/ISE/DS/AIML

COMPUTER NETWORKS
Data Communications & Networks
MODULE – 01
 /ISE/DS/AIML
1. Introduction
1. DATA COMMUNICATIONS
1. Components
2. Data Representation
3. Data Flow
2. NETWORKS
1. Network Criteria
2. Physical Structures
3. NETWORK TYPES
1. Local Area Network
2. Wide Area Network
3. Switching
4. The Internet
5. Accessing the Internet
 /ISE/DS/AIML
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
• Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices
via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
• The process of transferring data from one point to another using a
communication system.
• Involves essential components and mechanisms to ensure accurate
and timely delivery of data.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Components of Data Communication System
1. Message: The data/information being communicated (e.g.,
text, images, audio).
2. Sender: Device that sends the message (e.g., computer,
smartphone).
3. Receiver: Device that receives the message (e.g., computer,
printer).
4. Transmission Medium: Physical path for data transmission
(e.g., cables, radio waves).
5. Protocol: Set of rules governing communication between
devices for proper data exchange.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Components of Data Communication System
Key performance Characteristics of Data Communication
1. Delivery: Ensures data reaches the correct destination.
2. Accuracy: Data must be transmitted without errors.
3. Timeliness: Data should be delivered promptly, especially in
real-time applications.
4. Jitter: Refers to inconsistencies in packet arrival times,
affecting quality (e.g., video streaming).
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Components of Data Communication System
Data Representation
Different forms of representing data based on communication
needs:
1. Text: Represented as bits using encoding like ASCII,
Unicode.
2. Numbers: Directly in binary form.
3. Images: Matrix of pixels, color coded (e.g., RGB, YCM).
4. Audio: Captured as a continuous signal, digitized for
transmission.
5. Video: Sequence of frames, each frame represented as bit
patterns.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Components of Data Communication System
Data Flow
Modes of data transmission between devices:
1. Simplex: One-way communication (e.g., keyboard to
computer).
2. Half-Duplex: Two-way communication, but not simultaneous
(e.g., walkie-talkie).
3. Full-Duplex: Simultaneous two-way communication (e.g.,
phone conversation).
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
 /ISE/DS/AIML
NETWORKS
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected
by communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any
other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
NETWORKS
Interconnection of devices capable of communication.

• Devices: Hosts (e.g., computers, smartphones) and connecting

devices (e.g., routers, switches).

• Transmission Media:
1. Wired: Cables (Ethernet, fiber).

2. Wireless: Air (Wi-Fi, cellular).

 /ISE/DS/AIML
NETWORKS
 /ISE/DS/AIML
NETWORKS
Network Criteria
1. Performance:
• Transit time: Time for data to travel between devices.
• Response time: Time between a request and a response.
• Factors Affecting Performance:
• Number of users.
• Transmission medium.
• Hardware/software capabilities.
• Key Metrics:
• Throughput: Successful data transmission rate.
• Delay: Time for data to reach its destination.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
NETWORKS
Network Criteria
2. Reliability:
• Accuracy: Correct delivery of data.
• Failure Recovery: Speed of recovery from failures.
• Catastrophic Events: Ability to function in a disaster.
3. Security:
• Protects data from unauthorized access or damage.
• Involves security breach recovery procedures.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
NETWORKS
Physical Structures of Networks
•Types of Connection:
1. Point-to-Point: Direct link between two devices (e.g.,
remote control to TV).
2. Multipoint (Multidrop): Shared link between multiple
devices.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Network Topologies
Topology: The physical and logical arrangement of a network's nodes
and connections.
Categories of topology
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Network Topologies
1. Mesh Topology:
Every device is connected to every other device.
1. Advantages: Dedicated links, robust, secure, good fault isolation.
2. Disadvantages: Expensive, complex, lots of cabling.
3. Example: Telephone networks.
2. Star Topology:
Devices connect to a central hub.
1. Advantages: Easy to install, fault isolation.
2. Disadvantages: Hub failure affects the whole system.
3. Common Use: Local Area Networks (LANs).
 /ISE/DS/AIML
A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)
 /ISE/DS/AIML
A star topology connecting four stations
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Network Topologies
3. Bus Topology
All devices share a single backbone cable.
• Advantages: Easy installation, less cabling.
• Disadvantages: Fault in the backbone affects the entire
network.
• Example: Early Ethernet LANs.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
A bus topology connecting three stations
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Network Topologies
4. Ring Topology
Devices form a loop, data travels in one direction.
• Advantages: Easy fault detection, simple setup.
• Disadvantages: Break in the loop disables the network,
mitigated by dual rings.
• Example: IBM Token Ring LANs.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
A ring topology connecting six stations
 /ISE/DS/AIML
A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus
networks
 /ISE/DS/AIML
An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Network Types
Networks are often interconnected to form an internetwork,
allowing seamless communication across different
geographical areas and network types.
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Network Types
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
A LAN connects computers and devices within a small geographical
area, such as a home, office, or campus.
Characteristics:
• Covers a limited area.
• High data transfer rates (up to 10 Gbps).
• Owned and managed by a single organization.
Examples:
• Ethernet networks
• Wi-Fi networks in homes/offices
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Network Types
1. Local Area Network
(LAN)
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Network Types
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN Setup (Past):

• Common Cable Connection: All hosts connected via a single cable.

• Packet Transmission: Packets were broadcast to all hosts.
• Packet Filtering: Only the intended recipient accepted the packet.
• Drawback: Created network congestion due to excessive
broadcasting.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Network Types
1. Local Area Network (LAN)

Switch-Based LAN: Smart switches manage packet delivery.

• Address Recognition: Switches identify the destination of
each packet.
• Selective Packet Forwarding: Packets are sent directly to
the recipient, reducing traffic.
• Simultaneous Communication: Multiple communications
can occur simultaneously between different hosts.
• Benefits: Reduced network traffic and improved efficiency.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Network Types
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
A WAN covers a large geographical area, connecting multiple LANs.
• Spans cities, countries, or globally.
Characteristics:
• Slower data transfer rates than LANs.
• Managed by multiple entities (ISPs, governments).
• Utilizes routers and communication links (public/private).
Examples:
• The Internet
• Private networks connecting company branches
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Network Types
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
A Point-to-Point WAN:
• Connects two devices directly via transmission media (cables or wireless
links).
• Transmission Media: Fiber optic, coaxial, twisted-pair cables, or wireless
links like microwaves and satellites.
• Advantages:
• Dedicated Line: Minimal congestion and consistent bandwidth.
• Security: Limited exposure reduces unauthorized access risks.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Network Types
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
A Switched WAN:
• A network with multiple endpoints interconnected via switches.
• Allows dynamic routing between nodes.
• Role: Backbone of global communication systems (e.g., the
Internet).
• Scalable and connects many endpoints.
• Switches select the best path for data transfer.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Network Types
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
Heterogeneous Network
A system connecting various devices and network architectures
(LANs and WANs).
• Heterogeneous: Involves diverse hardware, operating
systems, and communication protocols.
• WANs act as the backbone for long-distance communication,
while LANs enable local connectivity.
 /ISE/DS/AIML

A heterogeneous
network made of
four WANs and
two LANs
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Switching
Switching is the process of forwarding data packets in a network
from a source to a destination through intermediate devices
called switches.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Switching
Types of Switching:
1. Circuit Switching:
• A fixed connection (circuit) is established between two devices
for the duration of the communication, typically used in
telephone networks.
• Key Features:
• A dedicated path is established before data transmission.
• The connection remains until the communication ends.
• Continuous and reserved bandwidth throughout the session.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Switching
Types of Switching:
1. Circuit Switching:
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Switching
1. Circuit Switching:
• Example (Figure 1.13):
• Four telephones on each side are connected to a switch.
• The switch creates a connection between two phones on opposite sides.
• The main line between the switches has the capacity for four simultaneous
voice calls.
• Scenario 1: All phones are in use, using the full capacity of the line.
• Scenario 2: One phone is in use, with only one-quarter of the capacity used.
• Disadvantages:
• Inefficiency when fewer devices are active.
• The thick line must have four times the capacity of a single voice line to
handle all potential calls.
• Resources remain dedicated even when not in use.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Switching
2. Packet Switching:
Data is divided into packets that are transmitted independently
over the network. No dedicated path is established as in circuit
switching.
• Key Features:
• Data is split into small packets, sent independently, and reassembled
at the destination.
• Efficient use of network resources as bandwidth is shared dynamically.
• Packets may take different routes to reach the destination.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Switching
2. Packet Switching:
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Switching
2. Packet Switching:
• Example (Figure 1.14):
• Two sets of four computers are connected across two sites through routers.
• Packets are queued and forwarded by the router when the network is ready.
• Scenario: The main connection has twice the capacity of the smaller lines. If
only two computers are communicating, packets move without delay. If the
connection is busy, packets are queued.
• Disadvantages:
• Can introduce delays when the network is congested.
• Requires more complex routing and addressing mechanisms compared to
circuit switching.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
THE INTERNET
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks
using the TCP/IP protocol to link billions of devices worldwide.
Characteristics:
• Decentralized: No central controlling entity.
• Based on TCP/IP: The foundation for communication across the Internet.
• Enables Various Services: Web browsing, email, file sharing, video
streaming, etc.
Components:
• Clients: Devices (computers, smartphones) requesting services from
servers.
• Servers: Systems providing resources and services to clients.
• Routers & Switches: Devices that direct data traffic across the network.
• ISPs (Internet Service Providers): Organizations providing Internet access
to users.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
THE INTERNET
 /ISE/DS/AIML
THE INTERNET
• The Internet is a
communication system
that has brought a wealth
of information to our
fingertips and organized it
for our use.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
THE INTERNET
Accessing the Internet
1. Dial-up
• Uses a telephone line to connect to the Internet.
• Low-speed: Outdated, up to 56 kbps.
2. DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)
• Uses telephone lines but allows simultaneous voice and data
transmission.
• Faster than Dial-up: Up to 100 Mbps.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
THE INTERNET
Accessing the Internet
3. Cable
• Uses cable television lines for Internet access.
• High-speed: Up to 1 Gbps.
4. Fiber Optic
• Uses light signals transmitted through optical fibers.
• Extremely high-speed: Up to 10 Gbps and beyond.
• 5. Satellite
• Internet via satellite communication, ideal for remote areas.
• Slower than fiber or cable, but wide coverage.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
THE INTERNET
6. Mobile Broadband
• Wireless Internet access through cellular networks (3G, 4G,
5G).
• Widely accessible, but may have data limits.
7. Wi-Fi Access
• Wireless local area network technology that enables Internet
access within the range of a wireless router.
• Common in homes, offices, and public places.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
4. PROTOCOL LAYERING
1. Scenarios
2. Principles of Protocol Layering
3. Logical Connections
5. TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
1. Layered Architecture
2. Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
3. Description of Each Layer
4. Encapsulation and Decapsulation
5. Addressing
6. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Protocol Layering
• Protocol layering is a design principle in computer networks where
tasks are divided into multiple layers.

• Each layer has a specific function and works with other layers to
enable communication.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Protocol Layering
Scenario:
A Three-Layer Protocol
• Third Layer (Plaintext
Creation): Generates original
message.
• Second Layer
(Encryption/Decryption):
Encrypts plaintext to
ciphertext.
• First Layer (Mailing): Sends
encrypted message with
addresses.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Protocol Layering
Applications of Protocol Layering:
• Data transmission over the internet.
• Communication between devices (e.g., computer and printer).
• Telecommunications for efficient voice signal transmission.
• Multimedia streaming with error correction and synchronization.
Advantages:
• Modularity: Each layer is independent.
• Service Separation: Implementation is separated from services.
• Intermediate Systems: Intermediate devices handle specific layers, reducing
complexity.
Disadvantages:
• Complexity: Integrating layers can add complexity.
• Layer Failure: Problems with one layer might require replacing the entire system.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Principles of Protocol Layering
1. First Principle: Bidirectional Communication
• Each layer must handle two tasks: one for incoming and one for outgoing
communication.
2. Second Principle: Identical Objects
• Objects processed at each layer must be identical at both ends (e.g., plaintext,
ciphertext, mail).
 /ISE/DS/AIML
5. TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
• Widely used for Internet communication.
• Commonly represented as a five-layer model.
• Layered Architecture in TCP/IP Communication involves multiple
devices and layers.
Example: Three LANs interconnected by a router.
• Host A (source) communicates with Host B (destination) through five
devices:
1. Source Host (Computer A)
2. Link-layer switch in LAN 1
3. Router
4. Link-layer switch in LAN 2
5. Destination Host (Computer B)
 /ISE/DS/AIML
TCP/IP PROTOCOL
 /ISE/DS/AIML
TCP/IP Layers in Host Devices
•Hosts (Source and Destination)
• Operate at all five layers:
1. Application Layer: Message creation and initial transmission.
2. Transport Layer: Ensures reliable delivery.
3. Network Layer: Encapsulation into packets.
4. Data Link Layer: Preparation for physical transmission.
5. Physical Layer: Actual transmission over the medium.
• Host B receives and processes the message up through the layers.
 /ISE/DS/AIML

Logical connections between layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite

 /ISE/DS/AIML
TCP/IP Layers in Routers
•Router Functionality
• Operates at three layers:
1. Network Layer: Routing packets across networks.
2. Data Link Layer: Handling different link protocols.
3. Physical Layer: Forwarding data through physical connections.

• Does not involve transport or application layers.

 /ISE/DS/AIML
TCP/IP Layers in Link-Layer Switches
•Link-Layer Switch Functionality
• Operates at two layers:
1. Data Link Layer: Processes and forwards data frames within the LAN.

2. Physical Layer: Transmission through the physical medium.

• No need to handle multiple protocol sets like routers.

 /ISE/DS/AIML
Description of Each Layer
1. Physical Layer:
• Transmission of Bits: Transmits data-link layer bits as electrical/optical
signals over a physical medium (cables or wireless channels).
• Medium Types: Physical connection through cables (twisted-pair,
fiber-optic) or air (wireless communication).
• Accurate Signal Transmission: Ensures signals are transmitted and
interpreted accurately between devices.
• Data Unit: The bit is the data unit at this layer, although signals vary based
on the medium.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Description of Each Layer
2. Data-link Layer:

• Connects multiple links (LANs and WANs) in an internet.

• Managed by routers to determine the most efficient route for datagrams.
• Handles the transmission of datagrams across chosen links.

Types of Links
1. Wired LANs: Often with link-layer switches.
2. Wireless LANs: Local wireless networks.
3. Wired WANs: Wide area networks with physical connections.
4. Wireless WANs: Wide area networks using wireless connections.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Description of Each Layer
2. Data-link Layer:

Role of the Data-link Layer

• Manages the transmission across different link types.

• Ensures successful delivery across any type of link.

• Accommodates a wide range of protocols, both standard and proprietary.

• Error Detection: Identifies errors in transmitted data.

• Error Correction: Corrects errors to ensure accurate data transmission.

 /ISE/DS/AIML
Description of Each Layer
3. Network Layer:

• Establishes communication between source and destination computers.

• Function: Manages host-to-host communication across multiple devices (routers).

• Routing: Ensures packets are directed along the most efficient route.

Internet Protocol (IP)

• Primary Role: Defines the structure and format of data packets (datagrams).

• Addressing System: Ensures each packet is sent from source to destination.

• Routing Function: Forwarding of packets from router to router.

 /ISE/DS/AIML
Description of Each Layer
3. Network Layer:

Internet Protocol (IP): Connectionless Nature of IP

• No Flow Control: IP does not manage flow control.

• No Error Control: IP does not handle error control.

• No Congestion Control: IP does not manage congestion control.

• Transport Layer Role: These controls are managed by the transport

layer if required.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Description of Each Layer
3. Network Layer:

Routing Protocols
• IP Routing: Responsible for actual routing of packets.
• Unicast & Multicast: Creates forwarding tables to assist
routers.
• Unicast: One-to-one communication.

• Multicast: One-to-many communication.

 /ISE/DS/AIML
Description of Each Layer
3. Network Layer:

Auxiliary Protocols Supporting IP

• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Reports issues encountered
during packet routing.
• IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol): Supports multicast
communication.
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Assigns network-layer
addresses to hosts.
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Converts network-layer address to
link-layer address.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Description of Each Layer
4. Transport Layer:

• Ensures end-to-end communication between hosts in a network.

• Handles data transfer between application layers on different devices.
• Key Function: Ensures reliable and efficient message transmission.
• Encapsulation and Transmission:
• Encapsulates messages into transport layer packets (segments in TCP, datagrams in
UDP).
• Transmits these packets to the destination transport layer.
• End-to-End Communication:
• Separates data transmission tasks from the application layer.
• Provides flexibility with multiple protocols for different needs.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Description of Each Layer
4. Transport Layer: Protocols in the Transport Layer
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):
• Connection-Oriented: Establishes a connection before data transfer.
• Flow Control: Matches data transfer rate with receiver capability.
• Error Control: Detects and retransmits corrupted segments.
• Congestion Control: Adjusts transmission rate to prevent congestion.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• Connectionless: Sends data without establishing a connection.
• Simplicity: Lightweight, minimal overhead, no flow, error, or congestion
control.
• Use Case: Ideal for applications needing quick, independent message delivery.
3. Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
• Designed for Modern Applications:
• Tailored for multimedia and high-demand data transmissions.
• Offers advanced features over TCP and UDP.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Description of Each Layer
4. Application Layer

• The application layer facilitates end-to-end communication between application

layers on different hosts.
• Communication Process: Appears as a direct bridge between application
layers but involves all layers of the networking model.
• Core Responsibility: Manages process-to-process communication between
applications on separate machines.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Description of Each Layer
4. Application Layer: Key Protocols
1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
• Used for accessing and browsing the World Wide Web (WWW).
2. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• Primary protocol for sending and receiving email.
3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• Facilitates the transfer of files between hosts.
4. TELNET and SSH (Secure Shell)
• Provide remote access to a site, with SSH offering secure connections.
5. SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
• Enables network administrators to manage resources globally and locally.
6. DNS (Domain Name System)
• Resolves domain names to IP addresses, aiding other protocols.
7. IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol)
• Manages group membership information for multicast communication.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Encapsulation and Decapsulation
• Understanding Key Concepts in Protocol Layering
• Processes occur at source and destination hosts and intermediary devices like
routers
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Encapsulation and Decapsulation
Encapsulation at the Source Host
• Step 1: Application Layer
• Data generated is called a message
• Message passed to the transport layer
• Step 2: Transport Layer
• Message treated as a payload
• Adds a transport layer header (e.g., source/destination identifiers)
• Resulting packet: Segment (TCP) or User Datagram (UDP)
• Step 3: Network Layer
• Adds a network layer header (e.g., IP addresses)
• Resulting packet: Datagram
• Step 4: Data-Link Layer
• Encapsulates datagram into a frame
• Adds a header with sending/next hop addresses
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Encapsulation and Decapsulation
Decapsulation at the Destination Host
Step 1: Data-Link Layer
• Frame received, extracts the datagram
Step 2: Network Layer
• Removes header, extracts transport layer segment/user datagram
Step 3: Transport Layer
• Removes header, delivers original message to the application layer
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Encapsulation and Decapsulation
Encapsulation and Decapsulation at the Router
• Network Layer Processing
• Examines source/destination addresses
• Determines next hop using forwarding table
• Datagram may be fragmented if necessary
• Encapsulation at Data-Link Layer
• Datagram encapsulated into a new frame for the next link
• Error Checking:
• Performed at each layer during decapsulation
• Ensures data integrity throughout the transmission process
• Original message reaches the application layer
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Addressing in Network
• Source & Destination: Every communication needs two essential addresses:
source and destination.
• Layering Consideration: Only four types of addresses are needed as the
physical layer does not use addresses.

1. Application Layer Addressing

• Type of Address: Names (e.g., Domain names like someorg.com,
Email addresses like [email protected])
• Function: Represents the service or resource being accessed.
• Packet Name: Message
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Addressing in Network
2. Transport Layer Addressing
• Type of Address: Port Numbers (e.g., Port 80 for Web Server, Port 25
for Email Client)
• Function: Identifies specific application-layer programs on the source
and destination devices.
• Packet Name: Segment (TCP) or User Datagram (UDP)
3. Network Layer Addressing
• Type of Address: IP Addresses (e.g., 45.113.122.159)
• Function: Uniquely identifies a device's connection to the Internet for
routing data across networks.
• Packet Name: Datagram
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Addressing in Network
4. Link Layer
Addressing
• Type of Address:
MAC Addresses
(e.g.,
78-45-C4-29-17-E8)
• Function: Identifies
specific devices on a local
network (LAN/WAN)
ensuring data reaches the
correct physical machine.
• Packet Name: Frame
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• Multiplexing: Combining multiple signals into one for transmission.

• Demultiplexing: Separating combined signals back into their original forms.

• Multiplexing occurs at a protocol layer that handles multiple types of data from
higher layers.

• Example:TCP and UDP receive messages from various application-layer

protocols (e.g., FTP, HTTP, DNS, SNMP).
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
1. The transport layer encapsulates these messages into segments.
2. A header is added to identify the corresponding application-layer protocol.
3. TCP or UDP examines the segment header to determine the correct
application-layer protocol at Destination.
4. IP processes segments from TCP or datagrams from UDP, as well as packets
from other protocols like ICMP or IGMP.
5. UDP or TCP encapsulates data from application-layer protocols (e.g., FTP,
HTTP, DNS, SNMP).
6. Frames include payloads from IP or other protocols like ARP.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
1. GUIDED MEDIA
2. Twisted-Pair Cable
3. Coaxial Cable
4. Fiber-Optic Cable
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
• Transmission media: Physical substances through which information travels.
• Operates below the physical layer of the OSI model, often termed "layer
zero."
• Direct interface with the physical layer for data transmission.
Examples:
• Includes free space, metallic cables, and fiber-optic cables.
• Information is transmitted in the form of signals generated from data.
• Key developments:
• Metallic Media: Twisted-pair and coaxial cables.
• Optical Fibers: Fiber-optic cables enable high data transmission rates.
• Free Space: Modulation and multiplexing have optimized communication via air,
vacuum, and water.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Electromagnetic Spectrum in Telecommunications
• Computers and devices transmit data as electromagnetic energy.
• Energy forms: Power, radio waves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet light, and X-rays.
• Spectrum Usability: Only specific portions of the spectrum are suitable for
telecommunications.
Categories of Transmission Media
1. Guided Media:
1. Twisted-pair cables
2. Coaxial cables
3. Fiber-optic cables
2. Unguided Media:
1. Free space (air, vacuum)
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Guided Media
• Communication channels that provide a physical path for signals.
Types:
1. Twisted-Pair Cable:
• Pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together.
• Reduces electromagnetic interference (EMI).
2. Coaxial Cable:
• Central conductor, insulating layer, metallic shield, outer insulation.
• High-speed data transmission with interference protection.
3. Fiber-Optic Cable:
• Uses light signals for data transmission.
• Thin glass or plastic strands with minimal signal loss over long distances.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Twisted-Pair Cable
• Two insulated copper conductors twisted together.
Function:
• One wire carries the signal, the other acts as a ground reference.
• Signal is processed based on the difference between the wires.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Twisted-Pair Cable
Noise and Interference
• Twisting:
• Reduces interference by maintaining balance between wires.
• Twists change the relative position to the noise source.
• Noise Reduction:
• Receiver processes the difference to cancel out noise and interference.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Shielded vs. Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cables
1. Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP):
• No additional shielding.
• Less expensive, commonly used, but more prone to interference.
2. Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP):
• Shielding with metal foil or braided mesh.
• Reduced interference and better signal quality but bulkier and costlier.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Categories of UTP Cables
• Category Classification: Based on quality and data rate.
• Category 1: Telephone lines, 2 Mbps.
• Category 2: T1 lines, 10 Mbps.
• Category 3: LANs, 20 Mbps.
• Category 4: Token Ring, 100 Mbps.
• Category 5: LANs, 125 Mbps.
• Category 5E: Enhanced to reduce crosstalk, 125 Mbps.
• Category 6: Tested for 200 Mbps.
• Category 7: Shielded Screen Twisted-Pair (SSTP), 600 Mbps.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Connectors
• RJ45 Connector:
• Common connector for UTP cables.
• Keyed design ensures proper insertion.
Performance
• Attenuation:
• Measured in dB/km.
• Signal loss increases with frequency and distance.
• Frequency Handling:
• Capable of handling high frequencies, but signal loss increases significantly
above 100 kHz.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Applications
• Telephone Lines:
• Used for voice and data transmission in the local loop.
• DSL Lines:
• High-data-rate connections utilizing UTP cables.
• Local-Area Networks (LANs):
• Used in 10Base-T and 100Base-T networks for data transmission.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable (coax) designed to carry high-frequency signals.
• Superior to twisted-pair cables in terms of interference resistance.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Coaxial Cable
Components:
1. Central Core Conductor: Solid/stranded copper wire carrying the signal.
2. Insulating Sheath: Separates core conductor from outer conductor.
3. Outer Conductor: Metal foil or braid, serves as:
• Shield against noise.
• Second conductor to complete the circuit.
4. Additional Insulation: Protects the outer conductor.
5. Plastic Cover: Provides external protection.
Coaxial Cable Design
• The design allows for higher frequency signal transmission with less
interference.
• Greater noise resistance compared to twisted-pair cables.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial Cable Standards (RG Ratings - Radio Guide)
• RG Ratings: Classify cables based on physical characteristics.
• Key aspects of RG-rated cables:
1. Wire Gauge: Thickness of the core conductor.
2. Insulation: Thickness/material of the inner insulator.
3. Shielding: Outer conductor design.
4. Outer Casing: Type and size of the cover.
Common RG-Rated Cables
• RG-59 75 Ω: Used for Cable TV.
• RG-58 50 Ω: Used for Thin Ethernet.
• RG-11 50 Ω: Used for Thin Ethernet.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Coaxial Cable Connectors
• Coaxial cables require specific connectors for device connection.
• BNC Connectors: Common types:
• BNC Connector: Connects cable to devices (e.g., TV).
• BNC T Connector: Splits signal in Ethernet networks.
• BNC Terminator: Prevents signal reflection.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Coaxial Cable Connectors
Performance of Coaxial Cables
• Higher bandwidth than twisted-pair cables.
• Greater attenuation (signal loss), requiring repeaters for long-distance
transmission.
Applications of Coaxial Cables
• Analog Telephone Networks: Previously used to support up to 10,000
voice channels.
• Digital Telephone Networks: Capable of transmitting data at speeds up
to 600 Mbps.
• Current Use: Largely replaced by fiber optic cables in telephone
networks due to better performance.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6.TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Fiber-Optic Cable
• Medium made of glass or plastic
• Transmits signals as light
• Understanding light is key to how fiber-optic cables work
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6.TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Fiber-Optic Cable
Structure of Optical Fibers
• Optical fibers guide light through internal reflection
• Core: Glass or plastic, surrounded by cladding with lower density
• Ensures light stays in the core through reflection
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6.TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Fiber-Optic Cable- Properties of Light
• Light travels in a straight line through a uniform material
• Refraction: Light changes direction when passing between materials of different densities
• Critical Angle: Angle where light bends along the boundary; beyond this, light reflects
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6.TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Fiber-Optic Cable
Propagation Modes

1. Multimode
• Multiple light beams travel through the core
• Step-Index Fiber: Uniform core density, abrupt direction changes at boundaries
• Graded-Index Fiber: Core density gradually decreases, reducing distortion
2. Single-Mode
• Smaller core, light beams travel nearly parallel, minimizing delay and distortion
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6.TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Fiber-Optic Cable
Fiber Sizes
• Classified by core to cladding diameter
ratio (in micrometers)
1. Single-mode: Smaller core diameter
2. Multimode: Larger core diameter
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6.TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Fiber-Optic Cable
Fiber-Optic Cable Composition
• Outer jacket (PVC or Teflon)
• Kevlar strands for strength
• Plastic coating for cushioning
• Core and cladding for light transmission
Fiber-Optic Connectors
• SC (Subscriber Channel): Push/pull locking, used in cable TV
• ST (Straight Tip): Bayonet locking, used in networking
• MT-RJ: Same size as RJ45, used in data networks
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6.TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Fiber-Optic Cable
Performance
• Less signal attenuation compared to twisted-pair and coaxial cables
• Supports higher data rates, especially with Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
(WDM)
Applications of Fiber-Optic Cables
• Backbone Networks: Used in high-bandwidth networks like SONET
• Hybrid Networks: Mix of fiber-optic and coaxial cables in cable TV
• LANs: Used in networks like 100Base-FX and 1000Base-X
 /ISE/DS/AIML
6.TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Fiber-Optic Cable
Advantages of Optical Fiber
• Higher bandwidth for faster data rates
• Less signal attenuation, longer distances without repeaters
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistant to corrosive materials
• Lightweight and easy to handle
• Greater immunity to tapping for enhanced security
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
• Installation and maintenance require specialized skills
• Unidirectional light propagation: Requires two fibers for bidirectional communication
• Higher cost compared to other cables, especially in low-bandwidth applications
 /ISE/DS/AIML
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
• Unguided media refers to communication channels that use wireless signals to
transmit data.
• Signals travel through the air without physical conductors like cables or wires.
• Common types: Radio waves, microwaves, and infrared.
Wireless Communication
• Wireless communication transmits electromagnetic waves without physical
conductors.
• Signals are broadcast through free space.
• Any device equipped to receive can access the signal.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
Electromagnetic Spectrum for Wireless Communication
• Wireless communication uses a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Frequency range: 3 kHz to 900 THz.
• Different frequencies allow for various signal transmission methods.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
Types of Propagation
Unguided signals travel in three main ways:
1. Ground Propagation
2. Sky Propagation
3. Line-of-Sight Propagation
Ground Propagation
• Low-frequency radio waves travel near the Earth’s surface.
• Follows the curvature of the planet.
• Signal power determines the travel distance.
Sky Propagation
• Higher-frequency radio waves are transmitted to the ionosphere.
• Reflected back to Earth.
• Enables long-distance communication with low power.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
Line-of-Sight Propagation
• Very high-frequency signals travel directly between antennas.
• Antennas must be aligned or tall enough to avoid Earth’s curvature.
• Complex due to imperfect focusing of radio waves.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
Frequency Bands
• Electromagnetic spectrum is divided into eight frequency bands.
• Regulated by government authorities.
• Different bands have unique propagation characteristics and
applications.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Frequency Bands
Band Range Propagation Application
Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3–30 kHz Ground Long-range radio navigation

Low Frequency (LF) 30–300 kHz Ground Radio beacons, navigational locators

Middle Frequency (MF) 300 kHz–3 MHz Sky AM radio

Citizens band (CB), ship/aircraft
High Frequency (HF) 3–30 MHz Sky
communication
Very High Frequency (VHF) 30–300 MHz Sky and Line-of-sight VHF TV, FM radio
UHF TV, cellular phones, paging,
Ultra-High Frequency (UHF) 300 MHz–3 GHz Line-of-sight
satellite
Super High Frequency (SHF) 3–30 GHz Line-of-sight Satellite communication

Extremely High Frequency (EHF) 30–300 GHz Line-of-sight Radar, satellite communication
300 GHz–900
Light Wave (Infrared) Line-of-sight Infrared communication
THz
 /ISE/DS/AIML
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
Radio Waves
• Frequency Range: 3 kHz to 1 GHz
• Characteristics of Radio Waves:
• Omnidirectional Propagation: Spreads in all directions; no alignment
needed between antennas.
• Long-Distance Travel: Sky-mode propagation allows for long-range
communication, e.g., AM radio.
• Penetration of Walls: Low and medium frequency waves can penetrate
walls but may cause signal leakage.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
Radio Waves
• Frequency Range: 3 kHz to 1 GHz
 /ISE/DS/AIML
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
Radio Waves
Limitations:
• Narrow frequency band (<1 GHz) with subbands offering low data rates.
• Spectrum is regulated; requires official permission to use.
• Licensed Bands: FM Radio: 88-108 MHz
• Unlicensed Bands: Wi-Fi: 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz
• Omnidirectional Antennas: Used for broadcasting in all
directions.
Applications:
• AM/FM Radio, TV broadcasting, maritime radio, cordless phones, paging
systems.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
Microwaves
• Frequency Range: 1 GHz to 300 GHz
• Characteristics:
• Line-of-sight required; cannot penetrate obstacles like buildings.
• Utilizes unidirectional antennas for focused transmission.
• Applications:
• Satellite communications, radar systems, microwave ovens.
• Point-to-point communication and cellular networks.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
Microwaves
• Frequency Range: 1 GHz to 300 GHz
 /ISE/DS/AIML
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
Infrared
• Frequency Range: 300 GHz to 400 THz
• Characteristics:
• Short-range communication; does not penetrate walls.
• Highly directional; requires line-of-sight transmission.
• Applications:
• Remote controls, short-range data transfer between devices, infrared sensors
(security, medical).
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Packet Switching
Division of messages into smaller units called packets for transmission.
• Packet Sizes: Can be fixed or variable depending on the network
protocol.
Key Features of Packet Switching
1. No Resource Allocation:
• No dedicated resources (e.g., bandwidth, processing time).
• Packets processed on a first-come, first-served basis.
2. Possible Delays:
• Packets may face delays due to network congestion or busy switches.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Packet Switching
Types of Packet-Switched Networks
1. Datagram Networks:
• Each packet is independent and may take different routes.
2. Virtual Circuit Networks:
• A pre-determined path is established, and all packets follow the same route.
Advantages of Packet Switching
• Efficiency:
• Multiple users can share network resources.
• Resources are used only when needed, ensuring optimal bandwidth
utilization.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Packet Switching
Datagram Networks
Key Features
1. Packet Independence:
• Each packet is routed independently.
2. Routing:
• Packets are routed based on the destination address at the network layer.
• Routers manage packet forwarding.
3. No Fixed Path:
• Packets may take different paths, potentially arriving out of order or facing variable
delays.
4. Connectionless:
• No setup phase required, and no connection state maintained.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Packet Switching
Working of Datagram Networks
• Dynamic Routing:
• Packets may follow different routes depending on network congestion and
available resources.
Routing Table Dynamic Tables:
• Updated regularly to determine the appropriate forwarding ports.
• Destination Address:
• Each packet has a header with the destination address, used by routers for
forwarding.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Packet Switching
Working of Datagram Networks
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Packet Switching
Datagram Networks - Delays
• Transmission Time: Time to send packets.
• Propagation Delay: Time for signals to travel through the medium.
• Waiting Time: Time spent waiting at routers due to congestion.
Advantages of Datagram Networks
• Efficiency:
• Better utilization of network resources as no reserved bandwidth.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Packet Switching
Datagram Networks - Delays
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Packet Switching
Virtual-Circuit Networks (VCN)
A hybrid model combining features of circuit-switched and datagram networks.
• Transmission Method: Balances connection-oriented and connectionless
transmission.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Packet Switching
Virtual-Circuit Networks (VCN)
Key Features of Virtual-Circuit Networks
1. Connection Phases:
1. Setup Phase: Establishes path before data transmission.
2. Data Transfer Phase: Data sent via packets along the established
path.
3. Teardown Phase: Connection is terminated, and resources are
released.
2. Resource Allocation:
• Pre-allocated during setup or dynamically allocated during
transmission.
4. Packetized Data with Local Addressing:
• Packets carry local addresses for switching, not end-to-end.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Packet Switching
Virtual-Circuit Networks (VCN)
Path Consistency & Layer of Operation
• Consistent Path for Packets: All packets follow the same path once
connection is established.
• Layer of Operation: Typically at the data-link layer.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Packet Switching
Virtual-Circuit Networks (VCN)
Addressing in Virtual-Circuit Networks
1. Global Addressing:
1. Used during setup for source-destination identification.
2. Virtual-Circuit Identifier (VCI):
1. Used during data transfer.
2. VCI changes at each switch for efficient packet forwarding.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Packet Switching
Virtual-Circuit Networks (VCN)
Phases in a Virtual-Circuit Network
1. Setup Phase:
1. Source and destination use global addresses.
2. Switches create table entries for routing data.
2. Data Transfer Phase:
1. Data routed using Virtual Circuit Identifiers (VCIs).
2. Switches update VCIs at each hop.
3. Teardown Phase:
1. Signals sent to remove table entries and free up resources.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Packet Switching
Virtual-Circuit
Networks (VCN)
Data Transfer Phase in
Detail
• Frame Switching:
• Switch uses incoming
port and VCI to identify
outgoing port and VCI.

• Example: Switch 1
updates VCI 14 → 22
and forwards the frame.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Packet Switching
Virtual-Circuit Networks (VCN)
Setup Phase in Detail
1. Setup Request:
1. Frame sent from source to destination, table entries created at each switch.
2. Acknowledgment:
1. Destination assigns VCI, and switches update tables.
Teardown Phase
• Process: Source and destination send signals to remove table entries and
terminate the connection.
• Effect: Frees resources for future connections.
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Packet Switching
Virtual-Circuit Networks (VCN)
Setup Phase in Detail
 /ISE/DS/AIML
Packet Switching
Virtual-Circuit Networks (VCN)
Setup Phase in Detail
/ISE/DS/AIML

END
Module - 1