energies

Article
Enhanced Virtual Inertia Control for Microgrids with
High-Penetration Renewables Based on Whale Optimization
Asmaa Faragalla 1 , Omar Abdel-Rahim 2,3, * , Mohamed Orabi 2 and Esam H. Abdelhameed 1, *

1 Faculty of Energy Engineering, Aswan University, Aswan 81542, Egypt

2 APEARC, Aswan University, Aswan 81542, Egypt
3 Electrical Engineering Department, School of Electronics, Communications and Computer Engineering,
Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology (E-JUST), New Borg ElArab, Alexandria 21934, Egypt
* Correspondence: [email protected] (O.A.-R.); [email protected] (E.H.A.)

Abstract: High penetration of renewable energy sources into isolated microgrids (µGs) is considered
a critical challenge, as µGs’ operation at low inertia results in frequency stability problems. To solve
this challenge, virtual inertia control based on an energy storage system is applied to enhance the
inertia and damping properties of the µG. On the other hand, utilization of a phase-locked loop (PLL)
is indispensable for measuring system frequency; however, its dynamics, such as measurement delay
and noise generation, cause extra deterioration of frequency stability. In this paper, to improve µG
frequency stability and minimize the impact of PLL dynamics, a new optimal frequency control tech-
nique is proposed. A whale optimization algorithm is used to enhance the virtual inertia control loop
by optimizing the parameters of the virtual inertia controller with consideration of PLL dynamics and
the uncertainties of system inertia. The proposed controller has been validated through comparisons
with an optimized virtual inertia PI controller which is tuned utilizing MATLAB internal model con-
trol methodology and with H∞ -based virtual inertia control. The results show the effectiveness of the
proposed controller against different operating conditions and system disturbances and uncertainties.

Citation: Faragalla, A.; Abdel-Rahim, Keywords: virtual inertia control; microgrid; frequency stability; renewable energy sources (RESs);
O.; Orabi, M.; Abdelhameed, E.H. phase-locked loop (PLL); frequency measurements; delay; noise; whale optimization algorithm (WOA)
Enhanced Virtual Inertia Control for
Microgrids with High-Penetration
Renewables Based on Whale
Optimization. Energies 2022, 15, 9254. 1. Introduction
https://doi.org/10.3390/en15239254
During recent decades, the transition in electricity generation from centralized to
Academic Editor: Ali Mehrizi-Sani decentralized (distributed) generation has made microgrids a rich research area, especially
Received: 15 October 2022
with the integration of renewable energy sources (RESs). For solving the energy crisis
Accepted: 27 November 2022
and environmental problems, the infrastructure of microgrids (µGs) has proven to be a
Published: 6 December 2022
substitutional strategy as they include decentralized generators, RESs, energy storage
systems (ESSs), and distributed loads [1–5]. In conventional interconnected power systems,
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
due to their high inertia, the stabilization of system voltage and/or frequency is maintained
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
by synchronous generators [6]. However, one of the major problems of integrating RESs
published maps and institutional affil-
into the µGs is that RES systems suffer from a deficiency of inertia and damping properties,
iations.
leading to larger frequency deviation and system collapse [1]. The main reason for this
issue is the usage of converters and inverters for interfacing RESs; however, these electronic
devices do not possess any inertia or damping properties [7]. In addition, the lack of system
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
inertia leads to an increase in the rate of change of frequency (RoCoF), resulting in fast
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. and severe variation in system frequency, even under soft disturbance. These problems
This article is an open access article negatively impact µG stability and cause system collapse [8]. According to the previously
distributed under the terms and stated problems, dynamic stability (e.g., frequency/voltage control) and control techniques
conditions of the Creative Commons should be provided with high concern [9,10].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Many researchers have addressed this issue from the viewpoint of control, for example,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ by enhancing the traditional controller design using various algorithms and optimization
4.0/). methodologies [11–13] and employing intelligent techniques [14–17]. The authors of [17]

Energies 2022, 15, 9254. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15239254 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2022, 15, 9254 2 of 18

introduced a load frequency control depending on model predictive control design for
the studied µG, which depends on the coordination of wind turbines and plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles. Sedghi, in [18], used a combination of robust control and fuzzy logic
control strategies to regulate the frequency of the system. One of the recent solutions that
can overcome the previously mentioned problems in the power system, i.e., organizing the
participation of the µG distributed energy sources without causing any stability or feasibility
problems, was provided using power electronic devices through which the behavior of the
synchronous generator is virtually emulated. The virtual inertia was obtained utilizing ESSs
with advanced control methodology of the inverter [9,19,20]. In [9], the introduced variable
coefficient virtual inertia control (VIC) methodology provided an additional inertia feature
to the total inertia of the hybrid µG resulting in rapid RoCoF response and minimization
of the dynamic frequency deviation. This led to the prevention of transient frequency
instability. However, in [19], a new technique of virtual inertia emulation was implemented
for two-area interconnected systems with automatic generation control. The sensitivity
of control parameters was analyzed to clarify the effectiveness of adding virtual inertia
on the system behavior, which can be noted as a significant enhancement for both the
damping characteristics of high-voltage DC links and the first overshoot responses. The
authors of [20] presented a virtual synchronous machine to regulate both the active and
reactive power via regulating the virtual torque and virtual excitation. The inertia of the
grid can be improved via addition of virtual inertia; accordingly, the transient frequency
stability was promoted. In addition, the virtual damping of the virtual synchronous
machine minimized the oscillation of the grid frequency and power. Moreover, numerous
studies were conducted for improving µGs’ frequency stability via designing an advanced
VIC which depends on derivative methodology [21–28]. In this technique, to emulate the
inertia, RoCoF should be used for generating a modified active power from the ESS. The
researchers of [21] used this approach for controlling ESS-stored energy even for AC or
DC interconnected automatic generation control systems. Furthermore, for enhancing the
system performance, not only the dynamic properties of the synchronous generators were
emulated but also the static properties, while the effect of frequency measurement was
taken into consideration. In [22], to improve the frequency stability of an isolated µG with
consideration of high-penetrated RESs, the authors designed a robust VIC that depends on
the H∞ technique. In [23], to minimize the frequency variation in the case of high-voltage
AC µGs with a high penetration level of RESs, the authors built a small-signal model for
testing the transient responses of µG frequency with the proposed control scheme. The
authors introduced virtual synchronous generator control methodology for controlling
ESS shared energy and supporting the system inertia, resulting in improvement in the
frequency stability. A stability assessment technique was investigated concerning multiple
VIC units in [24]. The concept of a synchronverter was discussed in [25] to simulate
the behavior of synchronous generators for controlling the inertia. Researchers of [26]
investigated the effectiveness of derivative-approach-based inertia control for enhancing
the frequency stability. Recently, Fang et al., in [27], discussed the improvement of µG
inertia properties relying on frequency derivatives by paying attention to the effect of
frequency measurement.
Practically, frequency measurement systems, e.g., a phase-locked loop (PLL), have
a significant effect when implementing power electronics devices (converters and/or
inverters) in power system control. As implementing VIC strategies requires a PLL for
frequency determination, the ability of VIC to deal with fast oscillated frequency depends
on how the frequency is measured [28,29]. It is stated in the literature that, due to its
dynamics, the PLL has remarkable deficiencies, such as harmonics and noise, so that
higher frequency/voltage oscillation may result, as in [30]. Moreover, with a high level
of penetrated RESs, the effect of utilizing a PLL for frequency measuring is more drastic
as it may cause system instability and may even lead to failure of the power system. The
impacts of using the PLL on power system stability were discussed in [31], affirming that
PLL dynamics are among the critical issues that have major effects on the system’s stability.
Energies 2022, 15, 9254 3 of 18

On the other hand, the µG becomes more nonlinear with the existence of system
disturbances and high fluctuated uncertainties such as high variation in inertia and damp-
ing properties, high-interrupted generation from the RESs, and high variation in the PLL
output frequency [9,29–32]. In [29], the controlling of power systems with uncertainties
using robust control strategies was performed based on uncertainty representation in the
simulated control system. The implementation of robust control approaches for VIC design
was studied in a small amount of research. In reference [9], a robust VIC was designed that
considers the variation in the inertia and damping of the power system as uncertainties. The
authors of [32] ignored the effects of utilizing the PLL during VIC design; however, in [29],
the authors considered these dynamics in the design, leading to achieving better results.
One of the effective solutions for dealing with the PLL measurement delay and other
uncertainty issues in the power system is the implementation of optimization techniques for
tuning the controllers of the virtual inertia control loop. The whale optimization algorithm
(WOA) is a new swarm intelligence optimization algorithm which is sufficiently flexible for
considering significant uncertainties such as system inertia, damping, and the dynamics of
the PLL during the control installation process. The WOA simulates the intelligent hunting
behavior of humpback whales. This foraging behavior is called a bubble-net feeding
method, and is only observed in humpback whales [33]. The WOA has a massive ability to
solve complex real-word optimization problems [34]. Due to its features, e.g., simplicity,
flexibility, fast convergence speed, and stochastic nature, the WOA technique is applicable
in multiple disciplines, such as electrical power systems, data mining, and machine learning.
Moreover, WOA is comparable to different nature-inspired optimization techniques as
it is characterized by easy implementation and robustness in addition to fewer control
parameters that are required to be tuned [35].
To summarize, this paper addresses one of the major problems of integrating RESs
into the µGs, that is, that RES systems suffer from a deficiency of inertia and damping
properties. One of the recent solutions is emulating the behavior of synchronous generator
inertia virtually through utilizing an ESS with advanced control of the inverter to provide
an additional inertia feature to the total inertia of the µG. The main contribution of this
work is providing a new control strategy that depends on the WOA for tuning the most
popular existing controller used in the virtual inertia control loop, namely the proportional-
integral (PI) controller, for regulating the frequency of the µG at a specified nominal value
(i.e., 50 or 60 Hz) during a variety of operating conditions and the existence of frequency
measurement systems. In addition, reduction of ESS sharing is targeted in this study.
The main idea behind applying the WOA is to solve the targeted problem by imitating
the whale’s predatory behavior in order that the inertia of the µG can be enhanced, and
system stability can be maintained even with the existence of system disturbances and
uncertainties and/or the undesirable effects of using a PLL for frequency measurement. In
addition, a comparative study of different control strategies was carried out to validate the
effectiveness of the proposed approach considering the settling time, the peak undershoots,
and peak overshoots.
This paper has been organized as follows: In Section 2, the system modeling and the
structure of the studied µG are introduced. Dynamic modeling of the understudy system is
described in Section 3. The whale optimization algorithm is explained in Section 4. The
simulation results and discussion are presented in Section 5. Finally, the conclusions are
illustrated in Section 6.

2. System Modeling
The general structure of the understudy µG taking into consideration the dynamics of
the energy sources, virtual inertia control loop, and PLL is discussed in this section. Virtual
inertia control based on ESS is taken as an important part of the understudy µG through
which the inertia and damping properties of the µG must be improved.
 Energies 2022, 15, 9254 4 of 18

2.1. A. Structure of the Studied Microgrid

The µG under consideration is composed of different types of energy sources and loads
as shown Figure 1. It contains thermal power plant, i.e., synchronous generation (12.0 MW),
wind power plant (7.0 MW), solar power plant (6.0 MW), energy storage system (4.0 MW),
residential loads (5.0 MW), and industrial loads (10.0 MW). The base of the system is taken
as 15.0 MW. For providing the analysis of the frequency stability, the dynamic structure of
the studied system considering the dynamics of VIC with PLL was managed as illustrated
in Figure 2. The values of control parameters are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Dynamic parameters of the studied microgrid.

Parameter Nominal Value

Frequency bias factor, β (p.u.MW/Hz) 1
Secondary frequency controller, Ki (s) 0.05
Time constant of the governor, TG (s) 0.1
Time constant of turbine, Tt (s) 0.4
Droop characteristic, R (Hz/p.u.MW) 2.4
System damping, D (p.u.MW/Hz) 0.015
System inertia, H (p.u.MW/s) 0.083
Virtual inertia control gain, KV I (s) 0.8
Time constant of wind turbine, TWT (s) 1.5
Time constant of solar system, TPV (s) 1.85
Natural frequency, ωn (rad/s) 1.5
The damping ratio, ξ 1.414
Time constant of virtual inertia, TV I (s) 10
Time constant of PLL, TPLL (s) 0.943
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 18
The phase-detector control gain, K PD 1
The loop filter control gain, K LF 2.12
The gain of the voltage-controlled oscillator, KVCO 1

DC/AC inverter

Solar power plant Bi-Directional

Thermal power plant
inverter

Residential loads Industrial loads

Energy storage system

DC/AC inverter

Wind power plant

Figure
Figure 1.
1. A schematicdiagram
A schematic diagramof of
thethe islanded
islanded microgrid.
microgrid.
 DC/AC inverter

Wind power plant

Energies 2022, 15, 9254 5 of 18
Figure 1. A schematic diagram of the islanded microgrid.

Figure 2. Dynamic structure of the microgrid.

Figure 2. Dynamic structure of the microgrid.
For fulfilling the practical features of the µG, the following factors were considered:
2.2. B. Structure
the generator of constraint
rate the Understudy
(GRC)Microgrid
of the governor unit, which restricts the generation
rate of the generated power; speed governor backlash, which can be explained as the total
As presented in Figure 2, for obtaining inertia power, ESS is implemented, where the
magnitude of sustained speed change; and the constraints of the closing and opening rate
dynamics of VIC loop is emulated utilizing a PLL, inertia control scheme, and ESS model
of the turbine valve gate (Vu, VL). The generation of the thermal power plant is required
based on inverter. The inertia control and ESS model dynamic structures are described in
for feeding the domestic loads, even residential or industrial loads, and provides primary
Figure 3a, in which the inertia control is represented by a derivative control approach for
frequency control [28]. As is shown in Figure 2, the area control error (ACE) system is
changing the shared active power to the system set point according to RES penetration
applied to minimize the steady-state frequency error for the secondary frequency control.
through generating
Moreover, the RESs theare RoCoF.
controlledHowever, in orderrenewable
for providing to providepower
the realtofeatures of theµG.
the isolated ESS
by reducing the effect of noise that arises because of PLL utilization for
However, these sources do not take part in controlling the frequency. In consequence, the frequency
measurement,
renewable a low-pass
generations filter are
and loads is applied
used inwith theµG
studied derivative inertia
as external control. Moreover,
disturbances.
the ESS supplies the VIC loop with the inertia power.

2.2. B. Structure of the Understudy Microgrid

As presented in Figure 2, for obtaining inertia power, ESS is implemented, where the
dynamics of VIC loop is emulated utilizing a PLL, inertia control scheme, and ESS model
based on inverter. The inertia control and ESS model dynamic structures are described in
Figure 3a, in which the inertia control is represented by a derivative control approach for
changing the shared active power to the system set point according to RES penetration
through generating the RoCoF. However, in order to provide the real features of the
ESS by reducing the effect of noise that arises because of PLL utilization for frequency
measurement, a low-pass filter is applied with the derivative inertia control.
In addition, to emulate the ESS’s real energy performance, a limiter is applied for mak-
ing maximum and minimum limits of the ESS energy capacity, Pinertia_max and Pinertia_min ,
respectively. Actually, using the VIC for controlling the ESS by injecting the essential virtual
inertia power into the µG improves system stability. The VIC can be formulated as follows:

s · KV I
∆Pinertia = ·K (s)·∆ f PLL (1)
1 + s· TV I

where KV I is the VIC gain, TV I is the virtual inertia time constant, and ∆ f PLL is the measured
frequency change. K (s) is a PI controller of the virtual inertia loop with a transfer function
of (K p + Ksi ), where K p and Ki are the proportional and integral gains, respectively. The
PLL dynamics including time delay are represented by first- or second-order models, as
displayed in Figure 3b, which is a combination of a phase detector, loop filter, and voltage-
 Energies 2022, 15, 9254 6 of 18

controlled oscillator. Considering K PD = KVCO = 1, the 2nd dynamic equation of a PLL

with a delay is expressed as [22,30]:

K LF ·S + (K LF /TPLL )
∆ f PLL = ·∆ f (2)
S2 + K LF ·S + (K LF /TPLL )

Equation (2) can be rewritten as a normalized function as follows:

2 ξ ωn · s + ωn 2
∆ f PLL = ∆f (3)
s2 + 2ξ ωn ·s + ωn 2

where √ √
K K LF .TPLL
ωn = √ LF and ξ= (4)
TPLL 2
The estimated time constant of the PLL transfer function for 1.0% of steady-state
response can be obtained as τ = 1/ξωn , where ∆ f is the system frequency change, K PD
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEWis the phase-detector control gain, K LF is the loop filter control gain, KVCO is the6gain
of 18of
TPLL is the time constant of the PLL. The values of ωn
the voltage-controlled oscillator, and√
and ζ have been taken as 1.5 and 1/ 2, respectively.

Figure
Figure 3. 3.
TheThe dynamic
dynamic structure
structure ofof
(a)(a) virtual
virtual inertia
inertia control
control and
and (b)(b) the
the PLL.
PLL.
3. Dynamic Modeling of the Studied Microgrid
In addition, to emulate the ESS’s real energy performance, a limiter is applied for
In this study, three control loops were applied to overcome the frequency stabilization
making maximum and minimum limits of the ESS energy capacity, 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖_𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 and
problems. Those control loops are primary control loop, secondary control loop, and
𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖_𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 , respectively. Actually, using the VIC for controlling the ESS by injecting the
inertia control loop. Referring to Figure 2, the dynamics of µG frequency deviation can be
essential virtual inertia power into the µG improves system stability. The VIC can be
expressed as
formulated as follows:

(∆Pm +𝑠𝑠∆P
· 𝐾𝐾𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 + ∆P + ∆P
1
∆f = inertia − ∆PL) (1)(5)
2H ·∆𝑃𝑃 D = 1 + 𝑠𝑠 ·W𝑇𝑇 · 𝐾𝐾(𝑠𝑠) · ∆𝑓𝑓𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 PV
S+
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉

where
where𝐾𝐾H thepower
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 is the VIC gain,
system is the Dvirtual
𝑇𝑇𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉inertia, inertia system
is the power time constant,
dampingand ∆𝑓𝑓𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 is∆P
coefficient, the
m is
measured
the change frequency change.
in the power 𝐾𝐾(𝑠𝑠) isfrom
generated a PI the
controller
thermalofpower plant, ∆P
the virtual inertia
inertialoop
is thewith a
change
𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 the ESS, and ∆P is the change in the total load of the system.
transfer function of (𝐾𝐾𝑝𝑝 + ), where 𝐾𝐾𝑝𝑝 and L𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 are the proportional and integral gains,
in the power provided by
Additionally, ∆P can be 𝑠𝑠obtained by Equations (6)–(8).
respectively. The mPLL dynamics including time delay are represented by first- or
second-order models, as displayed in Figure1 3b, which
is a combination of a phase
detector, loop filter, and voltage-controlled ∆Pm = oscillator. ∆PConsidering
g 𝐾𝐾 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝐾𝐾𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 1, the(6)
1 + s· Tt
2nd dynamic equation of a PLL with a delay is expressed as [22,30]:
𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 · 𝑆𝑆 + (𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 /𝑇𝑇𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 )
∆𝑓𝑓𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = · ∆𝑓𝑓 (2)
𝑆𝑆 2 + 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 · 𝑆𝑆 + (𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 /𝑇𝑇𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 )
Equation (2) can be rewritten as a normalized function as follows:
2 𝜉𝜉 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 · 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 2
∆𝑓𝑓𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = ∆𝑓𝑓 (3)
Energies 2022, 15, 9254 7 of 18

1
∆Pg = (∆PACE − 1/R∆ f ) (7)
1 + s· Tg
Ki
∆PACE = ( β∆ f ) (8)
s
where ∆Pg is the change in power generated from thermal power plant, ∆PACE is the
control signal change at the secondary control loop, Ki is the auxiliary frequency controller,
∆PW is the change in the power generated from the wind power turbine, and ∆PPV is the
change in the power generated from the solar system.

4. Modeling of Whale Optimization Algorithm (WOA)

In [32], Hof et.al. mentioned that whales’ brains include spindle-shaped cells which
are similar to those of humans that allow humans to judge, suffer emotionally, and behave
socially, i.e., those cells are the main causes of human distinction. It was discovered that
whales own a number of these cells that is double the number adult humans have, meaning
that whales, like humans, have intelligence, but at a much lower level. In addition, the
authors of [36] noticed that humpback whales have the ability to enhance their dialect.
During hunting, individual humpbacks’ positions (locations) can be considered as
decision variables, whereas the distance between each hunter and the targeted prey can be
decided based on the cost of the objective function [37]. Goldbogen et al. [36] investigated
humpback whale behavior utilizing tag sensors. Hunting behavior was classified into
two proceedings called upward spirals maneuver and double loops maneuver, both of
which are based on bubble-net strategy that is used by the hunter whales. In the former
maneuver, humpback individuals (search agents) dive to the level of 12.0 m below the ocean
surface, and afterwards begin to generate spiral-shaped bubbles around their prey (best
solution), then swim up to the water surface. However, the hunter whales complete the
latter maneuver in three steps: the coral loop, the lobtail, and the capture loop. In this study,
upward spirals maneuver has been selected to be emulated for problem optimization.
In this study, WOA depends on modeling the first maneuver of hunting, i.e., upward
spirals maneuver, as follows: Whale individuals’ positions are considered time-dependent
variables and can be determined through three stages: The first stage is searching for prey;
this can be described as exploration phase. The second stage is prey encircling. The third
stage is attacking the prey; this can be described as exploitation phase. These stages are
addressed in the following subsections.

4.1. A. Exploration Phase: Modeling of Searching

In humpback whale hunting strategy, the exploration phase (search for prey) is con-
sidered the main stage, in which the search agents look for prey; afterward, they take their
locations randomly around the prey, i.e., each whale of the hunting group takes a random
position with respect to the prey. For modeling this process mathematically, the expected
whole position can be formulated by (9):
→ → → →
d = C · x rand (t) − x (t) (9)
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19

→ → → →
x (t + 1) = x rand (t) − A · d 4.1. A. Exploration Phase: Modeling of Searching
(10)
In humpback whale hunting strategy, the exploration phase (search for prey) is
considered the main stage, in which the search agents look for prey; afterward, they take
their locations randomly around the prey, i.e., each whale of the hunting group takes a
→ random position with respect to the prey. For modeling this process mathematically, the

where x rand (t) is the whale location which is selected randomly by individual hunting expected whole position can be formulated by (9):

𝑑⃗ = 𝐶⃗ · 𝑥⃗ (𝑡) − 𝑥⃗(𝑡) (9)

→ 𝑥⃗(𝑡 + 1) = 𝑥⃗ (𝑡) − 𝐴⃗ · 𝑑⃗ (10)

whales in the current iteration, d is a vector whose elements represent the distances where 𝑥⃗ (𝑡) is the whale location which is selected randomly by individual hunting
whales in the current iteration, 𝑑⃗ is a vector whose elements represent the distances
→ → between the hunters and the prey, and 𝐶⃗ & 𝐴⃗ are coefficient vectors. | | is the absolute

between the hunters and the prey, and C & A are coefficient vectors. | | is the absolute value function.

value function. 4.2. B. Modeling of Encircling

In this hunting stage, humpback whales encircle prey school after realizing its
location in the previous stage. Each search agent updates its location with respect to the
prey optimally instead of randomly in the exploration phase. At this point, the hunters
consider the current best candidate position among their current positions as best
solution in the current iteration and nearest to the optimal location. Accordingly, the
positions of the other hunters are updated towards the best search agent. The
mathematical model behind the encircling strategy can be expressed as follows [37]:

𝑑⃗ = 𝐶⃗ · 𝑥⃗ ∗ (𝑡) − 𝑥⃗(𝑡) (11)

𝑥⃗(𝑡 + 1) = 𝑥⃗ ∗ (𝑡) − 𝐴⃗ · 𝑑⃗ (12)

Moreover, 𝐴⃗ and 𝐶⃗ which are applied to obtain the optimal position of the search
agents, are expressed by Equations (13) and (14):

𝐴⃗ = 2𝑎⃗ · 𝑟⃗ − 𝑎⃗ (13)

𝐶⃗ = 2 · 𝑟⃗ (14)
where 𝑥⃗ ∗ is the local best position, 𝑥⃗(𝑡) represents whale position at iteration 𝑡, and
𝑥⃗(𝑡 + 1) is the expected whale position at the iteration 𝑡 + 1. 𝐴⃗ and 𝐶⃗are two control
parameters whose values depend on 𝑎⃗ and 𝑟⃗, where 𝑎⃗ has a value that decreases
linearly from 2 to 0 during the iterations, and 𝑟⃗ is a random vector in the range of [0, 1].

4.3. C. Exploitation Phase: Modeling of Bubble-Net Strategy

The bubble-net strategy is the feeding behavior of humpback whales. This strategy is
a combination of two mechanisms, the shrinking encircling mechanism and the spiral
updating position mechanism. In the former mechanism, the new position of a hunter
whale (search agent) is selected to be between the current best position of that hunter and
its original position as shown in Figure 4. In the latter mechanism, calculation of the
distance between the whale position (𝑥, 𝑦) and the prey position (𝑥 ∗ , 𝑦 ∗ ) is performed.
The model of the bubble-net feeding behavior can be obtained by applying a spiral
Energies 2022, 15, 9254 8 of 18

4.2. B. Modeling of Encircling

In this hunting stage, humpback whales encircle prey school after realizing its location
in the previous stage. Each search agent updates its location with respect to the prey
optimally instead of randomly in the exploration phase. At this point, the hunters consider
the current best candidate position among their current positions as best solution in the
current iteration and nearest to the optimal location. Accordingly, the positions of the other
hunters are updated towards the best search agent. The mathematical model behind the
encircling strategy can be expressed as follows [37]:
→ → →∗ →
d = C · x (t) − x (t) (11)

→ →∗ → →
x ( t + 1) = x ( t ) − A · d (12)
→ →
Moreover, A and C which are applied to obtain the optimal position of the search
agents, are expressed by Equations (13) and (14):
→ → → →
A = 2a·r − a (13)
→ →
C = 2· r (14)
→∗ →
where x is the local best position, x (t) represents whale position at iteration t, and
→ → →
x (t + 1) is the expected whale position at the iteration t + 1. A and C are two control
→ → →
parameters whose values depend on a and r , where a has a value that decreases linearly
→
from 2 to 0 during the iterations, and r is a random vector in the range of [0, 1].

4.3. C. Exploitation Phase: Modeling of Bubble-Net Strategy

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW The bubble-net strategy is the feeding behavior of humpback whales. This strategy 9 of 18
is a combination of two mechanisms, the shrinking encircling mechanism and the spiral
updating position mechanism. In the former mechanism, the new position of a hunter
whale (search agent) is selected to be between the current best position of that hunter and its
1, and 𝑑𝑑⃗̀asisshown
is set to position
original the distance between
in Figure thelatter
4. In the current position calculation
mechanism, of the whale
of and the best
the distance
solution. 𝑙𝑙 is a random number whose value lies in the range
∗ ∗ [−1, 1].
between the whale position (x, y) and the prey position (x , y ) is performed.

Figure 4. Bubble-net searching mechanism [37].

Figure 4. Bubble-net searching mechanism [37].
The model of the bubble-net feeding behavior can be obtained by applying a spiral
According with the above strategies, the flowchart of whale optimization algorithm
formula behind the helix-shaped movement of humpback whales to define the position
is given in Figure 5. Due to its flexibility, high avoidance of local optima, and being a
gradient-free mechanism, the WOA algorithm have a wide variety of applications
including solving practical engineering problems. This motivated our attempts to
employ WOA to optimize PI controller, 𝐾𝐾(𝑠𝑠), for virtual inertia emulation of an islanded
µG application. The optimization process was performed offline; however, the
effectiveness of the optimized controller was approved and tested under different
disturbance and uncertainty scenarios as discussed in the following section.
 solution. 𝑙𝑙 is a random number whose value lies in the range [−1, 1].

Energies 2022, 15, 9254 9 of 18

between each hunter and the prey. This movement can be represented as shrinking circle
and following a spiral-shaped path [38]:
→
 ` bl →∗
→ d ·e ·cos(2πl ) + x (t) i f p ≥ 0.5
x ( t + 1) = →∗ → → (15)
x (t) − A · d i f p < 0.5


where p is the probability of choosing one of the two Equations of (15) to update the hunters’
positions, b is a constant for defining the shape of the logarithmic spiral which is set to 1,
→
Figure
and d` 4.
is Bubble-net searching
the distance betweenmechanism [37].
the current position of the whale and the best solution. l is a
random number whose value lies in the range [−1, 1].
According
According with
with the
the above
above strategies,
strategies, the
the flowchart of whale
flowchart of whale optimization
optimization algorithm
algorithm
is
is given
given in Figure 5.
in Figure 5. Due
Due to
to its
its flexibility,
flexibility, high
high avoidance
avoidance ofof local
local optima,
optima, andand being
being aa
gradient-free mechanism,thethe
gradient-free mechanism, WOA WOA algorithm
algorithm have have
a wideavariety
wide ofvariety of applications
applications including
including solvingengineering
solving practical practical engineering
problems. This problems.
motivated This
our motivated
attempts to our
employattempts
WOA to to
employ WOA to optimize PI controller, 𝐾𝐾(𝑠𝑠), for virtual inertia emulation of an
optimize PI controller, K (s), for virtual inertia emulation of an islanded µG application. The islanded
µG application.
optimization Thewas
process optimization processhowever,
performed offline; was performed offline;of however,
the effectiveness the optimized the
effectiveness
controller wasof the optimized
approved and testedcontroller was approved
under different andand
disturbance tested under scenarios
uncertainty different
disturbance
as discussedand uncertainty
in the followingscenarios
section. as discussed in the following section.

Figure
Figure 5.
5. WOA
WOA flowchart
flowchart [38].
[38].

5. Results and Discussion

In this study, the analysis, simulations, and optimization program were implemented
utilizing MATLAB software to investigate the effectiveness of the proposed control scheme.
In order to check the robustness of the suggested virtual inertia controller against high
RES penetration and the utilization of a PLL in µGs, different scenarios of disturbances and
inertia uncertainty were implemented. In addition, the µG performance that is achieved
when applying the proposed approach for tuning the PI controller of the VIC loop was
compared with those of the µG when applying the conventional virtual inertia control,
Energies 2022, 15, 9254 10 of 18

H∞ -based virtual inertia control, and tuned PI based on the MATLAB Internal-Model
Control (IMC) for virtual inertia control which is an applicable technique in real practice
and industry [39] The optimum parameters of the IMC-based PI controller, i.e., K P and K I
were properly obtained as 18.015 and 5.473, respectively. However, the transfer function of
the H∞ controller is formulated in [8] as

N∞ (s)
K∞ ( s ) = (16)
D∞ ( s )

where
N∞ (s) = 6.35 × 106 s3 + 1.64 × 109 s2 + 6.58 × 108 s − 8164.0
D∞ (s) = 0.8 s4 + 3096.0 s3 + 3.07 × 106 s2 + 3856.0 s + 9.0 × 10−3
Moreover, the implicit nonlinearities of the thermal power plant, i.e., speed governor
backlash and GRC, were considered in the simulation. The GRC is given as 12% Pu MW/min
for non-reheat turbines, and where the turbine unit includes a gate valve with ±0.5 closing
and opening rate limits. The proposed optimization scheme is conducted using the WOA
options that are shown in Table 2. Furthermore, as an additional challenge for the proposed
controller, the sharing of the energy storage system is reduced from 30% in previous works
to 25%. In addition, from a power-quality viewpoint, the µG frequency and time deviation
should be maintained within acceptable ranges, i.e., the frequency of the µG should be
within 49 to 51 Hz and 49.5 to 50.5 Hz during the generation/load event and no contingency
event, respectively. The target of WOA is to obtain optimal values of K (s) controller
parameters (PI controller) through minimizing the following f ( x ) objective function:

k
f (x) = ∑ ∆ fi2 (17)
i =1

where ∆ f i is the frequency at the sampling time i. Minimization of f ( x ) is obtained in an

offline manner. The objective function is converged to its best value within 20 iterations
and the best tuning of the PI controller is achieved. The optimized parameters of the PI
controller are provided in Table 3.

Table 2. Initial parameters for WOA.

PARAMETER VALUE
Maximum iterations 300
Search agent size 10
Problem dimension 2
Range of the proportional parameter [−100, 2000]
Range of the integral parameter [−100, 500]

Table 3. Optimized parameters of PI controller based on WOA.

PARAMETER KP Ki
Value 1.073 × 103 141.279

In order to examine the µG frequency stability under the effects of various parameters’
uncertainties and load disturbances and the effectiveness of the proposed control strategy,
four scenarios were considered (scenarios 1, 2, 3, and 4). The first scenario was given to
test the µG frequency stability with different controllers. The behavior of the proposed
WOA-based PI controller was tested against various loads and RES step changes (±0.1 p.u.)
and under 100% system inertia. However, the under study µG was tested in the other
three scenarios (scenarios 2, 3, and 4) under various operating conditions such as high
 Energies 2022, 15, 9254 11 of 18

penetration of wind farms and solar power plants, which are shown in Figure 6. In addition,
for more realistic operating conditions (low load damping and high-frequency deviation),
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
the residential and industrial loads, shown in Figure 7, were applied. To investigate the
11 of 18
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
robustness of the proposed controller against the high penetration of RESs and loads and
11 of 18
with different system inertia, the previous operating conditions were applied according
to Table 4.
0.35

0.35
0.3
Power (Pu)

0.3
PV (Pu)

0.25
PV Power

0.25
0.2
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

0.2 Time (s)

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time (s)

0.4
Power (Pu)

0.4
0.3
Wind (Pu)

0.3
Wind Power

0.2

0.2 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time (s)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time (s)

Figure 6. Solar and wind power generation.

Figure 6. Solar and wind power generation.
Figure 6. Solar and wind power generation.

0.3
(Pu) (Pu)

0.3
0.25
Load Power

0.25
0.2
Load Power

0.2
0.15
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0.15
Time (s)
0 200 400 600 800 1000
(a)
Time (s)

0.3 (a)

0.3
(Pu) (Pu)

0.2
Load Power

0.2
Load Power

0.1
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0.1 Time (s)
0 200 400 600 800 1000
(b)
Time (s)
(b)
Figure 7. (a) Residential load pattern. (b) Industrial load pattern.
Figure 7. (a) Residential load pattern. (b) Industrial load pattern.
Figure 7. 4.
Table (a)Multiple
Residential load pattern.
operating (b) Industrial
conditions load
of scenarios pattern.
2, 3, and 4.
Table 2. Initial parameters for WOA.
Table 2. Initial parameters
RESs/Load Typefor WOA. Starting Time Stop Time
PARAMETER VALUE
Solar generationPARAMETER VALUE
Maximum iterations Initial 800 s
300
Maximum
Wind generation iterations
Search agent size 200 s 300
10 -
Residential load Search agent size
Problem dimension Initial 102-
Range ofProblem dimension
Industrial loadthe proportional parameter
Initial [−100,2- 2000]
Range of the proportional parameter
Range of the integral parameter [−100,
[−100,2000]
500]
5.1. Scenario 1Range of the integral parameter [−100, 500]
Table 3. Optimized parameters of PI controller based on WOA.
Figure 8 shows the µG frequency response, i.e., frequency stability under sudden
Table 3. Optimized parameters of PI controller based on WOA.
load/RESs PARAMETER
changes, system frequency drop, RoCoF, 𝑲𝑲𝑷𝑷 and overshoot. It is 𝑲𝑲 clear
𝒊𝒊
from the
PARAMETER
figure that the proposed
Value optimal control achieves𝑲𝑲 a respectable
1.073𝑷𝑷 × 10 3 enhancement 𝑲𝑲
141.279
𝒊𝒊 in frequency
Valueand RoCoF. In addition, it1.073
drop, overshoot, × 103 minimizes the PLL
effectively 141.279 effect on µG
stability; however, a large frequency drop/overshoot
Table 4. Multiple operating conditions of scenarios 2, 3, and 4. exists in the case of applying the
conventional virtual inertia control ( ± 0.29 Hz). Compared
Table 4. Multiple operating conditions of scenarios 2, 3, and 4. to the other controllers, the pro-
posed RESs/Load
WOA-basedType PI controller provides Starting
better Time
frequency performance, Stopi.e.,
Timethe frequency
RESs/Load
Solar Type
generation
deviation is maintained within ±0.02 Hz. Starting Time
Initial Stop800Time
s
Solar
Windgeneration
generation Initial
200 s 800- s
Wind generation
Residential load 200 s
Initial --
Residential load
Industrial load Initial
Initial --
Industrial load Initial -
 figure that the proposed optimal control achieves a respectable enhancement in
frequency drop, overshoot, and RoCoF. In addition, it effectively minimizes the PLL
effect on µG stability; however, a large frequency drop/overshoot exists in the case of
applying the conventional virtual inertia control (±0.29 Hz). Compared to the other
Energies 2022, 15, 9254 controllers, the proposed WOA-based PI controller provides better 12 of frequency
18

performance, i.e., the frequency deviation is maintained within ±0.02 Hz.

0.3

0.20 10 + 10% step

20 change 30 40 50
in RESs

0.1

-0.1
Conventional virtual inertia control
Optimal PI based IMC tuning
-0.2 H-infinity based virtual inertia control
- 10% step change in Proposed PI based WOA
-0.3 loads
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
(a)
0.05

-0.05

-0.1 Improvement
of Frequency
Drop
-0.15

-0.2

-0.25

-0.3
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
(b)
0.05
∆f (Hz )

-0.05
Improvement of Rate
of Frequency Change
-0.1

-0.15

-0.2

-0.25
0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
(c)
0.3

0.25

0.2 Improvement
of Frequency
0.15 overshoot

0.1

0.05

-0.05

-0.1
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
(d)
Time (s)

Figure 8. Microgrid frequency performance: (a) Frequency stability. (b) Frequency drop. (c) RoCoF.
Figure 8. Microgrid frequency performance: (a) Frequency stability. (b) Frequency drop. (c) RoCoF
(d) Frequency overshoots.
(d) Frequency overshoots.
5.2. Scenario 2
5.2. Scenario 2
In this scenario, to test the islanded µG for expected real operation, in addition to
In this
applying scenario,
realistic to test
generated thefrom
power islanded µG loads
RESs and for expected real operation,
pattern, changes in addition to
in µG operating
applying realistic system
conditions (medium generated power
inertia, i.e., Hfrom
= 50%RESs and loads
of its nominal pattern,
value) changes in µG
were considered
operating conditions
simultaneously. Figure (medium
9 shows the system inertia, i.e.,with
µG performance H =virtual
50% of its nominal
inertia value) were
control when
applying a WOA-based PI controller, IMC-based PI controller, and H∞ -based controller.
From the figure, it is notable that the proposed controller using WOA regulates the system
frequency more effectively than the other compared controllers.
 considered simultaneously. Figure 9 shows the µG performance with virtual inertia
control when applying a WOA-based PI controller, IMC-based PI controller, and
H∞ -based controller. From the figure, it is notable that the proposed controller using
Energies 2022, 15, 9254 WOA regulates the system frequency more effectively than the other 13 ofcompared
18

controllers.

1.5
Conventional virtual inertia control

1
Connection of wind
farm
0.5

-0.5

-1 Disconnection of solar
farm
-1.5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0. 08
Optimal PI based IMC tuning
0. 06
Disconnection of solar farm
0. 04

0. 02

-0. 02

-0. 04

-0. 06 Connection of wind farm

-0. 08
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0. 15
H- infinity based virtual inertia control
0.1
Disconnection of solar farm
0. 05

-0. 05

-0.1 Connection of wind farm

-0. 15
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

0. 08
Proposed PI based WOA
0. 06
Disconnection of solar farm
0. 04

0. 02
0

-0. 02

-0. 04

-0. 06 Connection of wind farm

-0. 08
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time (s)

Figure 9.Frequency
Figure 9. Frequencyresponse
response under
under medium
medium system
system inertia.
inertia.

The maximum overshoot and maximum undershoot of frequency deviation in the

The maximum overshoot and maximum undershoot of frequency deviation in the
studied µG with the proposed coordination are about 0.07605 Hz and 0.07227 Hz, re-
studied µG
spectively. with
In the the
case proposed coordination
of conventional virtual inertiaare about
control, 0.07605
optimal Hz and
PI-based IMC0.07227
and Hz,
respectively. In the case of conventional virtual inertia control, optimal PI-based
H∞ -based virtual inertia control are 1.273 Hz and 1.014 Hz, 0.5694 Hz and 0.4718 Hz, and IMC and
H ∞ -based
0.1015 virtual
Hz and inertia
0.0886 control are 1.273 Hz and 1.014 Hz, 0.5694 Hz and 0.4718 Hz, and
Hz, respectively.
0.1015 Hz and 0.0886 Hz, respectively.
5.3. Scenario 3
5.3. Scenario 3 a more drastic simulation, this scenario investigated the frequency response
To perform
of the studied µG with the proposed controller under more reduction in the µG inertia
To perform
(low system inertia),a i.e.,
more70%drastic simulation,
reduction thisinertia,
in the system’s scenario investigated
which the frequency
can be expressed as
response of the studied µG with the proposed controller under more reduction
H = 30% of its nominal value. The performance of the µG is illustrated in Figure 10. in the µG
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18

inertia (low system inertia), i.e., 70% reduction in the system’s inertia, which can be
Energies 2022, 15, 9254 expressed as H = 30% of its nominal value. The performance of the µG is illustrated
14 of 18 in

Figure 10.

2
Conventional virtual inertia control
1.5

1
Connection of wind farm
0.5

-0.5

-1
Disconnection of solar farm
-1.5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0.8
Optimal PI based IMC tuning
0.6 Connection of wind farm

0.4 Connection of wind farm

0.2

-0.2

-0.4 Disconnection of solar farm

Disconnection of solar farm
-0.6

-0.8
∆f (Hz )

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0.2
H-infinity based virtual inertia control

0.1 Connection of wind farm

Connection of wind farm

-0.1
Disconnection of solar
Disconnection farmfarm
of solar

-0.2
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0.2
Proposed PI based WOA
Connection of wind farm
0.1 Connection of wind farm

-0.1
Disconnection ofofsolar
Disconnection farm
solar farm

-0.2
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time (s)

Figure 10. Frequency

Figure response
10. Frequency under
response underlow
lowsystem
system inertia.
inertia.

It can be noted from the results that with the proposed controller, the µG has rapid
It can beperformance
dynamic noted fromand the low
results that with
steady-state the and
error proposed
has morecontroller, the µG
stability with highhas rapid
RESs
dynamic performance
integration. and low
The maximum steady-state
overshoot error and
and maximum has more
undershoot stability
of the withdeviation
frequency high RESs
integration.
are 0.09539 TheHzmaximum
and 0.08582overshoot and maximum
Hz, respectively. undershoot
It is observed of the
that the system frequency
frequency
deviation are 0.09539
is maintained withinHz
theand 0.08582 limits;
permissible Hz, respectively.
accordingly, It
theisrobustness
observedofthatthe the system
µG was
frequency
achieved is maintained withinatthe
in case of operation lowpermissible limits; accordingly, the robustness of the
system inertia.
µG was achieved in case of operation at low system inertia.
5.4. Scenario 4
In reality, µGs’ parameters may be degraded with time. In addition, the µGs may
5.4. Scenario 4
have invalid estimated parameters; for example, for maintenance purposes some of the
In reality,
system partsµGs’
such parameters
as the turbinemay be degraded
and governor with
may be time. with
replaced In addition, the
new parts, µGs may
resulting
haveininvalid
system performance deterioration which may lead to system instability. Thus, itof
estimated parameters; for example, for maintenance purposes some is the
system parts such as the turbine and governor may be replaced with new parts, resulting
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 18

Energies 2022, 15, 9254 15 of 18

in system performance deterioration which may lead to system instability. Thus, it is
necessary to evaluate the µG stability and performance under these conditions. To
confirm
necessarythe effectiveness
to evaluate the µGofstability
the proposed control technique
and performance under theseagainst
conditions.µG To parameter
confirm
uncertainty, this scenario was carried out. The studied µG in this
the effectiveness of the proposed control technique against µG parameter uncertainty, scenario operates at this
the
same conditions as those applied in Scenario 2; however, the
scenario was carried out. The studied µG in this scenario operates at the same conditions thermal generation
governor time constant
as those applied was increased
in Scenario 2; however, by the50%thermal
of its nominal
generation value (𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 = 0.15
governor s),constant
time and the
turbine time constant
was increased by 50% wasof itsincreased by 90%
nominal value (Tgof=its
0.15nominal
s), andvalue (𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 = 0.7
the turbine s).constant
time In addition,
was
the droop by
increased characteristic was decreased
90% of its nominal value (Tby t = 25%
0.7 (𝑅𝑅
s). =
In 1.8 s) [3,6].
addition, the droop characteristic was
From Figure 11 it can
decreased by 25% (R = 1.8 s) [3,6]. be concluded that, in the case of conventional virtual inertia
control,
FromtheFigure
microgrid
11 it frequency is completely
can be concluded that, inunstable
the case (the maximum overshoot
of conventional and
virtual inertia
maximum
control, theundershoot
microgrid are 1.1784 Hz
frequency and 2.789 Hz,
is completely respectively),
unstable causing system
(the maximum failure.
overshoot and
The
maximumoptimal IMC-based
undershoot arePI controller
1.1784 Hz andalso 2.789fails
Hz,to stabilize the
respectively), µG (the
causing maximum
system failure.
overshoot
The optimal and maximum
IMC-based PI undershoot
controller also arefails
0.8274 Hz and the
to stabilize 0.7698 Hz, maximum
µG (the respectively). When
overshoot
applying
and maximum the proposed
undershootWOA-based
are 0.8274 HzPIand controller
0.7698 Hz,for the VIC loop,
respectively). Whenaapplying
significant
the
performance was noticed,
proposed WOA-based i.e., the frequency
PI controller for the VIC fluctuations were minimized
loop, a significant performance (thewas
maximum
noticed,
overshoot and maximum
i.e., the frequency fluctuations undershoot are 0.09581
were minimized Hz and 0.09281
(the maximum overshoot Hz,andrespectively),
maximum
indicating
undershootthat are µG security
0.09581 Hz andand0.09281
robustness when operating
Hz, respectively), in the unstable
indicating mode were
that µG security and
maintained.
robustness when Thus,operating
the effectiveness of the mode
in the unstable proposed werecontroller
maintained. wasThus,approved under the
the effectiveness
effect
of the of uncontrollable
proposed controller disturbances,
was approved i.e.,under
the variation
the effectinofRESs power and
uncontrollable loads, and
disturbances,
uncertainties of the
i.e., the variation in µG
RESs parameter.
power and loads, and uncertainties of the µG parameter.

3
Connection of wind Conventional virtual inertia control
2 farm

-1

-2
Disconnection of
solar farm
-3
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

0.8 100 200 300 400 500 Optimal

600 PI700
based IMC
800 tuning
900
0.6
0.4
Connection of wind
0.2 farm
0
- 0.2
- 0.4
- 0.6 Disconnection of solar
- 0.8 farm

-1
∆ f (Hz )

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0.2
H-infinity based virtual inertia control

0.1

Connection of wind
farm
0

-0.1
Disconnection of solar
farm
-0.2
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0.2
Proposed PI based WOA
Connection of wind
0.1 farm

-0.1
Disconnection of solar
farm

-0.2
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time(s)

Figure 11. Frequency response in case of primary controller uncertainty.

Energies 2022, 15, 9254 16 of 18

6. Conclusions
The importance of low-inertia microgrids (µGs) caused by high penetration of RESs
and the inadequate emulation of the virtual inertia control loop for those systems, especially
in the case of measuring the µG frequency using a phase-locked loop, are considered in
this study. These issues may cause frequency instability problems in the µGs and may lead
to system collapse. To minimize the drawbacks of RESs’ high penetration and frequency
measurement delay, this paper introduces an optimized PI controller based on WOA for the
virtual inertia control loop. The simulation results verify the effectiveness and superiority
of using WOA for optimizing the designed virtual inertia controller over using IMC-based
optimization and an H∞ -based controller. The effectiveness of the proposed controller
was investigated using a variety of µG operating conditions. Four test scenarios were
performed, and it can be observed from the results that the proposed controller can provide
a significant effect in maintaining the robustness of the system’s operation, enhancing the
µG stability, and reducing frequency deviation from 0.1015 Hz when utilizing H∞ -based
virtual inertia control (used in recent research) to 0.07605 Hz in the case of medium system
inertia and from 0.1286 Hz to 0.09539 Hz in the case of high RESs penetration. Even in the
case of primary parameters mismatch, the frequency deviation is reduced from 0.1287 Hz
when utilizing H∞ -based virtual inertia control to 0.09581 Hz with the proposed controller.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.F., O.A.-R. and E.H.A.; methodology, A.F. and E.H.A.;
software, A.F. and E.H.A.; validation, A.F. and O.A.-R.; formal analysis, A.F., E.H.A. and O.A.-R.;
investigation, A.F.; resources, E.H.A. and M.O.; data curation, A.F. and O.A.-R.; writing—original
draft preparation, A.F.; writing—review and editing, A.F., E.H.A. and O.A.-R.; visualization, A.F. and
M.O.; supervision, E.H.A., O.A.-R. and M.O.; project administration, E.H.A. and O.A.-R. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The authors are very grateful to the Aswan University Fund for Sustainable Development
for funding this research as a part of its program “Competitive Projects”, under Grant EESC204, first
call, 2021.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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