Kwame Nkrumah University of

Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

CEWR 531
APPLIED
HYDROLOGY
Prof. Kwaku Amaning Adjei
&
Dr. Charles Gyamfi
Dept. of Civil Engineering
KNUST
1
 Where Do You Find Your Lecture
Materials?

rebrand.ly/LNCEWR531

2 www.knust.edu.gh
 RUNOFF GENERATION

3 www.knust.edu.gh
 Learning Outcomes
• Define and explain the concept of runoff generation,
including the factors that influence it.
• Understand the difference between surface runoff and
subsurface runoff, and the conditions that favour each type
of runoff.
• Describe the hydrologic cycle and its role in runoff
generation.
• Explain how different land cover types and land use practices
impact runoff generation, including urbanization,
deforestation, and agricultural practices.
• Understand the concept of infiltration capacity and how it
influences runoff generation.

4 www.knust.edu.gh
 Runoff Generation
As we discuss mechanisms, remember…

– Many processes occur simultaneously

– Shifts can occur between processes in space and time
– Antecedent wetness conditions are important
– Watershed characteristic play a central role

5 www.knust.edu.gh
 Streamflow generation
Streamflow is generated by three mechanisms
1. Hortonian overland flow
2. Subsurface flow
3. Saturation overland flow

www.knust.edu.gh
 Runoff processes at the field scale

7 www.knust.edu.gh
Hortonian Overland Flow (Infiltration Excess)

• Sheet flow described by

Horton in 1930s
• When i < f, all i is absorbed Rainfall, i

• When i > f, (i-f) results in i>f

rainfall excess
• Applicable in
– impervious surfaces (urban Infiltration, f

areas)
– Steep slopes with thin soil
– hydrophobic or compacted soil
with low infiltration

www.knust.edu.gh
 Infiltration excess overland flow
• This occurs when the rate of rainfall on a surface exceeds
the rate at which water can infiltrate the ground, and any
depression storage has already been filled.

• This more commonly occurs in arid and semi-arid

regions, where rainfall intensities are high and the soil
infiltration capacity is reduced because of surface sealing,
or in paved areas. This occurs largely in city areas where
pavements prevent water infiltration.

9 www.knust.edu.gh
 Saturation-excess Overland flow

10 www.knust.edu.gh
 Saturation excess overland flow
• When the soil is saturated, and the depression storage is
filled, and rain continues to fall, the rainfall will
immediately produce surface runoff.
• The level of antecedent soil moisture is one factor
affecting the time until soil becomes saturated. This
runoff is called saturation excess overland flow or
saturated overland flow.

11 www.knust.edu.gh
 Saturation overland flow

• Soil is saturated from below by subsurface flow

• Any precipitation occurring over a saturated surface
becomes overland flow
• Occurs mainly at the bottom of hill slopes and near
stream banks

www.knust.edu.gh
 Antecedent soil moisture
• Soil retains a degree of moisture after a rainfall event.
This residual water moisture affects the soil's infiltration
capacity. During the next rainfall event, the infiltration
capacity will cause the soil to be saturated at a different
rate.
• The higher the level of antecedent soil moisture, the
more quickly the soil becomes saturated. Once the soil is
saturated, runoff occurs.

13 www.knust.edu.gh
 Subsurface return flow
• After water infiltrates the soil on an up-slope portion of a
hill, the water may flow laterally through the soil, and
exfiltrate (flow out of the soil) closer to a channel. This is
called subsurface return flow or throughflow.

14 www.knust.edu.gh
 Subsurface flow
• Lateral movement of water occurring through the soil
above the water table
• primary mechanism for stream flow generation when f >
i
– Matrix/translatory flow
• Lateral flow of old water displaced by precipitation inputs
• Near surface lateral conductivity is greater than overall vertical
conductivity
– Macropore flow
• Movement of water through large conduits in the soil

www.knust.edu.gh
 Infiltration and runoff overtime

16 www.knust.edu.gh
 Channel Water Sources

17 www.knust.edu.gh
 Classification of Streams
Streams may be classified as:
(i) Influent and Effluent streams
(ii) Intermittent and perennial streams

18 www.knust.edu.gh
 Classification 0f Streams

19 www.knust.edu.gh
 Gaining and Losing Streams

20 www.knust.edu.gh
 Streamflow hydrograph
Direct runoff

• Graph of stream discharge as a

function of time at a given location on
the stream

Baseflow

Perennial river
Ephemeral river
www.knust.edu.gh
 Catchment Characteristics
• Drainage basin, watershed or catchment area : It is
the area of land that contributes water to a stream or
river.
• Drainage divide: It is the boundary line, along a
topographic ridge, separating two adjacent drainage
basins

Concentration or measuring point:

The single point or location at which
all surface drainage from a basin comes
together or concentrates as the outflow
from the basin in the stream channel
22 www.knust.edu.gh
 Catchment Characteristics
• Time of Concentration : The time required for the rain
falling at the most distant point in a drainage area (i.e., on
the fringe of the catchment) to reach the concentration
point.
Ø This is a very significant variable since only such storms of
duration greater than the time of concentration will be able
to produce runoff from the entire catchment area and cause
high-intensity floods

23 www.knust.edu.gh
 Factors affecting runoff

Precipitation
Topography Soils

Basin size Runoff

Geology

Basin shape
Land cover/land use

24 www.knust.edu.gh
 Factors Affecting Shape of Hydrograph

25 www.knust.edu.gh
 Hydrograph Shape

26 www.knust.edu.gh
 Hydrograph- Basin Scale and Shape

27 www.knust.edu.gh
Watershed Urbanization

28 www.knust.edu.gh
 Estimation Of Runoff
The runoff from rainfall may be estimated by the following
methods:
Ø Empirical formulae, curves and tables
Ø Infiltration method
Ø Rational method
Ø Overland flow hydrograph
Ø Unit hydrograph method

29 www.knust.edu.gh