III.

Precalculus Review Topics

The topics presented here are important as they are used all
the time in calculus. If you find that you are frequently
confused by these topics, take some time to review them.

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Eliminating Complex Fractions

Calculus frequently uses complex fractions, which are fractions within fractions. Answers are never left with
complex fractions and they must be eliminated. There are two methods to eliminate complex fractions:
a
a d ad
When the problem is in the form of b , we can “flip the denominator” and write it as ⋅ = .
c
d b c bc
However, this does not work when the numerator and denominator are not single fractions. The best way is to
eliminate the complex fractions in all cases is to find the LCD (lowest common denominator) of all the fractions
in the complex fraction. Multiply all terms by this LCD and you are left with a fraction that is magically no
1
x −1 y 1 + x −1 1+
longer complex. Important: Note that −1 can be written as but must be written as x.
−1 1
y x y
y
• Eliminate the complex fractions.

2 2 3 5
1+ +
1. 3 2. 3 3. 4 3
5 5 1
1+ 2−
6 6 6

⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 3 5⎞
1+ +
⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎛ 6⎞ 4 ⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎛ 6 ⎞ = 6 + 4 = 10 ⎜ 4 3 ⎟ ⎛ 12 ⎞ 9 + 20 29
⎜ 5 ⎟ ⎜⎝ 6 ⎟⎠ = 5 ⎜ 5 ⎟ ⎜⎝ 6 ⎟⎠ 6 + 5 11 ⎜ = =
1 ⎟ ⎜⎝ 12 ⎟⎠ 24 − 2 22
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1 + ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 − ⎟⎠
6 6 6

1 −1 1 2 53
1+
x x− x
4. 2 5. 2x 6. 5
1 1 5
1 + x −1 x2 + 2
3 4x 3

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 53⎞
1+ x− x
⎜ 2x ⎟ ⎛ 6x ⎞ = 6x + 3 ⎜ 2x ⎟ ⎛ 4x ⎞ = 4x − 2x ⎜5 ⎟ ⎛ 15 ⎞ 6x
2 3 53
=
⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎜⎝ 6x ⎟⎠ 6x + 2 ⎜ 2 1 ⎟ ⎜⎝ 4x 2 ⎟⎠ 4x 4 +1 ⎜ 5 ⎟ ⎜⎝ 15 ⎟⎠ 25
⎜⎝ 1 + ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x + 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
3x 4x 3

x ( x −1)
−1 2
1
x −3 + x ( 2x + 5)−2 3 ( x −1) 12
−
7. 8. 2 9. 2
x −2 +1 −2 x −1
3
⎛ x ⎞
( x −1) −
12

⎜ 2 ( x −1) ⎟ ⎡ 2 ( x −1) ⎤
12 12

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎜ ⎟⎢ 12⎥
+ x ⎛ x3 ⎞ 1 + x 4
⎜ x 3
⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟6 −3 ⎜ x −1 ⎟ ⎢⎣ 2 ( x −1) ⎥⎦
⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎜⎝ x 3 ⎟⎠ = x + x 3 ⎜ −2 2 3⎟ 6
=
4 ( 2x + 5)
23 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
⎜⎝ +1 ⎟
⎠ ⎜⎝ ( 2x + 5) ⎟⎠
x2 3 2 ( x −1) − x x−2
=
2 ( x −1) 2 ( x −1)
32 32

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Eliminating Complex Fractions - Assignment

• Eliminate the complex fractions.

5 2 7 3
4− 2+ +
1. 8 2. 9 3. 2 5
−2 4 3
3+ 5−
3 3 4

1
x− 1 + x −1 x −1 + y −1
4. x 5. 6.
x+
1 1 − x −2 x+y
x

1
x −2 + x −1 +1 (3x − 4)−3 4 2x ( 2x −1) − 2x 2 ( 2x −1)
12 −1 2

7. 8. 3 9.
x −2 − x −3 ( 2x −1)
4

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Inverses

No topic in math confuses students more than inverses. If a function is a rule that maps x to y, an inverse is a
rule that brings y back to the original x. If a point ( x, y ) is a point on a function f, then the point ( y, x ) is on the
1 1
inverse function f −1 . Students mistakenly believe that since x −1 = , then f −1 = . This is decidedly incorrect.
x f
If a function is given in equation form, to find the inverse, replace all occurrences of x with y and all
occurrences of y with x. If possible, then solve for y. Using the “horizontal-line test” on the original function f
( )
will quickly determine whether or not f −1 is also a function. By definition, f f −1 ( x ) = x . The domain of f −1
−1
is the range of f and the range of f is the domain of f.
4x + 5
1. Find the inverse to y = and show graphically that its inverse is a
x −1
function.

4y + 5 x+5
Inverse: x = ⇒ xy − x = 4y + 5 ⇒ y =
y −1 x−4

Note that the function is drawn in bold and the inverse as dashed. The
function and its inverse is symmetrical to the line y = x. The inverse is a
function for two reasons: a) it passes the vertical line text and b) the function passes the horizontal line test.

2. Find the inverse to the following functions and show graphically that its inverse is a function.
a. y = 4x − 3 b. y = x 2 +1 c. y = x 2 + 4x + 4

Inverse: x = 4y − 3 Inverse: x = y 2 + 4y + 4
Inverse: x = y +1
2

x = ( y + 2) ⇒ ± x = y + 2
2
x+3
y= ( function ) y = ± x −1 ( not a function )
4 y = −2 ± x ( not a function )

3. Find the inverse to the following functions and show that f f −1 ( x ) = x( )

1
a. f ( x ) = 7x + 4 b. f ( x ) = c. f ( x ) = x 3 −1
x −1
1
Inverse: x = ⇒ xy − x = 1
y −1
Inverse: x = 7y + 4 x +1 Inverse: x = y 3 −1
y = f −1 ( x ) =
x−4 x
y = f −1 ( x ) = y = f −1 ( x ) = 3 x +1
7 ⎛ x +1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
f⎜ =
⎝ x ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x+1 ⎟ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ( ) ( )
3
⎛ x − 4⎞ ⎛ x − 4⎞ x −1 ⎠ x
f 3
x +1 = 3
x +1 −1 = x
f⎜ ⎟ = 7⎜ +4= x
⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎟⎠ x
= =x
x +1 − x

4. Without finding the inverse, find the domain and range of the inverse to f ( x ) = x + 2 + 3 .

Function: Domain: [ −2, ∞ ), Range: [3, ∞ ) Inverse: Domain: [3, ∞ ), Range: [ −2, ∞ )

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Inverses – Assignment

1. Find the inverse to the following functions and show graphically that its inverse is a function.

a. 2x − 6y = 1 b. y = ax + b c. y = 9 − x 2

9 2x +1
d. y = 1 − x 3 e. y = f. y =
x 3 − 2x

( )
2. Find the inverse to the following functions and show that f f −1 ( x ) = x

1 4 x2
a. f ( x ) = x− b. f ( x ) = x 2 − 4 c. f ( x ) =
2 5 x 2 +1

x +1
3. Without finding the inverse, find the domain and range of the inverse to f ( x ) = .
x2

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Exponential Functions and Logarithms

Calculus spends a great deal of time on exponential functions in the form of b x . Don’t expect that when you
start working with them in calculus, your teacher will review them. So learn them now! Students must know
that the definition of a logarithm is based on exponential equations. If y = b x then x = log b y . So when you are
trying to find the value of log 2 32 , state that log 2 32 = x and 2 x = 32 and therefore x = 5.

If the base of a log statement is not specified, it is defined to be 10. When we asked for log 100, we are solving
the equation: 10 x = 100 and x = 2. The function y = log x has domain ( 0, ∞ ) and range ( −∞, ∞ ) . In calculus,
we primarily use logs with base e, which are called natural logs (ln). So finding ln 5 is the same as solving the
equation e x = 5 . Students should know that the value of e = 2.71828…

There are three rules that students must keep in mind that will simplify problems involving logs and natural
logs. These rules work with logs of any base including natural logs.
ii. log a − log b = log ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
a
i. log a + log b = log ( a ⋅ b) iii. log a b = b log a
⎝ b⎠
1. Find a. log 4 8 b. ln e c. 10 log 4
log 4 8 = x ln e = x log 4 = x
4 x = 8 ⇒ 2 2 x = 23 e x = e1 2 10 x = 4 so 10 log 4 = 4
3 1 10 to a power and log are inverses
x= x=
2 2

d. log 2 + log 50 e. log 4 192 − log 4 3 f. ln 5 e3

⎛ 192 ⎞
log ( 2 ⋅ 50 ) = log100 log 4 ⎜
⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
3 3
ln e3 5 = ln e =
2 5 5
log 4 64 = 3

(
2. Solve a. log 9 x 2 − x + 3 = ) 1
2
b. log36 x + log36 ( x −1) =
1
2
c. ln x − ln ( x −1) = 1

1
log36 x ( x −1) = ⎛ x ⎞
2 ln ⎜ =1
⎝ x −1⎟⎠
x 2 − x + 3 = 91 2 x ( x −1) = 361 2 =6
x
x ( x −1) = 0 x2 − x − 6 = 0 = e ⇒ x = ex − e
x −1
x = 0, x = 1 ( x − 3)( x + 2) = 0 e
Only x = 3 is in the domain x=
e −1
−2 x
d. 5 x = 20 e. e = 5 f. 2 = 3x−1
x

( )
log 5 x = log 20 ln e −2 x = ln 5 ( ) ( )
log 2 x = log 3x−1
x log 5 = log 20 − ln 5 x log 2 = ( x −1) log3
−2x = ln 5 ⇒ x =
log 20 ln 20 2 log3
x= or x = x log 2 = x log3 − log3 ⇒ x =
log 5 ln 5 log3 − log 2

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Exponential Functions and Logarithms - Assignment

1 1
1. Find a. log 2 b. log8 4 c. ln
4 3
e2

d. 5log5 40 e. e ln12 f. log12 2 + log12 9 + log12 8

2 3 4
( 3)
5
g. log 2 + log 2 h. log 1 − log 1 12 i. log3
3 32 3 3 3

2. Solve a. log 5 (3x − 8) = 2 (

b. log 9 x 2 − x + 3 = ) 1
2
c. log ( x − 3) + log 5 = 2

1
d. log 2 ( x −1) + log 2 ( x + 3) = 5 e. log 5 ( x + 3) − log 5 x = 2 f. ln x 3 − ln x 2 =
2

g. 3x−2 = 18 h. e
3x+1
= 10 i. 8 x = 52 x−1

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Graphical Solutions to Equations and Inequalities

You have a shiny new calculator. So when are we going to use it? So far, no mention has been made of it. Yet,
the calculator is a tool that is required in the AP calculus exam. For about 25% of the exam, a calculator is
permitted. So it is vital you know how to use it.

There are several settings on the calculator you should make. First, so you don’t get into
rounding difficulties, it is suggested that you set your calculator to three decimal places.
That is a standard in AP calculus so it is best to get into the habit. To do so, press MODE
and on the 2nd line, take it off FLOAT and change it to 3. And second, set your calculator to
radian mode from the MODE screen. There may be times you might want to work in
degrees but it is best to work in radians.

You must know how to graph functions. The best way to graph a function is to input the
function using the Y= key. Set your XMIN and XMAX using the WINDOW key. Once you do that, you can
see the graph’s total behavior by pressing ZOOM 0. To evaluate a function at a specific value of x, the easiest
way to do so is to press these keys: VARS → 1:Function 1 1:Y1 ( and input your x-value.
Other than basic calculations, and taking trig functions of angles, there are three calculator features you need to
know: evaluating functions at values of x and finding zeros of functions, which we know is finding where the
function crosses the x-axis. The other is finding the point of intersection of two graphs. Both of these features
are found on the TI-84+ calculator in the CALC menu 2ND TRACE. They are 1:value, 2: zero, and 5: intersect.

Solving equations using the calculator is accomplished by setting the equation equal to zero, graphing the
function, and using the ZERO feature. To use it, press 2ND TRACE ZERO . You will be prompted to type in a
number to the left of the approximate zero, to the right of the approximate zero, and a guess (for which you can
press ENTER). You will then see the zero (the solution) on the screen.

• Solve these equations graphically.

1. 2x 2 − 9x + 3 = 0 2. 2 cos2x − x = 0 on [ 0, 2π ) and find 2 cos ( 2e) − e .

This equation can be solved with the quadratic formula.

If this were the inequality 2 cos2x − x > 0,
9 ± 81 − 24 9 ± 57
x= = the answer would be [ 0, 0.626 ).
4 4

3. Find the x-coordinate of the intersection of y = x 3 and y = 2x − 3

You can use the intersection feature. Or set them equal to each other: x 3 = 2x − 3 or x 3 − 2x + 3 = 0

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Graphical Solutions to Equations and Inequalities – Assignment

• Solve these equations or inequalities graphically.

1. 3x 3 − x − 5 = 0 2. x 3 − 5x 2 + 4x −1 = 0

3. 2x 2 −1 = 2 x 4. 2 ln ( x +1) = 5cos x on [ 0, 2π )

x 2 − 4x − 4
5. x − 9x − 3x −15 < 0
4 2
6. > 0 on [ 0,8]
x 2 +1

7. x sin x 2 > 0 on [ 0, 3] 8. cos−1 x > x 2 on [ −1,1]

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Sigma Notation

Finding the sum of the first 5 terms of 1 + 2 + 4 + …. is ambiguous. The sum differs depending on how we
interpret the numbers. 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 31 is a logical way to interpret them with each number doubling.
But 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 11 = 25 is also logical with the difference between numbers being 1, 2, 3, and 4.

The problem with writing such addition problems with the ellipsis (…) is that the rule for each term is not
apparent. We use Sigma Notation for such problems using the Greek letter sigma ∑ , which means sum.

The sum of n terms a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an is written ∑ a where I is the index of summation and a is the ith
i=1
i i

term of the sum. Sigma notation is a precise way to write a sum, but does not help to actually compute the sum.

8 6 7 3

1. ∑3
i=1
2. ∑i i=1
3. ∑j
j=1
2
4. ∑k
k=−2
3

3 + 3 + ... + 3 = 24 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 21 1 + 4 + 9 + ... + 49 = 140 −8 −1 + 0 +1 + 8 + 27 = 27

Since ∑ a represents a summation of numbers, we can apply basic properties of addition and subtraction.
i=1
i

n n n n n

∑ ka = k ∑ a
i=1
i
i=1
i
(you can factor out a k). ∑ (a ± b ) = ∑ a ± ∑ b
i=1
i i
i=1
i
i=1
i
(write one sum as 2 sums).

7 7 9 9 9

∑ 8i = 8∑ i ∑ (5i − 2) = 5∑ i − ∑ 2
6

i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

∑ (−1)
i=1
i+1
(2i 2
−1)

5. 8 (1 + 2 + 3 + ... + 7) 6. 5 (1 + 2 + ... + 9 ) − ( 2 + 2 + ... + 2 ) 7. 1 − 7 +17 − 31 + 49 − 71 8.

224 207 −42
( −1)i i
9

∑ i +1
i=1

1 2 3 9
− + − + ... −
2 3 4 10
−0.646
Here are some useful formulas to add many terms.
n ( n +1)
n n

∑ k = k + k + ... + k = kn
i=1
∑ i = 1 + 2 + ... + n =
i=1
2

n ( n +1) ( 2n +1) n 2 ( n +1)

n n 2

∑
i=1
i = 1 + 2 + ... + n =
2 2 2 2

6 ∑i=1
i = 1 + 2 + ... + n =
3 3 3

4
3

100 (101) 30 (31) ( 61)

100 30

9. ∑i=1
i = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... +100 =
2
= 5, 050 10. ∑i=1
i 2 = 12 + 2 2 + 32 + ... + 30 2 =
6
= 9, 455

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 20

∑ i − i = 0 + 6 + 24 + ... + 7980
50

11.
∑ 2i
i=1
2
−1 = 1 + 7 +17 + ... + 4999
12. i=1
3

2 ( 50 ) ( 51) (101) 20 2 ( 21) 20 ( 21)

2
− 50 (1) = 85,800 − = 43,890
6 4 2

Sigma Notation – Assignment

For each problem, determine the sum of generating each term and calculate using the calculator.

6 60 10

1. ∑ (3i − 2)
i=1
2. ∑10
j=1
3. ∑ (k −1)
k=1
2

10 5 7
i−2
4. ∑k
k=1
2
−1 5. ∑ (i +1)(2i − 3)
i=1
6. ∑i+2
i=1

6 25 5

∑ ∑ (−1) 5 ∑ ⎡⎣i − (i +1) ⎤⎦

4 i 2
7. 8. 9. 3

i=1
i +2
2
i=1 i=1

Use your formulas and calculators to calculate the values of the following.

27 20 20

10. ∑i=1
6i 11. ∑i=1
i2 12. ∑ (i
i=1
2
−1)

35 30 30

13. ∑ (i + 4 )
i=1
2
14. ∑ (i − i )
i=1
3
15. ∑ (i − i )
i=1
3 2

50 20 50

16. ∑ (2i
i=1
2
− 8i + 4 ) 17. ∑i
i=10
2
18. ∑ (2i
i=25
2
− i)

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