt2 dt rel dt rel
_  dΩ=dt is the absolute angular acceleration of the xyz frame.
where Ω
Formulas for higher order time derivatives are found in a similar fashion.

1.7 RELATIVE MOTION

Let P be a particle in arbitrary motion. The absolute position vector of P is r and the position of P
relative to the moving frame is rrel. If rO is the absolute position of the origin of the moving frame,
then it is clear from Fig. 1.17 that
r ¼ rO + rrel (1.61)
Since rrel is measured in the moving frame,
rrel ¼ x^i + y^j + zk
^ (1.62)
where x, y, and z are the coordinates of P relative to the moving reference.
The absolute velocity v of P is dr/dt, so that from Eq. (1.61) we have
drrel
v ¼ vO + (1.63)
dt
where vO ¼ drO/dt is the (absolute) velocity of the origin of the xyz frame. From Eq. (1.56), we can write
drrel
¼ vrel + Ω  rrel (1.64)
dt
where vrel is the velocity of P relative to the xyz frame (so that ^i, ^j, and k
^ are held fixed):

drrel dx^ dy^ dz ^
vrel ¼ ¼ i+ j+ k (1.65)
dt rel dt dt dt

FIG. 1.17
Absolute and relative position vectors.
 1.7 RELATIVE MOTION 27

Substituting Eq. (1.64) into Eq. (1.63) yields

v ¼ vO + Ω  rrel + vrel (1.66)

The absolute acceleration a of P is dv/dt, so that from Eq. (1.63) we have

d2 rrel
a ¼ aO + (1.67)
dt2
where aO ¼ dvO/dt is the absolute acceleration of the origin of the xyz frame. We evaluate the second
term on the right using Eq. (1.60).
 
d2 rrel d2 rrel _  rrel + Ω  ðΩ  rrel Þ + 2Ω  drrel
¼ 2 +Ω (1.68)
dt2 dt rel dt rel

Since vrel ¼ drrel/dt)rel and arel ¼ d2rrel/dt2)rel, this can be written

d2 rrel _  rrel + Ω  ðΩ  rrel Þ + 2Ω  vrel
¼ arel + Ω (1.69)
dt2
Upon substituting this result into Eq. (1.67), we find
_  rrel + Ω  ðΩ  rrel Þ + 2Ω  vrel + arel
a ¼ aO + Ω (1.70)

The cross product 2Ω  vrel is called the Coriolis acceleration after Gustave Gaspard de Coriolis
(1792–1843), the French mathematician who introduced this term (Coriolis, 1835). Because of the
number of terms on the right, Eq. (1.70) is sometimes referred to as the five-term acceleration formula.

EXAMPLE 1.13
At a given instant, the absolute position, velocity, and acceleration of the origin O of a moving frame are
9
rO ¼ 100^I + 200^J + 300K
^ ðmÞ > >
=
vO ¼ 50^I + 30^J  10K^ ðm=sÞ ðgivenÞ (a)
 >
>
aO ¼ 15^I + 40J^ + 25K^ m=s2 ;

The angular velocity and acceleration of the moving frame are

)
Ω ¼ 1:0^I  0:4^J + 0:6K
^ ðrad=sÞ
 ðgivenÞ (b)
_ ^ ^
Ω ¼ 1:0I  0:3J  0:4K ^ rad=s2

The unit vectors of the moving frame are

9
^i ¼ 0:5571^I + 0:7428^J + 0:3714K
^ > >
=
^j ¼ 0:06331^I + 0:4839^J  0:8728K
^ ðgivenÞ (c)
>
>
^ ¼ 0:8280^I + 0:4627^J + 0:3166K
k ^ ;

The absolute position, velocity, and acceleration of P are

9
r ¼ 300^I  100^J + 150K ^ ðmÞ >
>
=
v ¼ 70^I + 25J^  20K^ ðm=sÞ ðgivenÞ (d)
 >
>
a ¼ 7:5^I  8:5^J + 6:0K
^ m=s2 ;

Find (a) the velocity vrel and (b) the acceleration arel of P relative to the moving frame.
28 CHAPTER 1 DYNAMICS OF POINT MASSES

Solution
^ in terms of ^i, ^j, and k
Let us first use Eq. (c) to solve for ^I, ^J, and K ^ (three equations in three unknowns):

^I ¼ 0:5571^i  0:06331^j  0:8280k^

^J ¼ 0:7428^i + 0:4839^j + 0:4627k^ (e)
K^ ¼ 0:3714^i  0:8728^j  0:3166k ^
(a) The relative position vector is
 
rrel ¼ r  rO ¼ 300^I  100^J + 150K
^  100^I + 200^J + 300K
^ ¼ 200^I  300^J  150K
^ ðmÞ (f)
From Eq. (1.66), the relative velocity vector is

vrel ¼ v  vO  Ω  rrel
^I J^ K^
 
¼ 70^I + 25^J  20K
^  50^I + 30^J  10K
^  1:0 0:4 0:6
200 300 150
  
¼ 70^I + 25J^  20K
^  50^I + 30J^  10K
^  240^I + 270^J  220K
^
or

vrel ¼ 120^I  275^J + 210K

^ ðm=sÞ (g)
To obtain the components of the relative velocity along the axes of the moving frame, substitute Eq. (e) into Eq. (g),
 
vrel ¼ 120 0:5571^i  0:06331^j  0:8280k ^
   
 275 0:7428^i + 0:4839^j + 0:4627k
^ + 210 0:3714^i  0:8728^j + 0:3166k
^

so that

vrel ¼ 193:1^i  308:8^j + 38:60k

^ ðm=sÞ (h)

^v in the direction of vrel,

Alternatively, in terms of the unit vector u
 
vrel ¼ 366:2^
uv ðm=sÞ u ^v ¼ 0:5272^i  0:8432^j + 0:1005k
^ (i)

(b) To find the relative acceleration, we use the five-term acceleration formula, Eq. (1.70):

_  rrel  Ω  ðΩ  rrel Þ  2ðΩ  vrel Þ

arel ¼ a  aO  Ω
^I J^ K^ ^I ^
K J^ ^I ^J ^
K
¼ a  aO  1:0 0:30:4  Ω  1:0 0:4 0:6  2 1:0 0:4 0:6
200 300 150 200 300 150 120 275 210
^I ^J ^
K
 
^  1:0 0:4 0:6  162^I  564^J  646K
¼ a  aO  165^I  230^J + 240K ^
240 270 220
  
¼ 7:5^I  8:5^J + 6K
^  15^I + 40^J + 25K
^  165^I  230^J + 240K
^
 
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
 74I + 364J + 366K  162I  564J  646K ^

arel ¼ 99:5^I + 381:5^J + 21:0K

^ ðm=sÞ2 (j)
The components of the relative acceleration along the axes of the moving frame are found by substituting Eq. (e) into
Eq. ( j):
 
arel ¼ 99:5 0:5571^i  0:06331^j  0:8282k ^
   
+ 381:5 0:7428^i + 0:4839^j + 0:4627k ^ + 21:0 0:3714^i  0:8728^j + 0:3166k
^

arel ¼ 346:6^i + 160:0^j + 100:8k

^ ðm=s2 Þ (k)
 1.7 RELATIVE MOTION 29

Or, in terms of the unit vector ûa in the direction of arel,

 
arel ¼ 394:8^ua ðm=s2 Þ ^ ua ¼ 0:8778^i + 0:4052^j + 0:2553k
^ (l)

Fig. 1.18 shows the nonrotating inertial frame of reference XYZ with its origin at the center C of the
earth, which we shall assume to be a sphere. That assumption will be relaxed in Chapter 5. Embedded in
the earth and rotating with it is the orthogonal x0 y0 z0 frame, also centered at C, with the z0 axis parallel to
Z, the earth’s axis of rotation. The x0 axis intersects the equator at the prime meridian (0 degree
longitude), which passes through Greenwich in London, England. The angle between X and x0 is
θG, and the rate of increase of θG is just the angular velocity Ω of the earth. P is a particle (e.g., an
airplane or spacecraft), which is moving in an arbitrary fashion above the surface of the earth. rrel is
the position vector of P relative to C in the rotating x0 y0 z0 system. At a given instant, P is directly over
point O, which lies on the earth’s surface at longitude Λ and latitude ϕ. Point O coincides instanta-
neously with the origin of what is known as a topocentric-horizon coordinate system xyz. For our
purposes, x and y are measured positive eastward and northward along the local latitude and meridian,

FIG. 1.18
0 0 0
Earth-centered inertial frame (XYZ); earth-centered noninertial x y z frame embedded in and rotating with the
earth; and a noninertial, topocentric-horizon frame xyz attached to a point O on the earth’s surface.
30 CHAPTER 1 DYNAMICS OF POINT MASSES

respectively, through O. The tangent plane to the earth’s surface at O is the local horizon. The z axis is
the local vertical (straight up), and it is directed radially outward from the center of the earth. The unit
vectors of the xyz frame are ^i^jk,
^ as indicated in Fig. 1.18. Keep in mind that O remains directly below P,
so that as P moves, so do the xyz axes. Thus, the ^i^jk
^ triad, which comprises the unit vectors of a spherical
coordinate system, varies in direction as P changes location, thereby accounting for the curvature of
the earth.
Let us find the absolute velocity and acceleration of P. It is convenient to first obtain the velocity
and acceleration of P relative to the nonrotating earth, and then use Eqs. (1.66) and (1.70) to calculate
their inertial values.
The relative position vector can be written
^
rrel ¼ ðRE + zÞk (1.71)
where RE is the radius of the earth, and z is the height of P above the earth (i.e., its altitude). The time
derivative of rrel is the velocity vrel relative to the nonrotating earth,
^
vrel ¼
drrel ^ + ðRE + zÞ dk
¼ z_ k (1.72)
dt dt
^
To calculate dk=dt, we must use Eq. (1.52). The angular velocity ω of the xyz frame relative to the
nonrotating earth is found in terms of the rates of change of latitude ϕ and longitude Λ,
ω ¼ ϕ_ ^i + Λ_ cos ϕ^j + Λ_ sin ϕk
^ (1.73)
Thus,
^
dk ^ ¼ Λ_ cos ϕ^i + ϕ_ ^j
¼ ωk (1.74)
dt
Let us also record the following for future use:
d^j
¼ ω  ^j ¼ Λ_ sin ϕ^i  ϕ_ k
^ (1.75)
dt
d^i
¼ ω ^i ¼ Λ_ sin ϕ^j  Λ_ cosϕk
^ (1.76)
dt
Substituting Eq. (1.74) into Eq. (1.72) yields the velocity in the nonrotating frame resolved along the
topocentric-horizon axes,
vrel ¼ x_^i + y_^j + z_ k
^ (1.77a)
where
x_ ¼ ðRE + zÞΛ_ cosϕ y_ ¼ ðRE + zÞϕ_ (1.77b)
It is convenient to use these results to express the rates of change of latitude and longitude in terms of
the components of relative velocity over the earth’s surface,
y_ x_
ϕ_ ¼ Λ_ ¼ (1.78)
RE + z ðRE + zÞ cos ϕ
 1.7 RELATIVE MOTION 31

The time derivatives of these two expressions are

ðRE + zÞy€ y_ z_ ðRE + zÞ x€cos ϕ  ðz_ cos ϕ  y_ sinϕÞx_
ϕ€ ¼ Λ€ ¼ (1.79)
ðRE + zÞ 2 ðRE + zÞ2 cos 2 ϕ
The acceleration of P relative to the nonrotating earth is found by taking the time derivative of vrel.
From Eqs. (1.77a) and (1.77b) we thereby obtain
d^i d^j ^
dk
arel ¼ x€^i + y€^j + z€k
^ + x_
+ y_ + z_
dt dt dt
 
¼ z_ Λ_ cosϕ + ðRE + zÞΛ€ cosϕ  ðRE + zÞϕ_ Λ_ sinϕ ^i + z_ ϕ_ + ðRE + zÞϕ€ ^j + z€k
^
    
+ ðRE + zÞΛ_ cos ϕ ω ^i + ðRE + zÞϕ_ ω  ^j + z_ ω  k ^

Substituting Eq. (1.74) through Eq. (1.76) together with Eqs. (1.78) and (1.79) into this expression
yields, upon simplification,
   
x_ ðz_  y_ tan ϕÞ ^ y_ z_ + x_ 2 tan ϕ ^ x_ 2 + y_ 2 ^
arel ¼ x€+ i + y€+ j + z€ k (1.80)
RE + z RE + z RE + z
Observe that the curvature of the earth’s surface is neglected by letting RE + z become infinitely large,
in which case
arel Þneglecting earth’s curvature ¼ x€^i + y€^j + z€k
^

That is, for a “flat earth,” the components of the relative acceleration vector are just the derivatives of
the components of the relative velocity vector.
For the absolute velocity we have, according to Eq. (1.66),
v ¼ vC + Ω  rrel + vrel (1.81)
^ ¼ cos ϕ^j + sin ϕk,
From Fig. 1.18, it can be seen that K ^ which means the angular velocity of the earth is
^ ¼ Ω cos ϕ^j + Ω sin ϕk
Ω ¼ ΩK ^ (1.82)
Substituting this, together with Eqs. (1.71) and (1.77a) and the fact that vC ¼ 0, into Eq. (1.81) yields
v ¼ ½x_ + ΩðRE + zÞ cosϕ^i + y_^j + z_ k
^ (1.83)
From Eq. (1.70) the absolute acceleration of P is
_  rrel + Ω  ðΩ  rrel Þ + 2Ω  vrel + arel
a ¼ aC + Ω
_ ¼ 0, we find, upon substituting Eqs. (1.71), (1.77a), (1.80), and (1.82), that
Since aC ¼ Ω
x_ ðz_  y_ tanϕÞ
a ¼ x€+ + 2Ωðz_ cos ϕ  y_ sinϕÞ ^i
 RE + z 
y_ z_ + x_ tan ϕ
2
+ y€+ + Ω sinϕ½ΩðRE + zÞcos ϕ + 2x_  ^j (1.84)
 RE + z 
x_ 2 + y_ 2 ^
+ z€  Ωcosϕ½ΩðRE + zÞ cos ϕ + 2x_  k
RE + z
32 CHAPTER 1 DYNAMICS OF POINT MASSES

Some special cases of Eqs. (1.83) and (1.84) follow.

Straight and level, unaccelerated flight: z_ ¼ z€¼ x€¼ y€¼ 0
v ¼ ½x_ + ΩðRE + zÞ cos ϕ^i + y_^j (1.85a)
 
x_ y_ tanϕ x_ tan ϕ 2
a¼ + 2Ωy_ sin ϕ ^i + + Ω sin ϕ½ΩðRE + zÞcos ϕ + 2x_  ^j
RE + z RE + z
 2 2  (1.85b)
x_ + y_ ^
 + Ω cos ϕ½ΩðRE + zÞ cos ϕ + 2x_  k
RE + z
Flight due north (y) at a constant speed and altitude: z_ ¼ z€¼ x_ ¼ x€¼ y€¼ 0
v ¼ ΩðRE + zÞ cos ϕ^i + y_^j (1.86a)
y_2
a ¼ 2Ωy_ sin ϕ^i + Ω2 ðRE + zÞ sin ϕ cos ϕ^j  ^
+ Ω2 ðRE + zÞ cos 2 ϕ k (1.86b)
RE + z
Flight due east (x) at a constant speed and altitude: z_ ¼ z€¼ x€¼ y_ ¼ y€¼ 0
v ¼ ½x_ + ΩðRE + zÞcos ϕ^i (1.87a)
 2 
x_ tan ϕ
a¼ + Ω sin ϕ½ΩðRE + zÞ cos ϕ + 2x_  ^j
RE +2 z  (1.87b)
x_ ^
 + Ω cos ϕ½ΩðRE + zÞ cos ϕ + 2x_  k
RE + z
Flight straight up (z): x_ ¼ x€¼ y_ ¼ y€¼ 0
v ¼ ΩðRE + zÞ cos ϕ^i + z_ k
^ (1.88a)

a ¼ 2Ωðz_ cos ϕÞ^i + Ω2 ðRE + zÞ sin ϕ cos ϕ^j + z€ Ω2 ðRE + zÞ cos 2 ϕ k^ (1.88b)

Stationary: x_ ¼ x€¼ y_ ¼ y€¼ z_ ¼ z€¼ 0

v ¼ ΩðRE + zÞcos ϕ^i (1.89a)

a ¼ Ω2 ðRE + zÞ sin ϕ cos ϕ^j  Ω2 ðRE + zÞ cos 2 ϕk

^ (1.89b)

EXAMPLE 1.14
An airplane of mass 70,000 kg is traveling due north at a latitude 30°N, at an altitude of 10 km (32,800 ft), with a speed of
300 m/s (671 mph). Calculate (a) the components of the absolute velocity and acceleration along the axes of the
topocentric-horizon reference frame and (b) the net force on the airplane. Assume the winds aloft are zero.

Solution
(a) First, using the sidereal rotation period of the earth in Table A.1, we note that the earth’s angular velocity is
2π radians 2π radians 2π radians
Ω¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 7:292  105 radians=s
sidereal day 23:93h 86,160 s
From Eq. (1.86a), the absolute velocity is
 
v ¼ ΩðRE + zÞcosϕ^i + y_^j ¼ 7:292  105  ð6378 + 10Þ  103 cos 30∘ ^i + 300^j
 1.7 RELATIVE MOTION 33

FIG. 1.19
Components of the net force on the airplane.

or

v ¼ 403:4^i + 300^j ðm=sÞ

The 403.4 m/s (901 mph) component of velocity to the east (x direction) is due entirely to the earth’s rotation.
From Eq. (1.86b), the absolute acceleration is
y_ 2
a ¼ 2Ωy_ sin ϕ^i + Ω2 ðRE + zÞsin ϕ cos ϕ^j  ^
+ Ω2 ðRE + zÞcos 2 ϕ k
 RE +z
5 ∘^
¼ 2 7:292  10  300  sin 30 i

+ 7:292  105  ð6378 + 10Þ  103  sin 30∘  cos30∘^j
2

3002 

2
^
+ 7:292  105  ð6378 + 10Þ  103  cos 2 30∘ k
ð6378 + 10Þ  103
or

a ¼ 0:02187^i + 0:01471^j  0:03956k

^ ðm=s2 Þ

The westward (negative x) acceleration of 0.02187 m/s2 is the Coriolis acceleration.

(b) Since the acceleration in part (a) is the absolute acceleration, we can use it in Newton’s law to calculate the net force on
the airplane,
 
Fnet ¼ ma ¼ 70,000 0:02187^i + 0:01471^j  0:03956k ^

¼ 1531^i + 1029^j  2769k

^ ðNÞ

Fig. 1.19 shows the components of this relatively small force. The forward (y) and downward (negative z) forces are in
the directions of the airplane’s centripetal acceleration, caused by the earth’s rotation and, in the case of the downward
force, by the earth’s curvature as well. The westward force is in the direction of the Coriolis acceleration, which is due
to the combined effects of the earth’s rotation and the motion of the airplane. These net external forces must exist if the
airplane is to fly in the prescribed path.
In the vertical direction, the net force is that of the upward lift L of the wings plus the downward weight W of the
aircraft, so that
Fnet Þz ¼ L  W ¼ 2769 ) L ¼ W  2769N
Other documents randomly have
different content
moon appears greater in the horizon, than when she is more
elevated. And because those reflected beams go transversely, there
will be generated, by the last article, redness. A possible cause
therefore is shown, why the moon as also the stars appear greater
and redder in the horizon, than in the midst of heaven. The same
also may be the cause, why the sun appears in the horizon greater
and of a colour more degenerating to yellow, than when he is higher
elevated. For the reflection from the little bodies between, and the
transverse motion of the medium, are still the same. But the light of
the sun is much stronger than that of the moon; and therefore, by
the last article, his splendour must needs by this perturbation
degenerate into yellowness.
But for the generation of these four colours, it is not necessary
that the figure of the glass be a prisma; for if it were spherical it
would do the same. For in a sphere the sunbeams are twice
refracted and twice reflected. And this being observed by Des
Cartes, and withal that a rainbow never appears but when it rains;
as also, that the drops of rain have their figures almost spherical; he
hath shown from thence the cause of the colours in the rainbow;
which therefore need not be repeated.
 The cause of 15. Whiteness is light, but light perturbed by the
whiteness. reflections of many beams of light coming to the
eye together within a little space. For if glass or any other
diaphanous body be reduced to very small parts by contusion or
concussion, every one of those parts, if the beams of a lucid body be
from any one point of the same reflected to the eye, will represent
to the beholder an idea or image of the whole lucid body, that is to
say, a phantasm of white. For the strongest light is the most white;
and therefore many such parts will make many such images.
Wherefore, if those parts lie thick and close together, those many
images will appear confusedly, and will by reason of the confused
light represent a white colour. So that from hence may be deduced a
possible cause, why glass beaten, that is, reduced to powder, looks
white. Also why water and snow are white; they being nothing but a
heap of very small diaphanous bodies, namely, of little bubbles, from
whose several convex superficies there are by reflection made
several confused phantasms of the whole lucid body, that is to say,
whiteness. For the same reason, salt and nitre are white, as
consisting of small bubbles which contain within them water and air;
as is manifest in nitre, from this, that being thrown into the fire it
violently blows the same; which salt also doth, but with less
violence. But if a white body be exposed, not to the light of the day,
but to that of the fire or of a candle, it will not at the first sight be
easily judged whether it be white or yellow; the cause whereof may
be this, that the light of those things, which burn and flame, is
almost of a middle colour between whiteness and yellowness.
The cause of 16. As whiteness is light, so blackness is the
blackness. privation of light, or darkness. And, from hence it is,
first, that all holes, from which no light can be reflected to the eye,
appear black. Secondly, that when a body hath little eminent
particles erected straight up from the superficies, so that the beams
of light which fall upon them are reflected not to the eye but to the
body itself, that superficies appears black; in the same manner as
the sea appears black when ruffled by the wind. Thirdly, that any
combustible matter is by the fire made to look black before it shines.
For the endeavour of the fire being to dissipate the smallest parts of
such bodies as are thrown into it, it must first raise and erect those
parts before it can work their dissipation. If, therefore, the fire be
put out before the parts are totally dissipated, the coal will appear
black; for the parts being only erected, the beams of light falling
upon them will not be reflected to the eye, but to the coal itself.
Fourthly, that burning glasses do more easily burn black things than
white. For in a white superficies the eminent parts are convex, like
little bubbles; and therefore the beams of light, which fall upon
them, are reflected every way from the reflecting body. But in a
black superficies, where the eminent particles are more erected, the
beams of light falling upon them are all necessarily reflected towards
the body itself; and, therefore, bodies that are black are more easily
set on fire by the sun beams, than those that are white. Fifthly, that
all colours that are made of the mixture of white and black proceed
from the different position of the particles that rise above the
superficies, and their different forms of asperity. For, according to
these differences, more or fewer beams of light are reflected from
several bodies to the eye. But in regard those differences are
innumerable, and the bodies themselves so small that we cannot
perceive them; the explication and precise determination of the
causes of all colours is a thing of so great difficulty, that I dare not
undertake it.
Vol. I. Lat. & Eng.
C. XXVII.
Fig. 1-2]
Fig 1 Fig 2
 CHAPTER XXVIII.

OF COLD, WIND, HARD, ICE, RESTITUTION OF

BODIES BENT, DIAPHANOUS, LIGHTNING AND
THUNDER; AND OF THE HEADS OF RIVERS.
1. Why breath from the same mouth sometimes heats and sometimes cools.—2.
Wind, and the inconstancy of winds, whence.—3 Why there is a constant,
though not a great wind, from east to west, near the equator.—4. What is the
effect of air pent in between the clouds.—5. No change from soft to hard, but
by motion.—6. What is the cause of cold near the poles.—7.. The cause of ice;
and why the cold is more remiss in rainy than in clear weather. Why water
doth not freeze in deep wells as it doth near the superficies of the earth. Why
ice is not so heavy as water; and why wine is not so easily frozen as water.—
8. Another cause of hardness from the fuller contact of atoms; also, how hard
things are broken.—9. A third cause of hardness from heat.—10. A fourth
cause of hardness from the motion of atoms enclosed in a narrow space.—11.
How hard things are softened.—12. Whence proceed the spontaneous
restitution of things bent.—13. Diaphanous and opacous, what they are, and
whence.—14. The cause of lightning and thunder.—15. Whence it proceeds
that clouds can fall again after they are once elevated and frozen.—16. How it
could be that the moon was eclipsed, when she was not diametrically
opposite to the sun.—17. By what means many suns may appear at once.—
18. Of the heads of rivers.

Why breath 1. As, when the motion of the ambient ethereal

from the substance makes the spirits and fluid parts of our
same mouth bodies tend outwards, we acknowledge heat; so, by
sometimes
heats and the endeavour inwards of the same spirits and
sometimes humours, we feel cold. So that to cool is to make
cools. the exterior parts of the body endeavour inwards,
by a motion contrary to that of calefaction, by which
the internal parts are called outwards. He, therefore, that would
know the cause of cold, must find by what motion or motions the
exterior parts of any body endeavour to retire inwards. To begin with
those phenomena which are the most familiar. There is almost no
man but knows, that breath blown strongly, and which comes from
the mouth with violence, that is to say, the passage being strait, will
cool the hand; and that the same breath blown gently, that is to say,
through a greater aperture, will warm the same. The cause of which
phenomenon may be this, the breath going out hath two motions;
the one, of the whole and direct, by which the foremost parts of the
hand are driven inwards; the other, simple motion of the small
particles of the same breath, which, (as I have shown in the 3rd
article of the last chapter, causeth heat. According, therefore, as
either of these motions is predominant, so there is the sense
sometimes of cold, sometimes of heat. Wherefore, when the breath
is softly breathed out at a large passage, that simple motion which
causeth heat prevaileth, and consequently heat is felt; and when, by
compressing the lips, the breath is more strongly blown out, then is
the direct motion prevalent, which makes us feel cold. For, the direct
motion of the breath or air is wind; and all wind cools or diminisheth
former heat.
Wind, and 2. And seeing not only great wind, but almost any
the ventilation and stirring of the air, doth refrigerate;
inconstancy the reason of many experiments concerning cold
of winds,
whence. cannot well be given without finding first what are
the causes of wind. Now, wind is nothing else but
the direct motion of the air thrust forwards; which, nevertheless,
when many winds concur, may be circular or otherwise indirect, as it
is in whirlwinds. Wherefore, in the first place we are to enquire into
the causes of winds. Wind is air moved in a considerable quantity,
and that either in the manner of waves, which is both forwards and
also up and down, or else forwards only.
Supposing, therefore, the air both clear and calm for any time how
little soever, yet, the greater bodies of the world being so disposed
and ordered as has been said, it will be necessary that a wind
presently arise somewhere. For, seeing that motion of the parts of
the air, which is made by the simple motion of the sun in his own
epicycle, causeth an exhalation of the particles of water from the
seas and all other moist bodies, and those particles make clouds; it
must needs follow, that, whilst the particles of water pass upwards,
the particles of air, for the keeping of all spaces full, be jostled out
on every side, and urge the next particles, and these the next; till
having made their circuit, there comes continually so much air to the
hinder parts of the earth as there went water from before it.
Wherefore, the ascending vapours move the air towards the sides
every way; and all direct motion of the air being wind, they make a
wind. And if this wind meet often with other vapours which arise in
other places, it is manifest that the force thereof will be augmented,
and the way or course of it changed. Besides, according as the
earth, by its diurnal motion, turns sometimes the drier, sometimes
the moister part towards the sun, so sometimes a greater,
sometimes a less, quantity of vapours will be raised; that is to say,
sometimes there will be a less, sometimes a greater wind.
Wherefore, I have rendered a possible cause of such winds as are
generated by vapours; and also of their inconstancy.
From hence it follows that these winds cannot be made in any
place, which is higher than that to which vapours may ascend. Nor is
that incredible which is reported of the highest mountains, as the
Peak of Teneriffe and the Andes of Peru, namely, that they are not at
all troubled with these inconstant winds. And if it were certain that
neither rain nor snow were ever seen in the highest tops of those
mountains, it could not be doubted but that they are higher than any
place to which vapours use to ascend.
Why there is 3. Nevertheless, there may be wind there, though
a constant, not that which is made by the ascent of vapours,
though not a yet a less and more constant wind, like the
great wind,
from east to continued blast of a pair of bellows, blowing from
west, near the east. And this may have a double cause; the
the equator. one, the diurnal motion of the earth; the other, its
simple motion in its own epicycle. For these
mountains being, by reason of their height, more eminent than all
the rest of the parts of the earth, do by both these motions drive the
air from the west eastwards. To which, though the diurnal motion
contribute but little, yet seeing I have supposed that the simple
motion of the earth, in its own epicycle, makes two revolutions in
the same time in which the diurnal motion makes but one, and that
the semidiameter of the epicycle is double to the semidiameter of
the diurnal conversion, the motion of every point of the earth in its
own epicycle will have its velocity quadruple to that of the diurnal
motion; so that by both these motions together, the tops of those
hills will sensibly be moved against the air; and consequently a wind
will be felt. For whether the air strike the sentient, or the sentient
the air, the perception of motion will be the same. But this wind,
seeing it is not caused by the ascent of vapours, must necessarily be
very constant.
What is the 4. When one cloud is already ascended into the
effect of air air, if another cloud ascend towards it, that part of
pent in the air, which is intercepted between them both,
between the
clouds. must of necessity be pressed out every way. Also
when both of them, whilst the one ascends and the
other either stays or descends, come to be joined in such manner as
that the ethereal substance be shut within them on every side, it will
by this compression also go out by penetrating the water. But in the
meantime, the hard particles, which are mingled with the air and are
agitated, as I have supposed, with simple motion, will not pass
through the water of the clouds, but be more straitly compressed
within their cavities. And this I have demonstrated at the 4th and
5th articles of chapter XXII. Besides, seeing the globe of the earth
floateth in the air which is agitated by the sun's motion, the parts of
the air resisted by the earth will spread themselves every way upon
the earth's superficies; as I have shown at the 8th article of chapter
XXI.
No change 5. We perceive a body to be hard, from this, that,
from soft to when touching it, we would thrust forwards that
hard, but by part of the same which we touch, we cannot do it
motion.
otherwise than by thrusting forwards the whole
body. We may indeed easily and sensibly thrust forwards any particle
of the air or water which we touch, whilst yet the rest of its parts
remain to sense unmoved. But we cannot do so to any part of a
stone. Wherefore I define a hard body to be that whereof no part
can be sensibly moved, unless the whole be moved. Whatsoever
therefore is soft or fluid, the same can never be made hard but by
such motion as makes many of the parts together stop the motion of
some one part, by resisting the same.
What it the 6. Those things premised, I shall show a possible
cause of cold cause why there is greater cold near the poles of
near the the earth, than further from them. The motion of
poles.
the sun between the tropics, driving the air towards
that part of the earth's superficies which is perpendicularly under it,
makes it spread itself every way; and the velocity of this expansion
of the air grows greater and greater, as the superficies of the earth
comes to be more and more straitened, that is to say, as the circles
which are parallel to the equator come to be less and less.
Wherefore this expansive motion of the air drives before it the parts
of the air, which are in its way, continually towards the poles more
and more strongly, as its force comes to be more and more united,
that is to say, as the circles which are parallel to the equator are less
and less; that is, so much the more, by how much they are nearer to
the poles of the earth. In those places, therefore, which are nearer
to the poles, there is greater cold than in those which are more
remote from them. Now this expansion of the air upon the
superficies of the earth, from east to west, doth, by reason of the
sun's perpetual accession to the places which are successively under
it, make it cold at the time of the sun's rising and setting; but as the
sun comes to be continually more and more perpendicular to those
cooled places, so by the heat, which is generated by the supervening
simple motion of the sun, that cold is again remitted; and can never
be great, because the action by which it was generated is not
permanent. Wherefore I have rendered a possible cause of cold in
those places that are near the poles, or where the obliquity of the
sun is great.
The cause of 7. How water may be congealed by cold, may be
ice; and why explained in this manner. Let A (in figure 1)
the cold is represent the sun, and B the earth. A will therefore
more remiss
in rainy than be much greater than B. Let E F be in the plane of
the equinoctial; to which let G H, I K, and L C be
 in clear parallel. Lastly, let C and D be the poles of the
weather. earth. The air, therefore, by its action in those
Why water
doth not
parallels, will rake the superficies of the earth; and
freeze in that with motion so much the stronger, by how
deep wells, much the parallel circles towards the poles grow less
as it doth and less. From whence must arise a wind, which will
near the force together the uppermost parts of the water,
superficies of
the earth.
and withal raise them a little, weakening their
Why ice is endeavour towards the centre of the earth. And
not so heavy from their endeavour towards the centre of the
as water; and earth, joined with the endeavour of the said wind,
why wine is the uppermost parts of the water will be pressed
not so easily
frozen as
together and coagulated, that is to say, the top of
water. the water will be skinned over and hardened. And
so again, the water next the top will be hardened in
the same manner, till at length the ice be thick. And this ice, being
now compacted of little hard bodies, must also contain many
particles of air received into it.
As rivers and seas, so also in the same manner may the clouds be
frozen. For when, by the ascending and descending of several clouds
at the same time, the air intercepted between them is by
compression forced out, it rakes, and by little and little hardens
them. And though those small drops, which usually make clouds, be
not yet united into greater bodies, yet the same wind will be made;
and by it, as water is congealed into ice, so will vapours in the same
manner be congealed into snow. From the same cause it is that ice
may be made by art, and that not far from the fire. For it is done by
the mingling of snow and salt together, and by burying in it a small
vessel full of water. Now while the snow and salt, which have in
them a great deal of air, are melting, the air, which is pressed out
every way in wind, rakes the sides of the vessel; and as the wind by
its motion rakes the vessel, so the vessel by the same motion and
action congeals the water within it.
We find by experience, that cold is always more remiss in places
where it rains, or where the weather is cloudy, things being alike in
all other respects, than where the air is clear. And this agreeth very
well with what I have said before. For in clear weather, the course of
the wind which, as I said even now, rakes the superficies of the
earth, as it is free from all interruption, so also it is very strong. But
when small drops of water are either rising or falling, that wind is
repelled, broken, and dissipated by them; and the less the wind is,
the less is the cold.
We find also by experience, that in deep wells the water freezeth
not so much as it doth upon the superficies of the earth. For the
wind, by which ice is made, entering into the earth by reason of the
laxity of its parts, more or less, loseth some of its force, though not
much. So that if the well be not deep, it will freeze; whereas if it be
so deep, as that the wind which causeth cold cannot reach it, it will
not freeze.
We find moreover by experience, that ice is lighter than water. The
cause whereof is manifest from that which I have already shown,
namely, that air is received in and mingled with the particles of the
water whilst it is congealing.
Lastly, wine is not so easily congealed as water, because in wine
there are particles, which, being not fluid, are moved very swiftly,
and by their motion congelation is retarded. But if the cold prevail
against this motion, then the outermost parts of the wine will be first
frozen, and afterwards the inner parts; whereof this is a sign, that
the wine which remains unfrozen in the midst will be very strong.
Another 8. We have seen one way of making things hard,
cause of namely, by congelation. Another way is thus. Having
hardness already supposed that innumerable atoms, some
from the
fuller contact harder than others and that have several simple
of atoms. motions of their own, are intermingled with the
Also how ethereal substance; it follows necessarily from
hard things hence, that by reason of the fermentation of the
are broken. whole air, of which I have spoken in chapter XXI,
some of those atoms meeting with others will cleave together, by
applying themselves to one another in such manner as is agreeable
to their motions and mutual contacts; and, seeing there is no
vacuum, cannot be pulled asunder, but by so much force as is
sufficient to overcome their hardness.
 Now there are innumerable degrees of hardness. As for example,
there is a degree of it in water, as is manifest from this, that upon a
plane it may be drawn any way at pleasure by one's finger. There is
a greater degree of it in clammy liquors, which, when they are
poured out, do in falling downwards dispose themselves into one
continued thread; which thread, before it be broken, will by little and
little diminish its thickness, till at last it be so small, as that it seems
to break only in a point; and in their separation the external parts
break first from one another, and then the more internal parts
successively one after another. In wax there is yet a greater degree
of hardness. For when we would pull one part of it from another, we
first make the whole mass slenderer, before we can pull it asunder.
And how much the harder anything is which we would break, so
much the more force we must apply to it. Wherefore, if we go on to
harder things, as ropes, wood, metals, stones, &c., reason
prompteth us to believe that the same, though not always sensibly,
will necessarily happen; and that even the hardest things are broken
asunder in the same manner, namely, by solution of their continuity
begun in the outermost superficies, and proceeding successively to
the innermost parts. In like manner, when the parts of bodies are to
be separated, not by pulling them asunder, but by breaking them,
the first separation will necessarily be in the convex superficies of
the bowed part of the body, and afterwards in the concave
superficies. For in all bowing there is in the convex superficies an
endeavour in the parts to go one from another, and in the concave
superficies to penetrate one another.
This being well understood, a reason may be given how two
bodies, which are contiguous in one common superficies, may by
force be separated without the introduction of vacuum; though
Lucretius thought otherwise, believing that such separation was a
strong establishment of vacuum. For a marble pillar being made to
hang by one of its bases, if it be long enough, it will by its own
weight be broken asunder; and yet it will not necessarily follow that
there should be vacuum, seeing the solution of its continuity may
begin in the circumference, and proceed successively to the midst
thereof.
 A third cause 9. Another cause of hardness in some things may
of hardness, be in this manner. If a soft body consist of many
from heat. hard particles, which by the intermixture of many
other fluid particles cohere but loosely together, those fluid parts, as
hath been shown in the last article of chapter XXI, will be exhaled; by
which means each hard particle will apply itself to the next to it
according to a greater superficies, and consequently they will cohere
more closely to one another, that is to say, the whole mass will be
made harder.
A fourth 10. Again, in some things hardness may be made
cause of to a certain degree in this manner. When any fluid
hardness, substance hath in it certain very small bodies
from the
motion of intermingled, which, being moved with simple
atoms motion of their own, contribute like motion to the
enclosed in a parts of the fluid substance, and this be done in a
narrow small enclosed space, as in the hollow of a little
space. sphere, or a very slender pipe, if the motion be
vehement and there be a great number of these small enclosed
bodies, two things will happen; the one, that the fluid substance will
have an endeavour of dilating itself at once every way; the other,
that if those small bodies can nowhere get out, then from their
reflection it will follow, that the motion of the parts of the enclosed
fluid substance, which was vehement before, will now be much more
vehement. Wherefore, if any one particle of that fluid substance
should be touched and pressed by some external movent, it could
not yield but by the application of very sensible force. Wherefore the
fluid substance, which is enclosed and so moved, hath some degree
of hardness. Now, greater and less degree of hardness depends
upon the quantity and velocity of those small bodies, and upon the
narrowness of the place both together.
How hard 11. Such things as are made hard by sudden
things are heat, namely such as are hardened by fire, are
softened. commonly reduced to their former soft form by
maceration. For fire hardens by evaporation, and therefore if the
evaporated moisture be restored again, the former nature and form
is restored together with it. And such things as are frozen with cold,
if the wind by which they were frozen change into the opposite
quarter, they will be unfrozen again, unless they have gotten a habit
of new motion or endeavour by long continuance in that hardness.
Nor is it enough to cause thawing, that there be a cessation of the
freezing wind; for the taking away of the cause doth not destroy a
produced effect; but the thawing also must have its proper cause,
namely, a contrary wind, or at least a wind opposite in some degree.
And this we find to be true by experience. For, if ice be laid in a
place so well enclosed that the motion of the air cannot get to it,
that ice will remain unchanged, though the place be not sensibly
cold.
Whence 12. Of hard bodies, some may manifestly be
proceeds the bowed; others not, but are broken in the very first
spontaneous moment of their bending. And of such bodies as
restitution of
things bent. may manifestly be bended, some being bent, do, as
soon as ever they are set at liberty, restore
themselves to their former posture; others remain still bent. Now if
the cause of this restitution be asked, I say, it may be in this
manner, namely, that the particles of the bended body, whilst it is
held bent, do nevertheless retain their motion; and by this motion
they restore it as soon as the force is removed by which it was bent.
For when any thing is bent, as a plate of steel, and, as soon as the
force is removed, restores itself again, it is evident that the cause of
its restitution cannot be referred to the ambient air; nor can it be
referred to the removal of the force by which it was bent; for in
things that are at rest the taking away of impediments is not a
sufficient cause of their future motion; there being no other cause of
motion, but motion. The cause therefore of such restitution is in the
parts of the steel itself. Wherefore, whilst it remains bent, there is in
the parts, of which it consisteth, some motion though invisible; that
is to say, some endeavour at least that way by which the restitution
is to be made; and therefore this endeavour of all the parts together
is the first beginning of restitution; so that the impediment being
removed, that is to say, the force by which it was held bent, it will be
restored again. Now the motion of the parts, by which this done, is
that which I called simple motion, or motion returning into itself.
When therefore in the bending of a plate the ends are drawn
together, there is on one side a mutual compression of the parts;
which compression is one endeavour opposite to another endeavour:
and on the other side a divulsion of the parts. The endeavour
therefore of the parts on one side tends to the restitution of the
plate from the middle towards the ends; and on the other side, from
the ends towards the middle. Wherefore the impediment being taken
away, this endeavour, which is the beginning of restitution, will
restore the plate to its former posture. And thus I have given a
possible cause why some bodies, when they are bent, restore
themselves again; which was to be done.
As for stones, seeing they are made by the accretion of many very
hard particles within the earth; which particles have no great
coherence, that is to say, touch one another in small latitude, and
consequently admit many particles of air; it must needs be that, in
bending of them, their internal parts will not easily be compressed,
by reason of their hardness. And because their coherence is not
firm, as soon as the external hard particles are disjoined, the
ethereal parts will necessarily break out, and so the body will
suddenly be broken.
Diaphanous 13. Those bodies are called diaphanous, upon
and opacous, which, whilst the beams of a lucid body do work,
what they the action of every one of those beams is
are, and
whence. propagated in them in such manner, as that they
still retain the same order amongst themselves, or
the inversion of that order; and therefore bodies, which are perfectly
diaphanous, are also perfectly homogeneous. On the contrary, an
opacous body is that, which, by reason of its heterogeneous nature,
doth by innumerable reflections and refractions in particles of
different figures and unequal hardness, weaken the beams that fall
upon it before they reach the eye. And of diaphanous bodies, some
are made such by nature from the beginning; as the substance of
the air, and of the water, and perhaps also some parts of stones,
unless these also be water that has been long congealed. Others are
made so by the power of heat, which congregates homogeneous
bodies. But such, as are made diaphanous in this manner, consist of
parts which were formerly diaphanous.
The cause of 14. In what manner clouds are made by the
lightning and motion of the sun, elevating the particles of water
thunder. from the sea and other moist places, hath been
explained in chapter XXVI. Also how clouds come to be frozen, hath
been shown above at the 7th article. Now from this, that air may be
enclosed as it were in caverns, and pent together more and more by
the meeting of ascending and descending clouds, may be deduced a
possible cause of thunder and lightning. For seeing the air consists
of two parts, the one ethereal, which has no proper motion of its
own, as being a thing divisible into the least parts; the other hard,
namely, consisting of many hard atoms, which have every one of
them a very swift simple motion of its own: whilst the clouds by their
meeting do more and more straiten such cavities as they intercept,
the ethereal parts will penetrate and pass through their watery
substance; but the hard parts will in the meantime be the more
thrust together, and press one another; and consequently, by reason
of their vehement motions, they will have an endeavour to rebound
from each other. Whensoever, therefore, the compression is great
enough, and the concave parts of the clouds are, for the cause I
have already given, congealed into ice, the cloud will necessarily be
broken; and this breaking of the cloud produceth the first clap of
thunder. Afterwards the air, which was pent in, having now broken
through, makes a concussion of the air without, and from hence
proceeds the roaring and murmur which follows; and both the first
clap and the murmur that follows it make that noise which is called
thunder. Also, from the same air breaking through the clouds and
with concussion falling upon the eye, proceeds that action upon our
eye, which causeth in us a perception of that light, which we call
lightning. Wherefore I have given a possible cause of thunder and
lightning.
Whence it 15. But if the vapours, which are raised into
proceeds that clouds, do run together again into water or be
clouds can congealed into ice, from whence is it, seeing both
fall again,
ice and water are heavy, that they are sustained in
 after they are the air? Or rather, what may the cause be, that
once elevated being once elevated, they fall down again? For there
and frozen.
is no doubt but the same force which could carry up
that water, could also sustain it there. Why therefore being once
carried up, doth it fall again? I say it proceeds from the same simple
motion of the sun, both that vapours are forced to ascend, and that
water gathered into clouds is forced to descend. For in chapter XXI,
article 11, I have shown how vapours are elevated; and in the same
chapter, article 5, I have also shown how by the same motion
homogeneous bodies are congregated, and heterogeneous
dissipated; that is to say, how such things, as have a like nature to
that of the earth, are driven towards the earth; that is to say, what is
the cause of the descent of heavy bodies. Now if the action of the
sun be hindered in the raising of vapours, and be not at all hindered
in the casting of them down, the water will descend. But a cloud
cannot hinder the action of the sun in making things of an earthly
nature descend to the earth, though it may hinder it in making
vapours ascend. For the lower part of a thick cloud is so covered by
its upper part, as that it cannot receive that action of the sun by
which vapours are carried up; because vapours are raised by the
perpetual fermentation of the air, or by the separating of its smallest
parts from one another, which is much weaker when a thick cloud is
interposed, than when the sky is clear. And therefore, whensoever a
cloud is made thick enough, the water, which would not descend
before, will then descend, unless it be kept up by the agitation of the
wind. Wherefore I have rendered a possible cause, both why the
clouds may be sustained in the air, and also why they may fall down
again to the earth; which was propounded to be done.
How it could 16. Granting that the clouds may be frozen, it is
be that the no wonder if the moon have been seen eclipsed at
moon was such time as she hath been almost two degrees
eclipsed,
when she above the horizon, the sun at the same time
was not appearing in the horizon; for such an eclipse was
diametrically observed by Mæstlin, at Tubingen, in the year 1590.
opposite to For it might happen that a frozen cloud was then
the sun. interposed between the sun and the eye of the
observer. And if it were so, the sun, which was then almost two
degrees below the horizon, might appear to be in it, by reason of
the passing of his beams through the ice. And it is to be noted that
those, that attribute such refractions to the atmosphere, cannot
attribute to it so great a refraction as this. Wherefore not the
atmosphere, but either water in a continued body, or else ice, must
be the cause of that refraction.
By what 17. Again, granting that there may be ice in the
means many clouds, it will be no longer a wonder that many suns
suns may have sometimes appeared at once. For looking-
appear at
once. glasses may be so placed, as by reflections to show
the same object in many places. And may not so
many frozen clouds serve for so many looking-glasses? And may
they not be fitly disposed for that purpose? Besides, the number of
appearances may be increased by refractions also; and therefore it
would be a greater wonder to me, if such phenomena as these
should never happen.
And were it not for that one phenomenon of the new star which
was seen in Cassiopea, I should think comets were made in the
same manner, namely, by vapours drawn not only from the earth but
from the rest of the planets also, and congealed into one continued
body. For I could very well from hence give a reason both of their
hair, and of their motions. But seeing that star remained sixteen
whole months in the same place amongst the fixed stars, I cannot
believe the matter of it was ice. Wherefore I leave to others the
disquisition of the cause of comets; concerning which nothing that
hath hitherto been published, besides the bare histories of them, is
worth considering.
Of the heads 18. The heads of rivers may be deduced from
of rivers. rain-water, or from melted snows, very easily; but
from other causes, very hardly, or not at all. For both rain-water and
melted snows run down the descents of mountains; and if they
descend only by the outward superficies, the showers or snows
themselves may be accounted the springs or fountains; but if they
enter the earth and descend within it, then, wheresoever they break
out, there are their springs. And as these springs make small
streams, so, many small streams running together make rivers. Now,
there was never any spring found, but where the water which flowed
to it, was either further, or at least as far from the centre of the
earth, as the spring itself. And whereas it has been objected by a
great philosopher, that in the top of Mount Cenis, which parts Savoy
from Piedmont, there springs a river which runs down by Susa; it is
not true. For there are above that river, for two miles length, very
high hills on both sides, which are almost perpetually covered with
snow; from which innumerable little streams running down do
manifestly supply that river with water sufficient for its magnitude.
 CHAP. XXIX.

OF SOUND, ODOUR, SAVOUR, AND TOUCH.

1.. The definition of sound, and the distinctions of sounds.—2. The cause of the
degrees of sounds.—3. The difference between sounds acute and grave.—4.
The difference between clear and hoarse sounds, whence.—5. The sound of
thunder and of a gun, whence it proceeds.—6. Whence it is that pipes, by
blowing into them, have a clear sound.—7. Of reflected sound.—8. From
whence it is that sound is uniform and lasting.—9. How sound may be helped
and hindered by the wind.—10. Not only air, but other bodies how hard
soever they be, convey sound.—11. The causes of grave and acute sounds,
and of concent.—12. Phenomena for smelling.—13. The first organ and the
generation of smelling.—14. How it is helped by heat and by wind.—15. Why
such bodies are least smelt, which have least intermixture of air in them.—16.
Why odorous things become more odorous by being bruised.—17. The first
organ of tasting; and why some savours cause nauseousness.—18. The first
organ of feeling; and how we come to the knowledge of such objects as are
common to the touch and other senses.

The definition 1. Sound is sense generated by the action of the

of sound, and medium, when its motion reacheth the ear and the
the
rest of the organs of sense. Now, the motion of the
distinction of
sounds. medium is not the sound itself, but the cause of it.
For the phantasm which is made in us, that is to
say, the reaction of the organ, is properly that which we call sound.
The principal distinctions of sounds are these; first, that one
sound is stronger, another weaker. Secondly, that one is more grave,
another more acute. Thirdly, that one is clear, another hoarse.
Fourthly, that one is primary, another derivative. Fifthly, that one is
uniform, another not. Sixthly, that one is more durable, another less
durable. Of all which distinctions the members may be
subdistinguished into parts distinguishable almost infinitely. For the
variety of sounds seems to be not much less than that of colours.
As vision, so hearing is generated by the motion of the medium,
but not in the same manner. For sight is from pressure, that is, from
an endeavour; in which there is no perceptible progression of any of
the parts of the medium; but one part urging or thrusting on
another propagateth that action successively to any distance
whatsoever; whereas the motion of the medium, by which sound is
made, is a stroke. For when we hear, the drum of the ear, which is
the first organ of hearing, is stricken; and the drum being stricken,
the pia mater is also shaken, and with it the arteries which are
inserted into it; by which the action being propagated to the heart
itself, by the reaction of the heart a phantasm is made which we call
sound; and because the reaction tendeth outwards, we think it is
without.
The cause of 2. And seeing the effects produced by motion are
the degrees greater or less, not only when the velocity is greater
of sounds. or less, but also when the body hath greater or less
magnitude though the velocity be the same; a sound may be greater
or less both these ways. And because neither the greatest nor the
least magnitude or velocity can be given, it may happen that either
the motion may be of so small velocity, or the body itself of so small
magnitude, as to produce no sound at all; or either of them may be
so great, as to take away the faculty of sense by hurting the organ.
From hence may be deduced possible causes of the strength and
weakness of sounds in the following phenomena.
The first whereof is this, that if a man speak through a trunk
which hath one end applied to the mouth of the speaker, and the
other to the ear of the hearer, the sound will come stronger than it
would do through the open air. And the cause, not only the possible,
but the certain and manifest cause is this, that the air which is
moved by the first breath and carried forwards in the trunk, is not
diffused as it would be in the open air, and is consequently brought
to the ear almost with the same velocity with which it was first
breathed out. Whereas, in the open air, the first motion diffuseth
itself every way into circles, such as are made by the throwing of a
stone into a standing water, where the velocity grows less and less
as the undulation proceeds further and further from the beginning of
its motion.
The second is this, that if the trunk be short, and the end which is
applied to the mouth be wider than that which is applied to the ear,
thus also the sound will be stronger than if it were made in the open
air. And the cause is the same, namely, that by how much the wider
end of the trunk is less distant from the beginning of the sound, by
so much the less is the diffusion.
The third, that it is easier for one, that is within a chamber, to
hear what is spoken without, than for him, that stands without, to
hear what is spoken within. For the windows and other inlets of the
moved air are as the wide end of the trunk. And for this reason
some creatures seem to hear the better, because nature has
bestowed upon them wide and capacious ears.
The fourth is this, that though he, which standeth upon the sea-
shore, cannot hear the collision of the two nearest waves, yet
nevertheless he hears the roaring of the whole sea. And the cause
seems to be this, that though the several collisions move the organ,
yet they are not severally great enough to cause sense; whereas
nothing hinders but that all of them together may make sound.
The 3. That bodies when they are stricken do yield
difference some a more grave, others a more acute sound, the
between cause may consist in the difference of the times in
sounds acute
and grave. which the parts stricken and forced out of their
places return to the same places again. For in some
bodies, the restitution of the moved parts is quick, in others slow.
And this also may be the cause, why the parts of the organ, which
are moved by the medium, return to their rest again, sometimes
sooner, sometimes later. Now, by how much the vibrations or the
reciprocal motions of the parts are more frequent, by so much doth
the whole sound made at the same time by one stroke consist of
more, and consequently of smaller parts. For what is acute in sound,
the same is subtle in matter; and both of them, namely acute sound
and subtle matter, consist of very small parts, that of time, and this
of the matter itself.
 The third distinction of sounds cannot be conceived clearly enough
by the names I have used of clear and hoarse, nor by any other that
I know; and therefore it is needful to explain them by examples.
When I say hoarse, I understand whispering and hissing, and
whatsoever is like to these, by what appellation soever it be
expressed. And sounds of this kind seem to be made by the force of
some strong wind, raking rather than striking such hard bodies as it
falls upon. On the contrary, when I use the word clear, I do not
understand such a sound as may be easily and distinctly heard; for
so whispers would be clear; but such as is made by somewhat that
is broken, and such as is clamour, tinkling, the sound of a trumpet,
&c. and to express it significantly in one word, noise. And seeing no
sound is made but by the concourse of two bodies at the least, by
which concourse it is necessary that there be as well reaction as
action, that is to say, one motion opposite to another; it follows that
according as the proportion between those two opposite motions is
diversified, so the sounds which are made will be different from one
another. And whensoever the proportion between them is so great,
as that the motion of one of the bodies be insensible if compared
with the motion of the other, then the sound will not be of the same
kind; as when the wind falls very obliquely upon a hard body, or
when a hard body is carried swiftly through the air; for then there is
made that sound which I call a hoarse sound, in Greek συριγμος.
Therefore the breath blown with violence from the mouth makes a
hissing, because in going out it rakes the superficies of the lips,
whose reaction against the force of the breath is not sensible. And
this is the cause why the winds have that hoarse sound. Also if two
bodies, how hard soever, be rubbed together with no great pressure,
they make a hoarse sound. And this hoarse sound, when it is made,
as I have said, by the air raking the superficies of a hard body,
seemeth to be nothing but the dividing of the air into innumerable
and very small files. For the asperity of the superficies doth, by the
eminences of its innumerable parts, divide or cut in pieces the air
that slides upon it.
The 4. Noise, or that which I call clear sound, is made
difference two ways; one, by two hoarse sounds made by
 between opposite motions; the other, by collision, or by the
clear & sudden pulling asunder of two bodies, whereby their
hoarse
sounds,
small particles are put into commotion, or being
whence. already in commotion suddenly restore themselves
again; which motion, making impression upon the
medium, is propagated to the organ of hearing. And seeing there is
in this collision or divulsion an endeavour in the particles of one
body, opposite to the endeavour of the particles of the other body,
there will also be made in the organ of hearing a like opposition of
endeavours, that is to say, of motions; and consequently the sound
arising from thence will be made by two opposite motions, that is to
say, by two opposite hoarse sounds in one and the same part of the
organ. For, as I have already said, a hoarse sound supposeth the
sensible motion of but one of the bodies. And this opposition of
motions in the organ is the cause why two bodies make a noise,
when they are either suddenly stricken against one another, or
suddenly broken asunder.
The sound of 5. This being granted, and seeing withal that
thunder and thunder is made by the vehement eruption of the air
of a gun, out of the cavities of congealed clouds, the cause of
whence it
proceeds. the great noise or clap may be the sudden breaking
asunder of the ice. For in this action it is necessary
that there be not only a great concussion of the small particles of
the broken parts, but also that this concussion, by being
communicated to the air, be carried to the organ of hearing, and
make impression upon it. And then, from the first reaction of the
organ proceeds that first and greatest sound, which is made by the
collision of the parts whilst they restore themselves. And seeing
there is in all concussion a reciprocation of motion forwards and
backwards in the parts stricken; for opposite motions cannot
extinguish one another in an instant, as I have shown in the 11th
article of chapter VIII; it follows necessarily that the sound will both
continue, and grow weaker and weaker, till at last the action of the
reciprocating air grow so weak, as to be imperceptible. Wherefore a
possible cause is given both of the first fierce noise of the thunder,
and also of the murmur that follows it.
 The cause of the great sound from a discharged piece of ordnance
is like that of a clap of thunder. For the gunpowder being fired doth,
in its endeavour to go out, attempt every way the sides of the metal
in such manner, as that it enlargeth the circumference all along, and
withal shorteneth the axis; so that whilst the piece of ordnance is in
discharging, it is made both wider and shorter than it was before;
and therefore also presently after it is discharged its wideness will be
diminished, and its length increased again by the restitution of all
the particles of the matter, of which it consisteth, to their former
position. And this is done with such motions of the parts, as are not
only very vehement, but also opposite to one another; which
motions, being communicated to the air, make impression upon the
organ, and by the reaction of the organ create a sound, which
lasteth for some time; as I have already shown in this article.
I note by the way, as not belonging to this place, that the possible
cause why a gun recoils when it is shot off, may be this; that being
first swollen by the force of the fire, and afterwards restoring itself,
from this restitution there proceeds an endeavour from all the sides
towards the cavity; and consequently this endeavour is in those
parts which are next the breech; which being not hollow, but solid,
the effect of the restitution is by it hindered and diverted into the
length; and by this means both the breech and the whole gun is
thrust backwards; and the more forcibly by how much the force is
greater, by which the part next the breech is restored to its former
posture, that is to say, by how much the thinner is that part. The
cause, therefore, why guns recoil, some more some less, is the
difference of their thickness towards the breech; and the greater
that thickness is, the less they recoil; and contrarily.
Whence it is 6. Also the cause why the sound of a pipe, which
that pipes, by is made by blowing into it, is nevertheless clear, is
blowing into the same with that of the sound which is made by
them, have a
clear sound. collision. For if the breath, when it is blown into a
pipe, do only rake its concave superficies, or fall
upon it with a very sharp angle of incidence, the sound will not be
clear, but hoarse. But if the angle be great enough, the percussion,
which is made against one of the hollow sides, will be reverberated
to the opposite side; and so successive repercussions will be made
from side to side, till at last the whole concave superficies of the
pipe be put into motion; which motion will be reciprocated, as it is in
collision; and this reciprocation being propagated to the organ, from
the reaction of the organ will arise a clear sound, such as is made by
collision, or by breaking asunder of hard bodies.
In the same manner it is with the sound of a man's voice. For
when the breath passeth out without interruption, and doth but
lightly touch the cavities through which it is sent, the sound it
maketh is a hoarse sound. But if in going out it strike strongly upon
the larynx, then a clear sound is made, as in a pipe. And the same
breath, as it comes in divers manners to the palate, the tongue, the
lips, the teeth, and other organs of speech, so the sounds into which
it is articulated become different from one another.
Of reflected 7. I call that primary sound, which is generated by
sound. motion from the sounding body to the organ in a
strait line without reflection; and I call that reflected sound, which is
generated by one or more reflections, being the same with that we
call echo, and is iterated as often as there are reflections made from
the object to the ear. And these reflections are made by hills, walls,
and other resisting bodies, so placed as that they make more or
fewer reflections of the motion, according as they are themselves
more or fewer in number; and they make them more or less
frequently, according as they are more or less distant from one
another. Now the cause of both these things is to be sought for in
the situation of the reflecting bodies, as is usually done in sight. For
the laws of reflection are the same in both, namely, that the angles
of incidence and reflection be equal to one another. If, therefore, in
a hollow elliptic body, whose inside is well polished, or in two right
parabolical solids, which are joined together by one common base,
there be placed a sounding body in one of the burning points, and
the ear in the other, there will be heard a sound by many degrees
greater than in the open air; and both this, and the burning of such
combustible things, as being put in the same places are set on fire
by the sun-beams, are effects of one and the same cause. But, as
when the visible object is placed in one of the burning points, it is
not distinctly seen in the other, because every part of the object
being seen in every line, which is reflected from the concave
superficies to the eye, makes a confusion in the sight; so neither is
sound heard articulately and distinctly when it comes to the ear in all
those reflected lines. And this may be the reason why in churches
which have arched roofs, though they be neither elliptical nor
parabolical, yet because their figure is not much different from
these, the voice from the pulpit will not be heard so articulately as it
would be, if there were no vaulting at all.
From whence 8. Concerning the uniformity and duration of
it is that sounds, both which have one common cause, we
sound is may observe, that such bodies as being stricken
uniform and
lasting. yield an unequal or harsh sound, are very
heterogeneous, that is to say, they consist of parts
which are very unlike both in figure and hardness, such as are wood,
stones, and others not a few. When these are stricken, there follows
a concussion of their internal particles, and a restitution of them
again. But they are neither moved alike, nor have they the same
action upon one another; some of them recoiling from the stroke,
whilst others which have already finished their recoilings are now
returning; by which means they hinder and stop one another. And
from hence it is that their motions are not only unequal and harsh,
but also that their reciprocations come to be quickly extinguished.
Whensoever, therefore, this motion is propagated to the ear, the
sound it makes is unequal and of small duration. On the contrary, if
a body that is stricken be not only sufficiently hard, but have also
the particles of which it consisteth like to one another both in
hardness and figure, such as are the particles of glass and metals,
which being first melted do afterwards settle and harden; the sound
it yieldeth will, because the motions of its parts and their
reciprocations are like and uniform, be uniform and pleasant, and be
more or less lasting, according as the body stricken hath greater or
less magnitude. The possible cause, therefore, of sounds uniform
and harsh, and of their longer or shorter duration, may be one and
the same likeness and unlikeness of the internal parts of the
sounding body, in respect both of their figure and hardness.
 Besides, if two plane bodies of the same matter and of equal
thickness, do both yield an uniform sound, the sound of that body,
which hath the greatest extent of length, will be the longest heard.
For the motion, which in both of them hath its beginning from the
point of percussion, is to be propagated in the greater body through
a greater space, and consequently that propagation will require
more time; and therefore also the parts which are moved, will
require more time for their return. Wherefore all the reciprocations
cannot be finished but in longer time; and being carried to the ear,
will make the sound last the longer. And from hence it is manifest,
that of hard bodies which yield an uniform sound, the sound lasteth
longer which comes from those that are round and hollow, than from
those that are plane, if they be like in all other respects. For in
circular lines the action, which begins at any point, hath not from the
figure any end of its propagation, because the line in which it is
propagated returns again to its beginning; so that the figure hinders
not but that the motion may have infinite progression. Whereas in a
plane, every line hath its magnitude finite, beyond which the action
cannot proceed. If, therefore, the matter be the same, the motion of
the parts of that body whose figure is round and hollow, will last
longer than of that which is plane.
Also, if a string which is stretched be fastened at both ends to a
hollow body, and be stricken, the sound will last longer than if it
were not so fastened; because the trembling or reciprocation which
it receives from the stroke, is by reason of the connection
communicated to the hollow body; and this trembling, if the hollow
body be great, will last the longer by reason of that greatness.
Wherefore also, for the reason above mentioned, the sound will last
the longer.
How sound 9. In hearing it happens, otherwise than in
may be seeing, that the action of the medium is made
helped and stronger by the wind when it blows the same way,
hindered by
the wind. and weaker when it blows the contrary way. The
cause whereof cannot proceed from anything but
the different generation of sound and light. For in the generation of
light, none of the parts of the medium between the object and the
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookmass.com