Introduction to communication preparesd by G/medhn wubet

Chapter - 3
3. Angle Modulation
Angle modulation encompasses phase modulation (PM) and frequency modulation (FM). The
phase angle of a sinusoidal carrier signal is varied according to the modulating signal. In angle
modulation, the spectral components of the modulated signal are not related in a simple fashion to
the spectrum of the modulating signal. Superposition does not apply and the bandwidth of the
modulated signal is usually much greater than the modulating signal bandwidth.

Definitions
A band pass signal is represented by
SC t  = A(t ) cos (t ).......... .......... .......... .......... ....... 1
Where A (t) is the envelope and  (t )  ct  (t )  2f ct   (t ) .
For angle modulation, we can write:
SC t  = A(t ) cos(2f c t   (t )).......... .......... .......... 2
Where A is a constant and ∅(t) is a function of the modulating signal. ∅ (t) is called the
instantaneous phase deviation of sc (t).
The instantaneous angular frequency of sc (t) is defined as:
d (t )
i (t )  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... 3
dt
In terms of frequency, the instantaneous frequency of sc(t) is :
1 d (t ) 1 d (t )
fi   fc  .......... .......... ...4
2 dt 2 dt
1 d (t )
fd  Is known as the instantaneous frequency deviation.
2 dt
The peak (maximum) frequency deviation is:
1 d (t )
f  max  max f i (t )  f c .......... ........ 5
2 dt
3.1. Phase modulation
For PM, the instantaneous phase deviation is proportional to the modulating signal mp (t)

 (t )  k p mp (t ).......... .......... .......... .......... .......... 6

Where kp is a constant. Thus, a phase-modulated signal is represented by:

 
Sc (t )  A cos 2f ct  k p mp (t ) .......... .......... ........ 7
Then, the instantaneous frequency of sc(t) can be written as :

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1 dmp (t )
f i (t )  f c 
kp .......... .......... .......... .......... .8
2 dt
The peak (maximum) phase deviation is:
  max  (t )  k p max m p (t ) .......... .......... .......... ...9
The phase modulation index is given by:
 p  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......... 10
3.2 Frequency Modulation:
For FM, the instantaneous frequency deviation is proportional to the modulating signal mf (t):
d (t )
 k f m f (t )......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....... 11
dt
Where k f is a constant, and
t
 (t )  k f  m f ( )d   ()......... .......... .......... ......... 12


Where  ( ) is usually set to 0. Thus, a frequency-modulated signal is represented by:

 t

S c (t )  A cos2f c t  k f  m p ( )d .......... .......... ......... 13
  
Substituting equation (11) into (4), the instantaneous frequency of Sc(t) can
be written as:
1
f i (t )  f c 
k f m f (t )......... .......... .......... .......... .......... 14
2
Figure 3.1 shows the modulating signal mf(t), the instantaneous frequency fi(t), and the FM signal
when a saw tooth signal is used as a modulating signal.

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Fig. 3.1 Frequency modulation: (a) Modulating signal, (b) instantaneous frequency, and (c) FM signal.
The frequency deviation from the carrier frequency is:
1 d (t ) 1
f d (t )  f i  f c   k f m f (t )......... .......... .......... .15
2 dt 2
The peak frequency deviation is
1 d (t ) 1
f max  k f max m f (t ) .......... .......... .......... .... 16
2 dt 2
Example
1. A transmitter operates on a frequency of 915 MHz The maximum FM deviation is
+/-12.5 kHz. What are the maximum and minimum frequencies that occur during modulation?
Solution
 915 MHz = 915,000 kHz
 Maximum deviation = 915,000 + 12.5 = 915,012.5 kHz
 Minimum deviation = 915,000 - 12.5 = 914,987.5 kHz
Frequency Modulation Index is given by
The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating frequency is known as the modulation
index mf:
fd
 f m f 
fm

Example
What is the deviation ratio of TV sound if the maximum deviation is 25 kHz and the maximum
modulating frequency is 15 kHz?
25khz
mf   1.667
15khz

Example
1. Consider the angle modulated signal
S c (t )  10 cos(2108 t  3sin 2103 t )
message
a. Assume that the signal is PM. Find the bandwidth of the PM signal when the
frequency is doubled and is halved.
b. Repeat part (a) assuming that the angle modulated signal is FM.
2. An FM signal is given by

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Sc (t )  10cos(2106 t  5 cos 2103 t )

a) Determine and sketch the magnitude spectrum of the signal Sc(t). [ note: sketch only
those sidebands that are within the ‘bandwidth’ of the FM signal.]
3. An angle modulation signal is given by the following expression:
S EM (t )  5 cos(wc t  40 sin 500t  20 sin1000t  10 sin 2000t )

a. Determine the frequency deviation in hz

b. Estimate the bandwidth, in hz, of the angle modulation signal by Carson’s rule. If the
angle modulation signal is a phase modulation signal with phase deviation constant kp
is 5 rad/volt, determine the message signal m(t).
c. If the angle modulation signal is a frequency modulation signal withfrequency deviation
constant kf is 20000pi rad/s/volt, determine the message signal m(t).

3.3 Generation of Angle-Modulated Signal:

From the previous equations that PM and FM differ only by a possible integration or differentiation
of the modulating signal. Then we obtain from equation (6) and (12):
k p dmp (t )
m f (t )  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... 17
kf dt
t
kf
m p (t ) 
kp m

f ( )d .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...... 18

If we differentiate the modulating signal mp(t) and frequency-modulate using the differentiated
signal, we get a PM signal. On the other hand, if we integrate the modulating signal mf(t) and
phase-modulate using the integrated signal, we get an FM signal. Therefore, we can generate a PM
signal using a frequency modulator or we can generate an FM signal using a PM modulator. This
is shown in Figure 3.2.

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Or

Frequency Modulator (FM)

t  m (t )d  Phase
 ()d 

m(t) Modulator gFM(t)
 (PM)

Phase Modulator (PM)

dm (t )
d () dt Frequency
m(t) Modulator gPM(t)
dt (FM)

Figure 3.2 Generation of (a) PM using a frequency modulator, and (b) FM using a phase modulator.

3.4 Narrow band and Wide band Angle Modulation

 Narrow band Angle modulation

If max |(t)| << 1, we can neglect all higher-power terms of (t) in equation (19)
 2 (t )  3 (t )
S C t  A[cos 2f c t   (t ) sin 2f c t  cos 2f c t  sin 2f c t  ..... 19
2! 3!
And we have a narrowband angle-modulated signal:
SC t  A[cos 2f c t   (t ) sin 2f c t ]......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..20

For PM
SC t  A[cos 2f c t  k p mp sin 2f ct ]......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..... 21

For FM:

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t
SC t  A[cos 2f c t  [k f m f ( )d ] sin 2f c t ]......... .......... .......... .......... ..... 22


Because of the difficulty of analyzing general angle-modulated signals, we

shall only consider a sinusoidal modulating signal. Let the modulating signal
of a narrowband FM signal be:
m f t  am cos2f mt.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........ 23

Then Substituting (23) into (12), we obtain:

k f am
 (t )  sin 2f m t  f sin 2f m t.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......... 24
2f m

Where

(24) and substituting into

(16), we have
f
f  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..... 25

Where B = fm is the bandwidth of the modulating signal. Substituting equation (24) into (2), we
have
S C t  = A cos(2f c t   f sin 2f m t )
 A[cos 2f c t cos( f sin 2f m t )  sin 2f c t (  f sin 2f m t )]........ .......... .......... ..... 26

For
 f   / 2, cos( f sin 2f m t )  1, sin( f sin 2f m t )   f sin 2f m t , and
S c (t )  A[cos 2f c t   f sin 2f c t sin 2f m t ]......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...27
f A
 A cos 2f c t  [cos 2 ( f c  f m )t  cos 2 ( f c  f m )t ]......... .......... .......... 28
2
f A f A
 Re[e j 2fct ( A  e  j 2f mt  e j 2f mt ) ]......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .... 29
2 2
Equation (28) contains the carrier term plus two sideband terms. The
bandwidth of the narrowband FM signal is 2fm Hz.
In the AM case with sinusoidal modulating signal
Sc (t )  [ A  am cos 2f mt ] cos 2f ct   f sin 2f ct sin 2f mt ]......... .......... .......... ...30

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am
S c (t )  A cos 2f c t  [cos 2 ( f c  f m )t  cos 2 ( f c  f m )t ]......... .......... ........ 31
2
mA
S c (t )  A cos 2f c t  [cos 2 ( f c  f m )t  cos 2 ( f c  f m )t ]......... .......... ........ 32
2
mA  j 2f mt mA j 2f mt )
S c (t )  Re[e j 2fct ( A  e  e ]......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .... 33
2 2
Where the modulation index m=am/A. Fig.3.3 shows the vector representation of a narrowband FM
signal and an AM signal.

Fig. 3.3: Vector representation of (a) narrowband FM, and (b) AM

It can be seen that the resultant of the two sideband vectors in the FM case is always in phase
quadrature with the unmodulated carrier, whereas the resultant of the two sideband vectors in the
AM case is always in phase with the unmodulated carrier. The distinction and similarity between
narrowband FM (or phase modulation) leads us to a commonly used method of generating
narrowband angle-modulated signals

3.5 Generation of Narrowband PM and Narrowband FM

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The generation of narrowband PM and narrowband FM signals is easily accomplished in view of

equations (21) and (22). This is shown in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: Generation of (a) narrowband PM, and (b) narrowband FM.

3.6 Wideband Frequency Modulation (WFM)

Consider the angle-modulated signal SC t  = A cos(2f c t   f sin 2f mt ) with sinusoidal

modulating signal m(t) = am cos 2fmt. It can be shown that Sc(t) can also be written as

S c (t )  A  J n (  ) cos[2 ( f c  nf m )t ]......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .... 34
n  


1
 e
J (  sin( x )  nx ) dx
Where J n (  ) 
2 

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The integral is known as the Bessel function of the first kind of the n-th order and cannot be
evaluated in closed form. Fig.3.5 shows some Bessel functions for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, and 8. Clearly,
the value of Jn() becomes small for large values of n.

Fig 3.5: Bessel functions.

Also, it can be shown from the integral definition of Jn() that

 J n (  ), n  even
J n ( )   .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...35
 J n (  ), n  old
Therefore, we can write
S c (t )  AJ o (  ) cos 2f c t  J 1 (  )[cos 2 ( f c  f m )t  cos 2 ( f c  f m )t ] 
J 2 (  )[cos 2 ( f c  2 f m )t  cos 2 ( f c  2 f m )t
 J 3 (  )[cos 2 ( f c  3 f m )t  cos 2 ( f c  3 f m )t ]  ............... .......... .......... ..36
Fig.3.6 shows the amplitude spectra of FM signals with a sinusoidal modulating signal and fixed
fm.

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Fig. 3.6: Amplitude spectra of FM signals with sinusoidal modulating signal and fixed fm.

3.7 Bandwidth of Angle-Modulation Signals

From equation (36), we observe that the spectrum consists of a carrier component at fc plus an
infinite number of sideband components at fc + nfm (n = 1, 2, ...). In fact, 98% of the normalized
total signal power is contained in the bandwidth

BT ( )  2(  1) B.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...37

Where  is either the phase modulation index or the frequency modulation index and B is the
bandwidth of the modulating signal. The bandwidth of the angle-modulated signal with sinusoidal
modulating signal depends on  and B. This is called Carson’s rule. It gives a rule-of-thumb
expression and an easy way to evaluate the transmission bandwidth of angle-modulated
signals. When  << 1, the signal is a narrowband angle-modulated signal and its bandwidth is
approximately equal to 2B.

Example

1. Determine the bandwidth in Hz of the angle modulation signal

Sc (t )  10cos(2108 t  200cos 2103 t )
Solution

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S c (t )  10 cos(2 108 t  200cos 2 103 t )

 A cos(wc t   (t ))
where (t )  200cos 2 103 t
d (t )
 4 *105 sin 2 103 t
dt
d (t )
   4 *105 rad / ms  
dt max

f EM   200khz
2

B  1khz
BW EM  2(f EM  B )hz  402khz

3.8 Generation of Wideband FM

i. Indirect Method.
In this method, a narrowband frequency-modulated signal is first generated using an integrator and
a phase modulator. A frequency multiplier is then used to increase the peak frequency deviation
from f to nf. Use of frequency multiplication normally increases the carrier frequency from fc
to n fc. A mixer or double-sideband modulator is required to shift the spectrum
down to the desired range for further frequency multiplication or transmission. This is shown in
Figure 3.7.

Fig. 3.7: Indirect method of generating WFM

ii. Direct Method.
Here the carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with the modulating signal. A
common method used for generating direct FM is to vary the inductance L or capacitance C of
a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). This is shown in Figure 3.8.

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Figure 3.8: Direct method of generating WFM.

The oscillator uses a high-Q resonant circuit. Variations in the inductance or capacitance of the
oscillator will change its oscillating frequency. Assuming that the capacitance of the tuned
circuit varies linearly with the modulating signal m(t), we have
C  km(t )  Co
C  C  Co .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...38

Where C  km(t )
k is a constant and C0 is the capacitance of the VCO when the input signal to the oscillator is
zero. The instantaneous frequency is given by
1 1 C
fi    f c (1  )......... ......... 39
2 LC C 2Co
2 LC o 1 
Co

Where the zero-input-signal resonance frequency is

1
fc  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........ 40
2 LC o

For C << C0, we can write

C km(t )
f i  f c (1  )  f c (1  )  f c  f .......... .......... .......... ........ 41
2C o 2C o

km(t ) C
Where f  f c  fc
2C o 2Co

Although the change in capacitance may be small, the frequency deviation f may be quite large
if the resonance frequency fc is large. We can alternatively vary the inductance to achieve the same
effect.
Advantage

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Large frequency deviations are possible and thus less frequency multiplication is needed.
Disadvantage
The carrier frequency tends to drift and additional circuitry is required for frequency stabilization.
To stabilize the carrier frequency, a Phase-Locked Loop can be used. This is shown in Figure 3.9

Figure 3.9: Direct method of generating WFM with frequency stabilization.

3.9 Angle Demodulation

Demodulation of an angle-modulated signal requires a circuit that produces an output proportional
1 d (t )
to the instantaneous frequency fi(t) or the instantaneous frequency deviation of the input
2 dt
signal to the demodulator.

3.9.1. Frequency Discrimination.

Frequency discrimination is a frequency-to-amplitude conversion process.

Consider an angle-modulated signal

S C t  = A(t ) cos (t ).......... .......... .......... .......... ....... 42

Where

k p m(t ), forPM

 (t )  2f c t   (t ), (t )   t .......... .......... .......... .... 43
k f  m( )d , forFM
 

And

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 dm(t )
d (t ) k p , forPM
 dt .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...... 44
dt k f m(t ), forFM


If we differentiate equation (42), we get

d (t )  (t )  (t )
S 'C t  =  A sin (t )   A sin (t )[2f c  ]   A[2f c  ] sin[2f c   (t )]...45
dt dt  dt
envelope

The signal is both amplitude- and angle-modulated. If we pass the signal to an envelope detector,
we get

 dm(t )
 A[2f c  k p
 (t ) ], forPM
y (t )  A[2f c  ] dt .......... .......... .......... .......... ..... 46
dt   A[2f c  k f m(t )], forFM


2f i ( t )

Knowing the values of A, fc, kp and kf, we can compute the desired signal m(t) from y(t). Figure
3.10 shows the circuit for frequency demodulation. The differentiator followed by an envelope
detector is called a frequency discriminator. For demodulation of PM signals, we simply integrate
the output of a frequency discriminator. This yields a signal which is proportional to m(t). Figure
3.11 shows the circuit for phase demodulation

Figure 3.10: Frequency demodulation using a frequency discriminator

Figure 3.11: Phase demodulation using a frequency discriminator and an integrator.

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In practice, channel noise and other factors may cause A to vary. If A varies, y(t) will vary with
A. Hence, it is essential to maintain the amplitude of the input signal to the frequency
discriminator. A hard limiter is usually used to eliminate any amplitude variations. A hard limiter
is a device which limits the output signal to (say) +1 or -1 volt. Figure 3.12 shows the input-output
characteristic of a hard limiter.

Figure 3.12: Input-output characteristic of a hard limiter.

3.9.1.1. Zero-Crossing Detection.

We have seen that a hard limiter is usually used to eliminate any amplitude fluctuation. The
message signal must therefore be contained in the points where the angle-modulated signal crosses
the zero voltage level. This produces a means of demodulating an angle-modulated signal.
Consider the angle-modulated signal as shown in Figure 3.13.

Figure 3.13: Frequency determination.

Let t1 and t2 be two adjacent zero-crossing points, where t2 > t1. Integrating equation (4), we have
t2 t2

 d (t )   2f (t )dt.......... .......... ................... .......... .......... .......... ..... 47

t1 t1
i

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t2 dm(t )
 [2f c  k p ]dt, forPM
t dt
 (t 2 )   (t1 )  t1 .......... .......... .......... ..... 48

2

 [2f c  k f m(t )]dt, forFM

 t1
But also (t2) - (t1) = 
For fc >> B (the bandwidth of the message signal), dm(t)/dt for PM signals and m(t) for FM signals
change much more slowly than fc. dm(t)/dt and m(t) may be assumed constant in the interval t2 -
t1. We can write
 dm(t )
[2f c  k p dt ](t 2  t1 ), forPM
2 
  fi (t ) .......... .......... .......... ..... 49
[2f c  k f m(t )](t 2  t1 ), forFM

 2f i ( t )

  2f i (t )(t 2  t1 )
1
f i (t )  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... 50
2(t 2  t1 )
Where
 1 dm(t )
 f c  2 k p dt , forPM
f i (t )   .......... .......... .......... .......... ...51
f  1
k m(t ), forPM
 c 2 f

Knowing the values of fc, kp and kf, the desired signal m(t) may be found by measuring the spacing
between zero crossings in the interval t2 - t1. A detector utilizing this technique is called a zero-
crossing detector. For demodulation of PM signals, we simply integrate the output of a
zerocrossing detector. Again, this yields a signal which is proportional to m(t).

In practice, we consider counting n number of zero-crossings in a time interval T, where

1 1
 T  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..... 52
fc B

and B is the bandwidth of the message signal. This is shown in Figure 3.14.

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Figure 3.14: Counting intervals.

Then, the number of zero crossings in a time interval T is

T
n
2(t 2  t t1 )
n
 f i (t )......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...... 53
T

3.10 Noise Suppression Ef ects of FM

Noise is interference generated by lightning, motors, automotive ignition systems, and any power
line switching that produces transient signals. Such noise is typically narrow spikes of voltage with
very high frequencies. They add to a signal and interfere with it. The potential effect of such noise
on an FM signal is shown in Fig. 3.15. If the noise signals were strong enough, they could
completely obliterate the information signal. FM signals, however, have a constant modulated
carrier amplitude, and FM receivers contain limiter circuits that deliberately restrict the amplitude
of the received signal. Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM signal are effectively clipped
off, as shown in Fig. 3.15.

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Introduction to communication preparesd by G/medhn wubet

This does not affect the information content of the FM signal, since it is contained solely within
the frequency variations of the carrier. Because of the clipping action of the limiter circuits, noise
is almost completely eliminated. Even if the peaks of the FM signal itself are clipped or flattened
and the resulting signal is distorted, no information is lost. In fact, one of the primary benefits of
FM over AM is its superior noise immunity. The process of demodulating or recovering an FM
signal actually suppresses noise and improves the signal-to-noise ratio

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