EIGHTH EDITION

easy
writer
S
with Exercises

Andrea A. Lunsford
macmillan
learning
 U[ Brief Contents
QUICK START MENU i STYLE: EFFECTIVE LANGUAGE
How This Book Can Help You <
Language and Identity
WRITING PROCESSES Writing across Cultures,
Communities, and Identities
A Writer’s Opportunities 2 Language That Builds
A Writer’s Choices 7 Common Ground
Exploring, Planning, and Drafting 10 Language Varieties
Making Design Decisions 17 Word Choice
= Reviewing, Revising, and Editing
uRWN 24
STYLE: EFFECTIVE SENTENCES
Top Twenty Tips for Editing
Your Academic Writing 27, Varying Sentences 278
6 Sharing and Reflecting on Consistency and Completeness
Your Writing 38 Coordination and Subordination
Conciseness
CONTEXTS FOR WRITING,
READING, AND SPEAKING Parallelism
Shifts
Learning from Low-Stakes
Writing 42 GRAMMAR
Reading and Listening Analytically,
Critically, and Respectfully 44 Verbs and Verb Phrases
Arguing Ethically and Persuasively 51 Nouns and Noun Phrases
Writing in a Variety of Subject-Verb Agreement
Disciplines and Genres 67 Adjectives and Adverbs
Creating Presentations 81 Modifier Placement
Pronouns
Prepositions and
12 Conducting Research 88 Prepositional Phrases
13 Evaluating Sources and Comma Splices and Fused
Taking Notes 96 Sentences
14 Integrating Sources and Sentence Fragments
Avoiding Plagiarism WS
15 Writing a Research Project 120 PUNCTUATION / MECHANICS

40 Commas 354
16 MLA Style 124 41 Semicolons 365
e List of examples: In-text 42 End Punctuation 367
citations 130 43 Apostrophes 370
e List of examples: Works cited 136 44 Quotation Marks 373
17 APA Style 174 45 Other Punctuation 377
e List of examples: In-text 46 Capital Letters 384
citations 178 47 Abbreviations and Numbers 387
e List of examples: References 182 48 Italics and Hyphens 390
18 Chicago Style 212
@ List of examples: Notes and
GLOSSARY OF USAGE 395
bibliographic entries 216 INDEX/ GLOSSARY OF TERMS 405
19 CSE Style 235 LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND CONTEXT 444
® List of examples: References 238 DETAILED CONTENTS 445
Find your assignment, and then start with the advice and examples
listed here.
+& indicates content only in Achieve with EasyWriter.

13h Creating an annotated 13i Annotated bibliography

bibliography entries

9 Arguing Ethically and 9g Argument essay

Persuasively (L.J. Bryan)

7b Types of low-stakes 3K Reflective blog post

assignments (Thanh Nguyen)
10d Choosing genres for
public writing

? 8e Analyzing 3K Film analysis (Amrit Rao)

9e Making an argument

2c Considering audiences sé Cover letter (Nastassia

Lopez)
4b Choosing appropriate
formats 3K Résumé (Megan Lange)
9e Making an argument

10a Recognizing expectations 10e Chemistry lab report

of academic disciplines (Allyson Goldberg)
~ 10c Adapting genre structures

8 Reading and Listening 10e Excerpts from a close

Analytically, Critically, and reading of poetry (Bonnie
Respectfully Sillay)
10 Writing in a Variety of
Disciplines and Genres
16 MLAStyle
4 Making Design Decisions 10e Samples in a variety
of disciplines and genres
10 Writing in a Variety of
[Poster, web page, comic]
Disciplines and Genres

6c Reflecting on your own 6d Reflection James Kung)

work

4 Making Design Decisions 3& 6d Portfolio cover letter

(James Kung)
6b Creating a portfolio
 _ 4c Choosing visuals and 10e Poster (Hebron Warren)
media
ir*. =* > | 4d Using visuals and media
— ethically
_ 10d Choosing genres for
public writing

11 Creating Presentations 3~ 11h Excerpts from a

presentation (Shuqiao
Song)

9 Arguing Ethically and 3 Pitch package (Deborah

Persuasively Jane and Jamie Burke)
SK Research proposal (Tara
Gupta)

9 Arguing Ethically and 9g Research-based

Persuasively argument essay in MLA style
(L.J. Bryan)

**
12-15 Research
16f Research essay in MLA
16 MLA Style (composition
oe
style Uulia Sakowitz)
and literature)
17e Research essay in APA
17 APA Style (social sciences)
e * style (Martha Bell)
18 Chicago Style (history and
> ae 18d _Research essay (excerpt)
the arts)
in Chicago style (Amanda
19 CSE Style (sciences) Rinder)
3~ Complete papers in
history and science

8d Summarizing 8f Rhetorical analysis

(Cameron Hauer)
8e Analyzing
9e Making an argument

1b Using social media wisely 10e Fundraising web page

(Wustin Dart)
4 Making Design Decisions
10d Choosing genres for
public writing

8d Summarizing 3& Summary of an assigned

reading (Samyuktha
Comandur)

4c Choosing visuals and 10e Samples in a variety

media of disciplines and genres
[Poster, web page, comic]
4d Using visuals and media
ethically
 EIGHTH EDITION

easy
writer
with Exercises

Andrea A. Lunsford
STANFORD UNIVERSITY

Coverage for multilingual writers with

Paul Kei Matsuda Christine M. Tardy

ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

aa bedford/st.martin’s
Macmillan Learning
Boston |New York
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Copyright © 2022, 2019, 2016, 2014 by Bedford/St. Martin’s.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
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permitted in writing by the Publisher.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2021943297
ISBN: 978-1-319-39334-2

Printed in China.

1b Pe Sie er oe) PAS os) IES PoBY I) FAA

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Text acknowledgments and copyrights appear below. Art acknowledgments and copyrights
appear on the same page as the art selections they cover.
“Music Instruction Aids Verbal Memory” [press release]. Copyright © 2003 American
Psychological Association. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved.
 How This Book Can Help You

A Note from the Author

The eighth edition of EasyWriter comes to you at a critical moment,
when the country and the world continue to recover from a pan-
demic that has cost millions of lives and to grapple with the devas-
tating effects of climate change on communities everywhere. It also
comes at a time of ongoing struggle against systemic racism and a
deep divisiveness fueled by the onslaught of misinformation and
false and misleading news. And finally, it arrives when students
(and teachers) are still experiencing the effects of altered learning
conditions and all the challenges associated with them.
These times call—perhaps more than ever before—for all of us
not to retreat or give up but to make our voices heard even as we
listen respectfully and carefully to the voices of others. In short,
this situation calls on all of us to be engaged—as writers, as speak-
ers, as thinkers, as contributors to an open and fair society. And
EasyWriter is here to help you achieve that goal—to get engaged
with your own writing and ideas, engaged with other people, and
engaged with the world around you.
This kind of engagement calls on you to examine your own val-
ues and to be aware of your own biases or ways of seeing—and to
become a strong critical reader who can check facts like a pro and
distinguish whether information is true, false, or manipulated (see
Chapters 8 and 13 on reading and evaluating texts). Constructive
engagement also calls on you to listen openly to a wide range of per-
spectives, to understand that sometimes you might be wrong, to be
open to changing your mind, and to practice ethical and empathetic
communication (see Chapter 1, “A Writer’s Opportunities”).This
new edition of EasyWriter will guide you as you practice expressing
yourself clearly, persuasively, and ethically. In this book, you'll find
helpful advice about how to be an effective listener, writer, speaker,
and reader—all in a small package that we’ve worked hard to make
friendly and easy to use. In Achieve, the new digital platform, you'll
be an active and engaged learner who will see progress over time as
you read and write and interact with others.
vi How This Book Can Help You

Being an effective communicator means taking a rhetorical

approach to learning, one that focuses on understanding and con-
necting to audiences across a wide spectrum of differences. The
major tool we have for such communication is language, and in par-
ticular the English language. EasyWriter will remind you that there
are many forms and dialects of English, many based on regional or
ethnic varieties, and that all forms of English are vital and valid.
Expressing your ideas in Black English, Cajun English, the English
of the Pacific Northwest, or some other form is a decision you will
make based on purpose, audience, genre, and message. One form
of English, sometimes called American Standard and referred to
in this text as standardized English, is one that no one grows up
speaking. Standardized English is not a traditional dialect like the
one you use in your home community, but a set of patterns that
have been sanctioned over time—that is, made standard—by schools,
government, business, and other institutions and that call for com-
mon communication across differences. Where you go to school,
your instructors may expect you to write and speak in standardized
English.
That doesn’t mean you shouldn’t think critically about these
expectations. As linguist Max Weinreich pointed out long ago,
such a “standard” language is a “dialect with an army and a navy.”
That is to say, standardized English is the language of the power-
ful. However, it is important to understand how such a “dialect
with an army and a navy” has worked to empower and privilege
some and to disempower and silence others. That has certainly
been the case in the United States, from the efforts of the earli-
est colonists—white people from Europe—who founded colleges to
teach English to the indigenous peoples and force them to speak
it, to the attempts to withhold literacy from enslaved peoples, to
the dismissal of regional, ethnic, and even occupational dialects as
“substandard.” Anyone who has been penalized or made fun of for
the way they speak has felt this bias.
EasyWriter respects the validity and beauty of all forms of
English, and is itself written in what I hope is a fairly informal,
user-friendly version of “standardized” English—that is, a version
characterized by features that can be understood by speakers of a
wide range of dialects and languages. But the text aims to be inclu-
sive, to promote language awareness, and to welcome and value
all voices and all audiences. Part 5, “Style: Effective Language,”
 How This Book Can Help You vii

includes a new chapter on language and identity and new examples

that experiment with language. And Chapters 22 and 36 present
more inclusive guidelines for pronouns. The entire book is stronger
thanks to a number of very generous advisers (see p. xiv) who have
shared so much of their knowledge and wisdom with me.
The eighth edition of EasyWriter can help you to use language
and rhetoric responsibly, ethically, and effectively—and to become
the engaged writer and citizen you want to be. In challenging and
changing times, EasyWriter aims to be a friendly guide that helps
you find and use your voice in order to, in the words of civil rights
icon John Lewis, “[s]tand up, speak up, speak out” for what you
believe in.
Andrea A. Lunsford

New to This Edition

Readers who are familiar with previous editions of EasyWriter will
notice the following changes.

EA Achie4% © is an exciting and comprehensive set of inter-

connected teaching and assessment tools. It integrates the most
effective elements from the Bedford/St. Martin’s digital content
you may be familiar with (LaunchPad and LearningCurve) with
writing tools built for engagement and based on research—all in a
powerful, easy-to-use platform that works for face-to-face, remote,
and hybrid learning scenarios.

* Superior content you trust. Andrea Lunsford’s approach and

advice are evident in the interactive e-book, engaging video
tutorials, adaptive quizzes, and more—all designed to deliver a
coherent learning experience and to make prep, practice, and
review easy.
Writing tools that keep writing and revision at the center of
your course. Achieve with EasyWriter gives teachers deeper
visibility into students’ writing processes to target instruction
and feedback and help writers grow across drafts, across assign-
ments, and across courses. Students do the work of the course
vi ii How This Book Can Help You

€& Argument Essay,

SOUcaTOna byte nevertnelets leaves YOUNG peace l-cregsredtoiret Ine chankengen cf

It rai ion) In Pes.Naw York Tes ects TrNot about Yoo *Brock) musteates excessive
SUpeNEUoN and atcceireiea Ine ouaMEt rezone Bf OppaRiNg proclers = Mabinga Thesh Statement Substantive,
YOUR? PROD S eeryRED ADU Mle wfwth men Dacemes less of 2 mabueal progression than 39 Grounded,sedAssertive
CURT PRIROM Bn, SRBONSS AUNTS Gis heREE CRON NORTE
B tess eB00K = NOTTMOOK
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© Needs Work
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renee
Statement
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narvcunity, Ol Bateshis conclumansmore gngenera cosécratens ‘nan on specie tacts eur thesis taobred, Concer some
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Mese Gays" Where ee wel the writer wants resders to
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ef you" Oem orommier, foBOw jou dreams and Sind yourvel!” ASIHOUDH moving GORD It clearly expresses the writer's
attitude toward the topic. Iris
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side: Motives: BrOcks's argument Wsabtonisrangy Short OnGxtemTal SoUrGES. He Ces RO thsi
[DaLUS YorClassGochas“Esyears arememoers of herestsupervees peers Readers want to comprehend

in Ammeacaa histcry”6 Rast BYECESHAD yOUNg pROHE CONT

ROOKInsice and then plan B Me, the material quickly Ifthey are
Frenetpoingtounethesleesback familiar with the claim, they
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because. ave unlikely to read the rest of
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48 too obvious, readers will not
See its value, A thesis has to
convince readers that they will

Commenting tools allow you to focus your feedback on Draft Goals and link to relevant
e-book content.

€ Asgument Essay

Draft 1 Feosback |

Revision Plan for Final Paper

~ My Revision Plan

Use this space to create tasks you want to address as you revise your writing. Use the draft goals for this assignment to help you organize
and priasitize your revision tasks and enswre you've addressed all the goals for this assignment.

Actiontern
Ey Visit thewriting center No draft goal ¥

aeF Narrow
mythesis

Find better evidence to support

thisclaim

> improve the link between this source and my main idea

|Goto office hourd No draft goal +

+ Add another note

The Revision Plan tool helps writers turn feedback into concrete revision strategies,

in a contained and active writing space that promotes revision,

reflection, and review.
* Assignments that make your life easier. A flexible assignment
building tool allows you to assign ready-made writing prompts—
all customizable—or create your own. You can tailor the fol-
lowing assignments to fit your needs: Analysis, Annotated
bibliography, Argument, Narrative, Reflection, and Research.
 How This Book Can Help You ix

¢ Diagnostics and study plans that give students ownership.

Diagnostic tests for reading and sentence skills establish a base-
line for student performance, promote personalized learning,
and point students to actionable study plans that build skills and
confidence.
Source Check plagiarism prevention that teaches. This tool
helps students become more responsible and ethical research
writers. It allows students to scan their work for potential
plagiarism before they submit it for review, allowing students to
learn academic habits and citation practices in the context of
their own writing.
Reports and insights that inform your teaching. An innova-
tive dashboard highlights student engagement, opportunities
for intervention, and both whole-class and individual progress
toward goals.

Advisory Board for Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) To

meet the moment—and especially the calls for social and linguis-
tic justice that echoed throughout 2020—we worked with a board
of advisers (see p. xiv), writing teachers from two- and four-year
schools who helped us ensure that students from all backgrounds
can see themselves and their experiences represented in their hand-
book. This generous group shared their expertise from the classroom,
from scholarship, and from lived experience and made suggestions
for changes throughout the book. Their mighty and meaningful
efforts helped us to promote critical language awareness, respect,
and inclusion in the eighth edition and to fight racism, linguicism,
and discrimination in course materials for college students.

Emphasis on being an open-minded learner Based on new

research with college writers and teachers of writing, a new Chapter 1,
“A Writer’s Opportunities,” provides a framework for developing the
habits of open-minded readers, writers, listeners, and speakers. A new
approach invites students to expect and engage difference and provides
strategies for communicating respectfully with others.

New strategies for lateral reading, critical thinking, and fact-

checking Writing with sources is a foundational skill for col-
lege, and too many students arrive with little experience in finding
X How This Book Can Help You

Lateral Reading

Author Search | Sponsor

OK? result OK?

Is this Search
info result
credible?
Facts? Purpose?
Relevance? Bias?

Lateral reading is a smart new way to evaluate sources (see 13c).

sources, questioning the sources they read online, and approaching

them with skepticism. New advice for lateral reading and evaluat-
ing sources and revised tips for fact-checking (see Chapter 8 and
sections 13a-d) help students respond to the information and mis-
information in news sources and in social media—and help them
balance open-mindedness and skepticism as they evaluate sources.
New advice in 12d and e encourages students to seek out sources
they might have otherwise overlooked.

Broader presentation of language use Grounded in an under-

standing of “standardized” English as the traditional language of
power and access in the United States, EasyWriter coaches students
in following, experimenting with, and sometimes even resisting
conventions—and in respecting English in all of its forms and dia-
lects. A new chapter on Language and Identity (Chapter 20)
helps students think more openly and carefully about the language
we claim as our own and about language used to label us and oth-
ers. A revised chapter on Language Varieties (Chapter 23) fos-
ters a new openness to translingual composition—with excerpts
from student writing. Attention to gender-neutral pronoun use
(22b, 36b) raises awareness about writing to include rather than to
exclude.
 How This Book Can Help You xi

New visual help for writers Classical argument

and new student essay models i

Get attention

Two new graphic organizers for Show Establish

your common Be fair
creds ground
argument writing help visual learn- State your thesis
ers plan and execute essays (9f).
New student-written analysis, Key debates
es
argument, and research essays (8f, ta

9g, and 16f) provide useful models

and annotations that teach. Reason 1

Reason 2
Evidence*
Srna
Evidence*
Lines of argument
Organize by importance
Reason
(4, etc) 3 Evidence*
New resource for corequisite
composition A new workbook J “whyyourargument isin reader's best
interest; logical and emotional appeals

for developing writers in support Alternative

argument(s)
Alternative
argument(s)
Advantages &
disadvantages

or corequisite composition sections

provides a wide range of activities Conclusion
1
Implications of readers to
What you want

your thesis think, feel, or

to help students practice the skills
and habits they need to be success-
ful academic writers. A Student’s Companion to Lunsford Handbooks
is designed specifically to help underprepared students improve their
reading and writing performance—with material on time manage-
ment and etiquette, substantial coverage of reading strategies, graphic
organizers for visual learners, and more than sixty exercises on writ-
ing, research, and grammar.

What Hasn’‘t Changed

In the eighth edition, you can still
count on rhetorical grounding and an
emphasis on writers’ choices about pur- A Student's
Companion
pose, audience, topic, and style; advice

=Sem/
to Lunsford Handbooks
for writing in different contexts, disci-
plines, and genres; unique coverage of
language and style that helps you think
about where others are “coming from”
in the choices they make and about how
Bedford/St, Martin's
you can communicate across differ-
ences; attention to the challenges of A new resource for corequisite
research, especially evaluating and citing composition
Xi How This Book Can Help You

sources; and a focus on critical thinking and argument that will

help you read a variety of texts and compose effective arguments.
Most importantly, you will see our signature respect for learners
and learning and efforts to empower writers, always.

How to Find Help in the Book

EasyWriter includes convenient menus and features to help you
find what you need.

Brief Contents appear on the inside front cover of the book.

Detailed Contents appear on pages 445-46 and the inside back
cover and show subsections within chapters.
A Quick Start Menu on the first book page points you to advice
and examples to help you with a specific writing project.
The Index/Glossary is an alphabetical list of every topic or con-
cept that’s covered in the book—with definitions of key terms.
Any bold term you see in the book is defined in the index.
Lists of citation examples help you cite your sources responsi-
bly. Each style (MLA, APA, Chicago, and CSE) has its own color-
coded section; look for lists of examples within each section to
find models you can follow. Source maps illustrate the process
of citing common types of sources.
“Language, Culture, and Context” boxes promote language
awareness and offer help for speakers of all kinds of English,
and from all educational and cultural backgrounds.
The Glossary of Usage begins on page 395 and can help you
with commonly confused and misused words.

Welcome, then, to EasyWriter, Eighth Edition. We hope it will be a

faithful companion on your journey through college—and beyond.

Bedford/St. Martin’s Puts You First

From day one, our goal has been simple: to provide inspiring
resources that are grounded in best practices for teaching reading
and writing. For forty years, Bedford/St. Martin’s has partnered
with the field, listening to teachers, scholars, and students about
the support writers need. We are committed to helping every writing
instructor make the most of our resources in any learning scenario.
 How This Book Can Help You xiii

How can we help you?

Our editors can align our resources to your outcomes through
correlation and transition guides for your syllabus. Just ask us.
Our sales representatives specialize in helping you find the right
materials to support your course goals.
Our learning solutions and product specialists help you
make the most of the digital resources you choose for your
course.
Our curriculum solutions team can help you design a custom
product to meet your needs and even deliver a royalty to your
department. You can choose from trade title excerpts with our
MAP program, brief skills chapters from our ForeWords con-
tent, or add original content.
Our Bits blog on the Bedford/St. Martin’s English Community
(community.macmillan.com), which features more than one
hundred posts by Andrea Lunsford, publishes fresh teaching
ideas weekly. You'll also find easily downloadable professional
resources such as Teaching with Lunsford Handbooks and links to
author webinars on our community site.

Contact your Bedford/St. Martin’s sales representative or visit

macmillanlearning.com to learn more.

Ordering Information
Digital
Achieve with EasyWriter (six-month access) ISBN 978-1-319-39327-4
¢ To order Achieve packaged with the print version of EasyWriter,
use ISBN 978-1-319-45879-9
¢ To order Achieve packaged with the print version of EasyWriter
with Exercises, use ISBN 978-1-319-45881-2

Popular e-book formats For details about our e-book partners, visit
macmillanlearning.com/ebooks.

Inclusive Access Enable every student to receive their course mate-

rials through your LMS on the first day of class. Macmillan Learn-
ing’s Inclusive Access program is the easiest, most affordable way
XIV. How This Book Can Help You

to ensure all students have access to quality educational resources.

Find out more at macmillanlearning.com/inclusiveaccess.

Print
¢ EasyWriter, Eighth Edition ISBN 978-1-319-24422-4
¢ EasyWriter with Exercises, Eighth Edition ISBN 978-1-319-39334-2
¢ A Student’s Companion to Lunsford Handbooks
ISBN 978-1-319-33328-7

Contact your Bedford/St. Martin’s sales representative for addi-

tional pricing and packaging information.

Meet Our Advisory Board for Diversity, Equity,

and Inclusion
The following fellow teachers of writing worked with us to make
sure students can see themselves and their experiences represented
in the eighth edition, to review terminology, to promote critical
language awareness, to promote inclusion and openness, and to
develop a resource that can be part of the antiracist teaching of
writing. We are grateful to them for sharing themselves with us.

Kendra N. Bryant, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical

State University
Javier Duefias, Miami Dade College, North
Symmetris Jefferson Gohanna, Calhoun Community College
David F. Green, Howard University
Jamila Kareem, University of Central Florida
Esther Milu, University of Central Florida
Kristin vanEyk, University of Michigan

See our catalog page for EasyWriter to learn more about our board
members.
 How This Book Can Help You XV

Thank You, Reviewers and Student Writers

Reviewers Mindy Helen Adams, Texas State University; Mark
Baker, University of California-Santa Cruz; Rob J. Brault, Winona
State University; Maya Brown, American University; Sandra Cooper,
College of Central Florida; William Donohue, Lincoln University
of Pennsylvania; Kegan Doyle, Kwantlen Polytechnic University;
Michael Garcia Juelle, Florida International University; Brian C.
Graves, University of North Carolina, Asheville; Cantice Greene,
Clayton State University; Wanda Grimes, Volunteer State Commu-
nity College; Donald Hettinga, Calvin College; Craig Hulst, Grand
Valley State University; Alexandra Kay, Orange County Commu-
nity College; Danielle Lanigan, Cape Fear Community College;
Leslie Layne, Lynchburg College; David Leight, Reading Area Com-
munity College; Amy Leonard, De Anza College; James McWard,
Johnson County Community College; Dominic Micer, Loyola
University Maryland; Kelly Ormsby, Volunteer State Community
College; Paul J. Patterson, St. Joseph’s University; Lynn Raymond,
University of North Carolina, Charlotte; Sorina Riddle, Coker Col-
lege; Paul Roberts, St. Joseph’s University; Cristie Roe, Phoenix
College; Rita Rozzi, Xavier University; Nina V. Salmon, Lynchburg
College; Jenny Spinner, St. Joseph’s University; Lori Ann Stephens,
Southern Methodist University; Theresa Stowell, Siena Heights Uni-
versity; John Sullivan, San Bernardino Valley College; Thomas Sura,
West Virginia University; Sabrina Vargas Ortiz, Park University; Julie
R. Voss, Lenoir-Rhyne University; Emily Wierszewski, Seton Hill Uni-
versity; Brittany Wilson, Salisbury University; Nancy Wilson, Texas
State University

Student writers Martha Bell, L.J. Bryan, Jamie Burke, Tony Chan,
Samyuktha Comandur, Justin Dart, Paola Garcia-Muniz, Allyson
Goldberg, Tara Gupta, Cameron Hauer, Joanna Hays, Deborah
Jane, Zack Karas, James Kung, Megan Lange, Nastassia Lopez,
Thanh Nguyen, Amrit Rao, Amanda Rinder, Julia Sakowitz, Bon-
nie Sillay, Shugiao Song, Nandita Sriram, Hebron Warren, Shravan
Yandra
XVi_ How This Book Can Help You

Join Our English Community

community.macmillan.com

Author Andrea Lunsford posts to the Community’s Bits blog regu-

larly, offering teaching tips, reading suggestions, observations about
everyday rhetoric, and multimodal moments to trigger your creativ-
ity and transform your teaching.

On Stories, Listening, and... Brains

ji? § andrea_lunsford 02-04-2021 07:00 AM
Author

Over the last few years, I’ve written and spoken often about the power of stories, about
why we “need” stories, and about how the stories we create can lead to narrative justice.
In short, the stories we tell shape realities, and so stories that continually represent a
group of people in negative ways create injustice for the people in that grou ... View more

Composition

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 (be

Writing
Processes

A Writer's Opportunities 2

A Writer’s Choices 7

Exploring, Planning, and Drafting 10

Making Design Decisions 17

Reviewing, Revising, and Editing 24

Top Twenty Tips for Editing Your

Academic Writing 27

Sharing and Reflecting on Your

Writing 38
i 1 A Writer's Opportunities y
What does it mean to be a college student? It means becoming the
self and the thinker and the writer you most want to be. It means
engaging with challenging new ideas and with people who are dif-
ferent from you in many ways. It means not only opening your
books but also opening your mind.
In a time when many writers find themselves in the echo cham-
bers provided by social media—those “bubbles” in which they
encounter only ideas and views like their own—being open-minded
seems especially necessary in order to engage in the kind of respect-
ful civil discourse you can practice as a college writer, speaker, and
thinker.

fa Being open to and engaging difference

Sr)
Whether you go to college in the North, South, East, or West;
whether you attend a predominantly white university, a Hispanic-
serving institution, an HBCU, or a Tribal College or University—or
a two-year college, a small liberal arts college, or a technical college;
whether you come from a conservative or liberal background—or
somewhere in between—you will meet people who come from very
different places, who display a range of cultures and values, who
speak different languages and dialects, and who have ideas different
from your own.
Being open is one way to get the most out of college and learn
from people who are different from you. In fact, openness is one of
eight key abilities the authors of The Framework for Success in Post-
secondary Writing identify as “habits of mind” that support success
in college: openness, curiosity, engagement, creativity, persistence,
responsibility, flexibility, and reflection.

1b Using social media wisely

enn
Social connections today involve so much writing that you prob-
ably write more out of class than in class. On Twitter, for example,
you can compose short bursts of 140 or 280 characters, tagging
content, tweeting at groups and individuals, and pointing toward
 Positioning yourself as an academic writer

links to start discussions, participate in ongoing conversations, and

invite others to join you. But you can also encounter bots and trolls,
mean-spirited “haters,” even stalkers. That’s why Steve Kerr, head
coach of the Golden State Warriors, suggests paying careful atten-
tion to what you write and to whom and always remembering that
there’s a person on the other side of that message who deserves
fairness and respect. And think twice about information you get
from social media: spreading rumors and false information is as
easy—and as dangerous—as a retweet. Most of all, keep in mind that
being an ethical writer, reader, and thinker calls for being respon-
sible for what you post, being skeptical of what you read on social
media, and making sure any information you pass on or retweet is
reliable and honest. Be careful not to spread what might be rumor,
libel, or lies.

ay Dec 27, 2019

Replying to
Sheeple who buy into the plastic bag hoax are as dumb as the ones
who buy into the global warming hoax.

@) ran) ) ct
Wc: AE Dec 27, 2019
Replying to
As we realize the disastrous effects of single use plastics, like
shopping bags, it's perfectly reasonable to change our shopping
habits.

Single-use initially changed the market and the way we shop, now
that we know its impacts we can find ways to shop/produce better.

>) TQ go &
Disagreements are common on social media; some users insult and
point fingers while others use reason.

{1c Positioning yourself as an academic writer ie)

ey
You may not be as familiar with academic writing as you are with
social media writing, and perhaps you aren’t used to writing lengthy
texts or carrying out extensive research. College writing will require
 1c A Writer's Opportunities

you to face new challenges—you may be asked to create a persuasive

website or infographic or to research, write, and deliver an argu-
ment that you then transform into a multimedia presentation. And
if you grew up speaking and writing in other languages, the transi-
tion to producing college work in the dominant standardized Eng-
lish dialect can pose opportunities as well as challenges.
Authority To establish authority, assume that your well-reasoned
opinions and your lived experience count and that your audience
expects you to present them fairly. Show your familiarity with the
ideas and works of others, both from the assigned course reading
and from good points your instructor and classmates have made.

WY Checklist
Expectations for U.S. Academic Writing
While there is certainly no one single “correct” style of
communication, and what is considered “good” writing differs
from field to field, several features are often associated with U.S.
standardized or academic English, a variety of the language that
comes from and privileges Western European practices.
v Considers purpose and audience carefully, making sure that
the topic is appropriate to both. (2a-c)
Vv States a claim or thesis explicitly, and supports it with evidence
and authorities of various kinds. (3b)
v Carefully documents all sources, including visual ones.
(Chapters 16-19)
Vv Makes explicit links between ideas. (3e)
Uses the level of formality that is appropriate for the
audience and purpose. (24a)
Uses formats favored by scholars in academic genres.
(Chapter 10)
Uses widely accepted conventions of grammar, spelling,
punctuation, and mechanics. (Chapters 31-48)
Uses an easy-to-read type size and typeface and conventional
margins. For print projects, double-spaces text. Considers
those who may use screen readers. (4b)
 Positioning yourself as an academic writer

Directness and clarity Research for this book confirms that read-
ers depend on writers to organize and present their material—using
sections, paragraphs, sentences, arguments, details, and source cita-
tions—to aid understanding. Traditional academic writing offers a
clear thesis, prepares readers for what is coming next, provides defi-
nitions, and includes topic sentences.
To achieve directness in your writing, try the following strategies:

¢ State your main point early and clearly. Academic writing may call
for an explicit claim or thesis (3b and 9e).
¢ Avoid overqualifying your statements. Instead of writing I think the
facts reveal, come right out and say The facts reveal.
¢ Avoid unnecessary digressions. When you use an anecdote or
example from personal experience, be sure it relates directly to the
point you are making.
¢ Use appropriate evidence and authorities of various kinds to sup-
port each point you make (3c). Carefully document all of your
sources, including visuals and media.
¢ Make explicit links between ideas (3e). The first sentence of a new
paragraph should reach back to the paragraph before and then look
forward to what comes next.
¢ Follow clear, easy-to-follow organizational patterns.

While these features of academic style will most often be expected

by your instructors, remember that they are not “better” than other
styles you might choose. Indeed, the academic styles and practices
of other cultures are not only valid but also powerful and can be
used appropriately and effectively.

Active, respectful reading and listening Your instructors will

expect you to be an active reader, one who is curious and talks
back to texts and topics. They will also expect you to be an active
and attentive listener who respects the perspectives of others and
is open to new and challenging ideas. And remember that stat-
ing your own informed opinions doesn’t mean you are combative:
just as you listen respectfully to others, they will be expected to
listen respectfully to you. So try to understand what others are
saying before drawing conclusions about what they have said,
and remember to practice empathy by looking at the issue from
 A Writer's Opportunities

the other person’s or author’s point of view, trying to understand

where they are coming from and why they are making certain
points. Indeed, as inclusion of perspectives and experiences from
many cultures is increasingly important, you may find that you
want to go beyond primarily white American and European schol-
ars and authors to seek out the expertise of people from many
different backgrounds and cultures.

Answer the following questions about expectations for col-

EXERCISE 1.1 ee
lege writing.

1. How do you define good college writing? Make a list of the characteris-
tics you come up with. Then make a list of what you think your instruc-
tors’ expectations are for good college writing, and note how they may
differ from yours. Do you need to alter your ideas about good college
writing to meet your instructors’ expectations? Why, or why not?
2. Research for this book suggests that many students today define good
writing as “writing that makes something happen.” That is, they see
writing as active and performative, as doing something. Would that match
your definition or that of your instructors? What might account for the
differences—and the similarities—between students’ and instructors’
definitions and lists?

1d Collaborating with others

Cae

Student writers are collaborating more and more with other writers,
for class assignments as well as for writing online and on the job.
Since you will need to work well with others not only during college
but also in your work life, pay attention to what makes for success-
ful collaboration. Here are some strategies:

* Make sure every writer has an equal opportunity—and responsibility—

to contribute.
Exchange contact information, and plan face-to-face meetings (if
any).
Pay close attention to each writer’s views. Expect disagreement, and
remember that the goal is to listen to each view fairly and to discuss
all possibilities.
¢ Pay close attention to each writer’s style of communication,
and expect differences: silence may not necessarily mean
lack of engagement or interest but rather very close attention;
 Considering the assignment and purpose

speaking in loud tones can mean intense interest rather than

hostility.
If you are preparing a document collaboratively, divide up the drafting
duties and set reasonable deadlines. Work together to iron out the
final draft, aiming for consistency of tone. Proofread together, and
have one person make corrections.
Take advantage of free software such as Google Drive to share files,
edit documents collaboratively, and track changes.
Give credit where credit is due: acknowledge all members’ contribu-
tions as well as any help you receive from outsiders.

a 2 AWriter’s Choices ee
As a college writer (in and out of class), you are responsible for the
messages you send and the projects, reports, summaries, reviews,
and other assignments you produce. And part of that responsibility
calls for recognizing the full context in which any piece of writing
or message exists, often called its rhetorical situation. Once you
explore the rhetorical situation—the audience and purpose; your
own stance as author; the genre, media, and particular formats—of
a piece of writing, you are in a much better position to make choices
that will allow you to shape the message and get it across to those
you want to reach.

2a Considering the assignment and purpose

Ce)
For writing you do for personal reasons or for work, you may have a
clear purpose in mind. But even in those instances, analyzing what
you want to accomplish and why can help you communicate more
effectively.
An academic assignment may explain why, for whom, and about
what you are supposed to write, or it may seem to come out of the blue.
In any case, comprehending the assignment is crucial to your success,
so make every effort to understand what your instructor expects.
¢ What is the primary purpose of your writing—to persuade? to
explain? to entertain? something else?
 A Writer’s Choices

¢ What purpose did the instructor want to achieve—to test your

understanding? to evaluate your thinking and writing abilities? to
encourage you to think outside the box?
¢ What, exactly, does the assignment ask you to do? Look for words such
as analyze, explain, prove, and survey. Remember that these words may
differ in meaning from discipline to discipline and from job to job.

2b Choosing a topic
a
Experienced writers say that the best way to choose a topic is to let
it choose you. Look to topics that compel, puzzle, or pose a problem
for you: these are likely to engage your interests and hence produce
your best writing.

* Can you focus the topic enough to write about it effectively in the
time and space available?
¢ What do you know about the topic? What else do you need to
learn?
e What seems most important about it?
* What do you expect to conclude about the topic? (Remember, you
may change your mind.)

For information on exploring a topic, see 3a.

2c Considering audiences
a)
Every communicator can benefit from thinking carefully about who
the audience is, what the audience already knows or thinks, and
what the audience needs and expects to find out. As an effective
communicator, you’ll want to be able to write for a variety of audi-
ences, using language, style, and evidence appropriate to particular
readers, listeners, or viewers. Even if your text can theoretically
reach people all over the world, focus your analysis on those you
most want or need to reach and those likely to take an interest.

¢ What audience do you most want to reach—people who are already

sympathetic to your views? people who disagree with you? If you
are writing or speaking to people who disagree with you, make sure
that you attend carefully, openly, and respectfully to their views.
 Considering stance and tone

¢ In what ways are the members of your audience different from you?
from one another? What do you know about their abilities/disabilities
that might have an effect on how they receive and understand your
message?
¢ What assumptions can you legitimately make about the audience?
What might they value—brevity, originality, deference, honesty, wit?
How can you understand and appeal to their values?
What sorts of information and evidence will your audience find
most compelling—quotations from experts? stories or narratives?
personal experiences? statistical data? images?
How can you build common ground with your audience? How can
you make clear what you want your audience to think, feel, or do?

Write a brief description of a college course for three different

EXERCISE 2.1
audiences: a best friend, your parents, and some high
schoolers attending an open house at your college. Then describe how the
differences in audience led you to different choices in content, organization,
and wording.

2d Considering stance and tone

RRB
Knowing your own stance (where you are coming from) can help
you connect effectively with your audience. What is your overall
attitude toward the topic—approval? disapproval? curiosity? What
social, political, religious, or other factors account for your attitude?
Be especially aware of any preconceptions about your topic that may
affect your stance.
Your purpose, audience, and stance will help to determine the
tone your writing should take. Should it be humorous? serious?
impassioned? Think about ways to show that you are knowledgeable
and trustworthy. Remember, too, that visual and audio elements can
influence the tone of your writing as much as the words you choose.
Considering stance and tone often requires you to examine your
own assumptions and biases, or characteristic ways of looking at
the world. It’s impossible not to have biases, since it’s impossible
to see all points of view or every angle of every argument. We may
be able to stand on the shoulders of giants, but our view will still
be partial and limited. It’s particularly important to watch out for
10 Exploring, Planning, and Drafting

confirmation bias—the tendency to favor or find credible informa-

tion that we already agree with or that confirms what we already
believe. In your writing in college, take every opportunity to try to
view things with as little bias as possible.

2e Considering time, genre, medium, and format

eam
Many other elements of your context for a particular writing project
will shape the final outcome.

¢ How much time will you have for the project? Do you need to do
research or learn unfamiliar technology? Allow time for revision
and editing.
¢ What genre does your purpose call for—a review? an argument
essay? a lab report? a blog post? Study examples to learn the con-
ventions of the genre.
¢ In what medium will the text appear—on the open Internet? on a
password-protected website? in a print essay? in a presentation?
Will you use images, video, or audio?
¢ What kind of organization should you use?
¢ How will you document your sources? Will your audience expect a
particular documentation style (see Chapters 16-19)? Should you
embed links?

{ 3 Exploring, Planning, and Drafting >

One student I know defines drafting as the time in writing “when
the rubber meets the road.” As you explore your topic, decide on a
thesis, organize materials to support that central idea, and sketch
out a plan, you have already begun the drafting process.

3a_ Exploring a topic

emu
Among the most important parts of the writing process are choos-
ing a topic (2b), exploring what you know about it, and determining
 Developing a working thesis 11

what you need to find out. The following strategies can help you
choose and explore your topic:

Use the language or dialect most familiar and useful to you during
your exploration.
When you get to choose your topic, look for one that grabs and
holds your interest; writing about topics that are of great interest to
you usually results in better writing.
Brainstorm. Write key words and phrases about the topic and see
what they prompt you to think about further. Then try out these
ideas on friends or your instructor.
Freewrite without stopping for ten minutes to see what insights or
ideas you come up with. You can also “freespeak” by recording your
thoughts on your phone or another device.
Draw or make word pictures about your topic.
Try clustering—writing your topic on a sheet of paper and then
writing related thoughts near the topic idea. Circle each idea or
phrase, and draw lines to show how ideas are connected.
Ask questions about the topic: How is it defined? What caused it?
What is it like or unlike? What larger system is the topic a part of?
What do people say about it? Or choose the journalist’s questions:
Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?
Browse sources to find out what others say about the topic.

3b Developing a working thesis

ec)
Academic and professional writing in the United States often con-
tains an explicit thesis statement. You should establish a working
thesis early on: while your final thesis may eventually be very dif-
ferent, this working thesis focuses your thinking and research and
helps keep you on track.
A working thesis should have two parts: a topic, which indicates
the subject matter of the writing, and a comment, which makes an
important point about the topic.
> In the graphic novel Fun Home, images and words combine to
make meanings that are subtler than either words alone or
images alone could convey.
_
12 Exploring, Planning, and Drafting

Stating a Thesis
In some cultures, people consider it rude to state an opinion out-
right, preferring a more indirect approach. In the United States,
however, most academic and business practices expect writers to
make key positions explicitly clear.

A successful working thesis has three characteristics:

1. It is potentially interesting to the intended audience.

2. It is as specific as possible.
3. It limits the topic enough to make it manageable.

You can evaluate a working thesis by checking it against each of

these characteristics, as in the following examples:

> Graphic novels combine words and images.

INTERESTING? The topic of graphic novels could be

interesting, but this draft of a working thesis
has no real comment attached to it—instead,
it states a bare fact, and the only place to go
from here is to more bare facts.

> In graphic novels, words and images convey interesting

meanings.

SPECIFIC? This thesis is not specific. What are

“interesting meanings,” exactly? How are
they conveyed?

> Graphic novels have evolved in recent decades to become an

important literary genre.

MANAGEABLE? This thesis would not be manageable for a

short-term project because it would require
research on several decades of history and on
hundreds of novels from all over the world.
 Planning and drafting 13

3c Gathering credible evidence and doing research

ae
Where can you go to locate evidence that is credible and trustwor-
thy, that avoids misinformation and lies, and that is instead based
on facts and valid interpretation? What kinds of evidence will be
most persuasive to your audience and most effective in the field
in which you are working—historical precedents? expert testimony?
statistical data? experimental results? personal experience? narra-
tives or stories? Knowing what kinds of evidence count most in a
particular field will help you make appropriate choices.
If the evidence you need calls for research, determine what
research you need to do:

Make a list of what you already know about your topic.

Keep track of where information comes from so you can return to
your sources later.
Check your source information for accuracy and credibility.
Determine what else you might need to know and where you might
find other credible sources of information (library resources, online
sources, field research).

For more on research and evaluating sources, see Chapters 12-15.

3d Planning and drafting

ae
Sketch out a rough plan for organizing your writing, perhaps simply
beginning with your thesis. Then review your notes, research mate-
rials, and media, and list all the evidence you have to support the
thesis. One informal way to organize your ideas is to figure out what
belongs in your introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion. You
may also want to make (or be required to make) an informal out-
line, which can help you see exactly how the parts of your writing
fit together. (For a sample formal outline, see 15e.)
Thesis statement
I. First main idea
1. First supporting detail or point
2. Second supporting detail, and so on
14 3d Exploring, Planning, and Drafting

II. Second main idea

1. First supporting detail
2. Second supporting detail, and so on
III. Third main idea
1. First supporting detail
2. Second supporting detail
Storyboarding—working out a narrative or argument in visual
form—can also help you come up with an organizational plan. You
can create your own storyboard by using note cards or sticky notes,
taking advantage of different colors to keep track of threads of argu-
ment, subtopics, and so on. Move the cards and notes around, try-
ing out different arrangements, until you find an organization that
works well for your writing situation.

WA Checklist
Drafting
V Set up a folder or file for your essay. Give the file a clear and
relevant name, and save to it often. Date your drafts. If you
decide to try a new direction, save the file as a new draft, but
keep all previous drafts.
VY Have all your information close at hand and arranged accord-
ing to your organizational plan. Stopping to search for a piece
of information can break your concentration or distract you.
V Try to write in stretches of at least thirty minutes. Writing
can provide momentum, and once you get going, the task
becomes easier.
VY Don't let small questions bog you down. Make a note of them in
brackets or caps—or make a tentative decision and move on.
VY Remember: first drafts aren't perfect. Use the language or
dialect that’s most comfortable for you, and concentrate on
getting your ideas down.
V Stop writing at a place where you know exactly what will
come next. Doing so will help you start easily when you
return to the draft.
 Developing paragraphs i)

No matter how good your planning, investigating, and organizing

have been, chances are you will need to do more work as you draft. The
first principle of successful drafting is to be flexible. If you see that your
plan is not working, alter it. If some information now seems irrelevant,
or perhaps unreliable, leave it out. Very often you will continue plan-
ning, investigating, and organizing throughout the writing process.

3e Developing paragraphs
ast
Three qualities essential to most effective paragraphs are unity,
development, and coherence.

Unity In most college writing, an effective paragraph focuses on

one main idea. You can achieve unity by stating that main idea
clearly in one sentence—the topic sentence—and relating all other
sentences in the paragraph to that idea. Like a thesis (see 3b), the
topic sentence includes a topic and a comment on that topic. A
topic sentence often begins a paragraph, but it may come at the
end—or be implied rather than stated directly.

Development In addition to being unified, a good paragraph

holds readers’ interest and explores its topic fully, using whatever
details, evidence, and examples are necessary. Without such devel-
opment, a paragraph may seem lifeless and abstract.
Most good academic writing backs up general ideas with specifics.
Shifting between the general and the specific is especially important
at the paragraph level. If a paragraph contains nothing but specific
details, its meaning may not be clear to readers—but if a paragraph
makes only general statements, it may seem boring or unconvincing.

Coherence A paragraph has coherence—or flows—if its details

fit together in a way that readers can easily follow. The following
methods can help you achieve paragraph coherence:

* A general-to-specific or specific-to-general organization helps read-

ers move from one point to another.
¢ Repetition of key words or phrases links sentences and suggests that
the words or phrases are important.
¢ Returning to your thesis throughout the paragraph, a variation of
call and response, helps ensure consistency and coherence.
 Exploring, Planning, and Drafting

¢ Parallel structures help make writing more coherent

(see Chapter 29).
¢ Transitions such as for example and however help readers follow
the progression of one idea to the next.

The same methods that you use to create coherent paragraphs

can be used to link paragraphs so that a whole piece of writing flows
smoothly. You can create links to previous paragraphs by repeating
or paraphrasing key words and phrases and by using parallelism and
transitions.
The following sample paragraph from Julia Sakowitz’s research
project (16f), which identifies a topic and a comment on the topic
and then develops the topic with detailed evidence in support
of the point, achieves unity by linking each sentence to the
main topic. It also achieves coherence with a general-to-specific
organization, repetition of key terms and ideas, and transitions
that relate this paragraph to the preceding one and relate sen-
tences to one another.
Transition Another equally important issue stemming from tourism
from
preceding 1S Commercial gentrification, the phenomenon of large chain
paragraph stores and boutiques replacing stores that serve the poor (Zukin
Topic et al. 48). Such changes have long been viewed as positive.
ce ae A low-income neighborhood often lacks necessary retail
Rae infrastructure, instead featuring businesses like used merchandise
outlets, check cashing operations, liquor stores, or job training
Supporting and family services (Hoffman 288). Tourism can encourage
bi middle-class economic activity like supermarkets, commercial
banks, and legal and accounting services, which are as much
needed by low-income residents as wealthier ones (Hoffman 288).
But boutique stores and chain stores can replace services that
might still be needed by the poor, leaving low-income residents
Repetition feeling unwelcome (Zukin et al. 48). Economic gain from new
of key words 5 ‘
and ada businesses also bypasses most Harlem residents: fewer than
(highlighting) half of new retail entrepreneurs are residents, and even those
entrepreneurs who are residents overwhelmingly come from the
newly arrived middle class (Zukin et al. 59).
 Considering design principles a7

Strong Paragraphs
Most readers of English have certain expectations about how
paragraphs work:
V Paragraphs begin and end with information that is important
for the reader.
V The opening sentence is often the topic sentence that tells
what the paragraph is about.
VY The middle of the paragraph develops the idea.
V The end may sum up the paragraph’s contents, closing the dis-
cussion of an idea and anticipating the paragraph that follows.
V A paragraph makes sense as a whole; the words and sentences
are clearly related.
Vv A paragraph relates to other paragraphs around it.

y a Making Design Decisions —

When millions of messages vie for attention, effective design is
especially important: the strongest message may not get through to
its audience if it is presented and designed in a bland or boring way.
In fact, because writers today must also be designers, you will want
to understand and use effective design to make sure you get and
keep your audience’s attention.

4a _ Considering design principles

ED
In designer Robin Williams’s Non-Designer’s Design Book, she identi-
fies four simple principles that are a good starting point for making
any print or digital text more effective.

Contrast Begin with a focal point—a dominant visual or text

that readers should look at first—and structure the flow of other
 Making Design Decisions

information from that point. Use color, boldface or large type, white
space, and so on to set off the focal point.

Alignment Horizontal or vertical alignment of words and visuals

gives a text a cleaner, more organized look. In general, wherever you
begin aligning elements—on the top or bottom, on the right or left,
or in the center—stick with it throughout the text.

Repetition Readers are guided in large part by the repetition of

key words or design elements. Use color, type, style, and other visual
elements consistently throughout a document.

Proximity Parts of a text that are related should be physically

close together (proximate to each other).

These principles can help you create the appropriate overall impres-
sion or mood for your text. For an academic essay, you will probably
make fairly conservative choices that strike a scholarly tone. In a
newsletter for a campus group, you might choose attention-getting
images. In a website designed to introduce yourself to future employers,
you might favor a mix of material drawn from your current résumé,
including writing, embedded video or links to digital content that
relates to your skills and goals, and at least one image of yourself—all
in a carefully organized and easy-to-comprehend structure.

4b Choosing appropriate formats

ees
Think about the most appropriate way to format a document to
make it inviting and readable for your intended audience.

White space Empty space, called “white space,” guides the read-
er’s eyes to parts of a page or screen. Consider white space at the
page level (margins), paragraph level (spacing between paragraphs
or sections), and sentence level (space between lines and between
sentences). You can also use white space around particular content,
such as a graphic or list, to make it stand out.

Color Choose colors that relate to the purpose(s) of your text and
its intended audience.
 Choosing appropriate formats 19

Use color to draw attention to elements you want to emphasize—

such as headings, bullets, boxes, or visuals—and be consistent in
using color throughout your text.
For academic work, use color sparingly to avoid a jumbled or infor-
mal look.
Make sure the colors you choose are readable in the format you’re
using. A color that looks clear onscreen may be less legible in print
or projected on a screen.

Do keep in mind that not everyone will see color as you do. Some
individuals do not perceive color at all.

Type Choose an easy-to-read type size and typeface, and be

consistent in the styles and sizes of type used throughout your proj-
ect. For most college writing, 11- or 12-point type is standard. And
although unusual fonts may seem attractive at first glance, readers
may find them distracting and hard to read over long stretches of
material.

Spacing Final drafts of any printed academic writing should be

double-spaced, with the first line of paragraphs indented one-half
inch. Other documents, such as memos, letters, and web texts, are
usually single-spaced, with a blank line between paragraphs and no
paragraph indentation. Some kinds of documents, such as newslet-
ters, may call for multiple columns of text.

Headings Consider organizing your text with headings that will

aid comprehension. Some genres have standard headings that read-
ers expect.

Distinguish levels of headings using indents along with type. For

example, you might center main headings and align lower-level
headings at the left margin.
Look for the most succinct and informative way to word your
headings. You can state the topic in a single word (Toxicity); in
a noun phrase (Levels of Toxicity) or gerund phrase (Measuring
Toxicity); in a question to be answered in the text (How Can Toxic-
ity Be Measured?); or in an imperative that tells readers what to
20 Making Design Decisions

do (Measure the Toxicity). Structure all headings of the same level

consistently.

@¢€ Choosing visuals and media

aD
Choose visuals and media that will help make a point more vividly
and succinctly than words alone. Consider carefully what you
want visuals, audio, or video to do for your writing. What will
your audience want or need you to show? Choose visuals and
media that will enhance your credibility, allow you to make points
more emphatically, and clarify your overall text. (See pp. 21-22 for
advice on which types of visuals to use in particular situations.)
Effective media content can come from many sources—your own
drawings or recordings you make, as well as audio or video mate-
rials created by others. If your document will be on the web, you
can insert clips that readers can watch and listen to as they read
your text. Such inserts can make powerful appeals: if you are writing
about an ongoing migrant crisis in Europe, for example, a link to a
video clip of people barely surviving in border “camps” may make
the point better than you can do in words. Include such links as you
would other visuals, making sure to provide a caption as well as a
lead-in to the clip and a commentary after it if appropriate. If you
are using media created by someone else, be sure to give appropriate
credit and to get permission before making it available to the public
as part of your work.

Position and identification of visuals and media Position

visuals alongside or after the text that refers to them. In academic
and other formal writing, number your visuals (number tables
separately from other visuals), and provide informative captions.
In some instances, you may need to give readers additional data
such as source information in the caption. Consider using alt-text
to make sure visuals are accessible to all readers.
Consult the sample student texts in Part 4 to see how visuals are
placed and formatted in MLA, APA, Chicago, and CSE styles.
 Choosing visuals and media 21

Type of Visual When to Use It

Pie Chart Use pie charts to compare

parts to the whole.

Bar Graph Use bar graphs or line

graphs to compare
one element with
another, to compare
elements over time, or
to show correlations and
frequency.
Wen
22-24 25-29 30-34
Age

Table United States Use tables to draw

SCHOOL
ENROLLMENT Estimate Percent
attention to detailed
Population 3 years 82,148,370 — numerical information.
and older enrolled U.S. CENSUS BUREAU
in school
Nursery/preschool 4,959,823 6.0
Kindergarten 4,181,764 5.1
Elementary school 32,831,750 40.0
(grades 1-8)
High school 16,985,786 20.7
(grades 9-12)
College or 23,189,247 28.2
graduate school

Diagram Use diagrams to illustrate

textual information or to
point out details of places
or objects described.
NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE

Use photographs to show

particular people, places,
objects, or situations
described in the text to
help readers understand
certain content.
LIBBY WELCH/ALAMY
 Making Design Decisions

Map Lands of federally recognized Use maps to show

tribes in the western U.S. geographical locations
and to emphasize spatial
relationships.
U.S, DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR INDIAN AFFAIRS

Audio or Use links to audio or video

Video material to help readers
see and hear a point you
are making.

Using Visuals
In some cultures, visual elements carry more prominence than
words in many communication situations. In these contexts, the
visual elements communicate as powerfully or even more so than
the words—and the relationship between visual and textual
media iskey to getting the message across. ,

4d using visuals and media ethically

ene
Technical tools available today make it easy to manipulate or “doctor”
images in deceptive ways. As you would with any source material,
carefully assess any visuals and video or audio files you find for accu-
racy as well as effectiveness, appropriateness, and validity.

¢ Check the context in which the visual appears. Is it part of an

official government, school, or library site?
 Wi
Py,
Using visuals and media ethically 4d 23

Does the information you find about the visual or media source
seem believable? If not, be skeptical.
Carry out a reverse image search using Google Images or TinEye to
help you discover whether an image has been altered or manipulated.
If the visual is a chart, graph, or diagram, are the numbers and
labels in it explained? Are the sources of the data given? Will the
visual representation help readers make sense of the information,
or could it mislead them?
Is biographical and contact information for the designer, artist, or
photographer given?

At times, you may make certain changes to visuals and media that
you use, such as cropping an image to show the most important detail,
enhancing sound quality, or brightening a dark image. To ensure that
your alterations to images are ethical, follow these guidelines:
¢ Never mislead readers. Show things as accurately as possible.
* Tell your audience what changes you have made.
¢ Include information about the original visual or media file,
including the source.

SW Checklist
Using Visuals and Media Ethically and Effectively

Y Use visuals and media files as a part of your text, not just as
decoration.
V Tell the audience explicitly what the visual or media file dem-
onstrates, especially if it presents complex information. Do not
assume readers will “read” the material the way you do; your
commentary on it is important.
VY Number and title all of your visuals. Number tables and
figures separately.
V Refer to each visual or media file before it actually appears in
your text.
V Follow established conventions for documenting sources, and
ask permission for use if someone else controls the rights. (14d)
VU Get responses to your visuals and media in an early draft. If read-
ers can’t follow them or are distracted by them, revise accordingly.
VY If you alter a visual or media file, be sure to do so ethically.
 Reviewing, Revising, and Editing

on 5 Reviewing, Revising, and Editing >

After giving your draft a rest, make time to review it by yourself and
with others, to revise, and to edit. Becoming an astute critic of your
own writing will pay off as you get better and better at taking a hard
look at your drafts, revising them thoughtfully, and editing them
with care.

5a Reviewing
amu
Reviewing calls for reading your draft with a critical eye and asking
others to look over your work. Ask classmates or your instructor to
respond to your draft, answering questions like these:

e What do you see as the major point, claim, or thesis?

¢ How convincing is the evidence? What can I do to support my
thesis more fully?
¢ What points are unclear? How can I clarify them?
¢ How easy is it to follow my organization? How can I improve?
¢ What could I do to make my introduction grab the attention of my
audience?
¢ What could I do to make my conclusion stronger?
¢ What can I do to make my draft more interesting?

5b Revising
sae
Approach comments from peer reviewers or from your instructor
in several stages. First, read straight through the comments. Take a
few minutes to digest the feedback and get some distance from your
work. Then make a revision plan in order to prioritize the changes
you need to make as you revise.
Focus on comments about your thesis or point, your audience,
your support, and your organization. Leave any changes to sen-
tences, words, punctuation, and format for later in your process;
your revision of big-picture issues comes first.
 Editing and proofreading

* Make sure that your thesis states the topic clearly and makes a
point about the topic. Revise if your point is unclear or unfo-
cused. If you revise your thesis, revise the rest of the draft
accordingly.
* Make sure that each paragraph relates to or supports the thesis
statement and includes enough detail to support the point you are
making. Eliminate unnecessary material; identify where you need
more examples or explanation.
¢ Make sure your writing progresses logically from point to point.
Look for confusing leaps or gaps, and revise to add transitions if
they would make the writing easier to follow.

Answer the following questions about your reviewing and

EXERCISE 5.1 Te
revising process.

How did you begin reviewing your draft?

2. What kinds of comments on or responses to your draft did you receive?
How helpful were they, and why?
3. How long did revising take? How many drafts did you produce?
4. What kinds of changes did you tend to make? For example, did you
make changes in organization, paragraphs, sentence structure, word-
ing, or adding or deleting information? Did you revise the use of
visuals?
5. What gave you the most trouble as you were revising?
6. What pleased you most? What is your favorite sentence or passage in
the draft, and why?
7. What would you most like to change about your process of revising,
and how do you plan to go about doing so?

5c Editing and proofreading

ED
Once you are satisfied with your revised draft’s big picture, edit your
writing to make sure that every detail is as correct as you can make
it for the readers you plan to share it with (6a).

* Read your draft aloud to “hear” how smoothly it flows and to find
typos.
+ Are your sentences varied in length and in pattern or type?
 Reviewing, Revising, and Editing

Have you used active verbs, vivid word images, and effective figura-
tive language?
Are all sentences complete and correct (unless you are trying for an
effect!) ?
Do any sentences begin with “It is...” or “There was... .”? If so,
revise to delete these “filler” words.
Have you used the spell checker—and double-checked its
recommendations?
What tone do you establish and how does it reflect your stance?
Have you checked for language that might offend or confuse read-
ers? for the use of gender-neutral pronouns? (36b)
Have you chosen an effective design and used fonts, white space,
headings, and color appropriately?
Have you proofread one last time, going word for word?

For more on troubleshooting your writing, see “Top Twenty Tips for
Editing Your Academic Writing” on the following pages.

Answer each of the following questions about your own

EXERCISE 5.2
editing and proofreading process.

What do you look for when editing? What kinds of changes do you tend
to make?
What decisions are most difficult in editing your work?
What patterns of problems, if any, do you tend to notice when you edit
your own work? If you have not yet started an editing and proofreading
checklist, consider beginning one now.
 Top Twenty Tips for Editing
Your Academic Writing

As the poet Nikki Giovanni says, “Mistakes are a fact of life.” So it

is with writing: everyone makes mistakes; some don’t make much
difference, but others keep people from understanding what you’re
saying or don’t reflect your best work. Even writing teachers don’t
mark every little mistake and usually concentrate only on ones that
are distracting or confusing. On top of that, people differ on what
constitutes a “mistake”: research for this book shows that some
instructors view certain mistakes as serious errors and some view
them as stylistic choices and that, in fact, what count as “errors”
changes over time. And on top of that, what is considered correct in
one variety of English is not considered correct in another.
Such differing opinions and changes don’t mean that there is no
such thing as correctness in writing—only that correctness is always
highly contextual, always depends on whether the choices you make
are appropriate to your audience, your purpose, and your topic.
Of course, all writers want to be considered competent, careful,
and compelling. If you are using the dialect of standardized English
most often practiced in college courses, sometimes referred to as the
“language of power” in the United States, you will want to under-
stand and use the conventions of grammar, punctuation, and so
on associated with that dialect—even though such conventions are
constantly and subtly changing. You will also want to understand
how this particular version of English has been used to silence some
groups while privileging others—and you may want to resist or chal-
lenge this form of language, pushing to create other powerful ways
of communicating effectively. (See Chapter 23.)
Which of these conventions seem most troublesome to student
writers today? To find out, we’ve analyzed thousands of pieces of
first-year student writing from all across the country to answer that

27
28 Top Twenty Tips for Editing Your Academic Writing

question and to develop the following Top Twenty Tips. For each
one, we provide brief examples, shown with hand corrections and
cross-references to other places in this book where you will find
more detailed information and examples. And the best news is that
if you learn to use these tips to edit your writing, you’ll take care
of many of the mistakes that can dent your credibility as a writer.
Remember, though, that language conventions of “correctness” are
always changing and that these, like any others, are not set in stone.

AS Checklist

Top Twenty Tips for Editing Your Academic Writing

1 Check for wrong words 29
Use a comma after an introductory element 29
Make sure documentation is complete 30
Check pronoun reference 30
Check for spelling (including homonyms) Sil
Use quotation marks conventionally Si
Avoid unnecessary commas 31
Check for capitalization 32
o©o
WwW
fF
UW
on
on
N Look for missing words 32
Look for confusing sentence structures 32
Use commas with nonrestrictive elements 33
' Avoid unnecessary shifts in verb tense 33)
Use a comma between clauses in a compound sentence 33
Check apostrophes (including its/it’s) 33
Look for fused (run-on) sentences 34
Look for comma splices 34
Check for pronoun-antecedent agreement 34
Integrate quotations smoothly 35
- Check for missing or unnecessary hyphens 35
Check for sentence fragments 35
STKE
SCT
oeTPHSTCSP
SP
BPBouUPTS
TSB
TK
 Top Twenty Tips for Editing Your Academic Writing

1. Check for wrong words

precedence
> Religious texts, for some, take prescience over other kinds of
sources. ay
Prescience means “foresight,” and precedence means “priority.”
allergy
> The child suffered from a severe aHegery to peanuts.
A
Allegory is a spell checker’s replacement for a misspelling of allergy.
of
> The panel discussed the ethical implications en the situation.
“A

Wrong-word errors can involve using a word with the wrong shade
of meaning, using a word with a completely wrong meaning, or
using a wrong preposition or another wrong word in an idiom.
Selecting a word from a thesaurus without knowing its meaning or
allowing a spell checker to correct spelling automatically can lead to
wrong-word errors, so use these tools with care. If you have trouble
with prepositions and idioms, memorize the standard usage. (See
Chapter 24 on word choice and Chapter 37 on prepositions and
idioms.)

The writer means definitely,

Spelling
but the spell checker suggests
Merineny, wrong words.
Ignore | | Ignore All Add

| will definatly defiantly

finish my definably
assignment on time. |

Change [ Change All a

Use a comma after an introductory element

> Determined to get the job done, we worked all weekend.

“a

> Although the study was flawed,n the results may still be useful.

Readers usually need a small pause—signaled y a comma—between

an introductory word, phrase, or clause and'the main part of the
TO ke nm
Cer.
r Se are
30 Top Twenty Tips for Editing Your Academic Writing

sentence. Use a comma after every introductory element. When

the introductory element is very short, you don’t always need a
comma, but including it is never wrong. (See 40a.)

3 Make sure documentation is complete

> Satrapi says, “When we’re afraid, we lose all sense of analysis
(263).
and reflection/”
This quotation comes from a source with page numbers, so a page
number is needed.

> Some experts agree that James Joyce wrote two of the five best
(“100 Best Novels”).
novels of all time/
“A
The source of this information should be identified. The title is given
for a source with no page numbers.

Cite each source you refer to in the text, following the guidelines of
the documentation style you are using. (The preceding examples fol-
low MLA style—see Chapter 16; for other styles, see Chapters 17-19.)
Omitting documentation can result in plagiarism. (See Chapter 14.)

4 = Check pronoun reference

POSSIBLE REFERENCE TO MORE THAN ONE WORD

>» The best way to improve elections is to communicate to voters

elections
that they matter.
aA
In the original sentence, they could refer to the elections or to the voters.

REFERENCE IMPLIED BUT NOT STATED

a policy
> The company prohibited smoking, whieh many employees
resented. 3
What does which refer to? The editing clarifies what employees resented.

A pronoun should refer clearly to the word or words it replaces (called

the antecedent) elsewhere in the sentence or in a previous sentence. If
more than one word could be the antecedent, or if no specific anteced-
ent is present, edit to make the meaning clear. (See Chapter 36.)
 Top Twenty Tips for Editing Your Academic Writing 31

& Check for spelling (including homonyms)

Reagan
> Ronald Regax won the election in a landslide.
aA
Everywhere
> we went, we saw crowds of tourists.
A

The most common misspellings today are those that spell checkers
cannot identify. The categories that spell checkers are most likely
to miss include homonyms, compound words incorrectly spelled as
separate words, and proper nouns, particularly names. After you run
the spell checker, proofread carefully for errors such as these—and be
sure to run the spell checker to catch other kinds of spelling mistakes.

6 Use quotation marks conventionally

> “I grew up the victim of a disconcerting confusion,” /Rodriguez

says (249). “<
The comma should be placed inside the quotation marks.

Follow conventions when using quotation marks with commas

(40h), colons, and other punctuation. Always use quotation marks
in pairs, and follow the guidelines of your documentation style for
block quotations. Use quotation marks for titles of short works
(44b), but use italics for titles of long works (48a).

_ Avoid unnecessary commas

BEFORE CONJUNCTIONS IN COMPOUND CONSTRUCTIONS THAT ARE NOT

COMPOUND SENTENCES

> This conclusion applies to the United States/ and to the rest of
the world.
No comma is needed before and because it is joining two phrases that
modify the same verb, applies.

WITH RESTRICTIVE ELEMENTS

> Many parents; of gifted childrens do not want them to skip a grade.
No commas are needed to set off the restrictive phrase of gifted
children, which is necessary to indicate which parents the sentence is
talking about.
32 Top Twenty Tips for Editing Your Academic Writing

Do not use commas to set off restrictive elements that are necessary
to the meaning of the words they modify. Do not use a comma before
a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet) when the
conjunction does not join parts of a compound sentence (error 13,
p. 33). Do not use a comma before the first or after the last item in a
series, between a subject and verb, between a verb and its object or
complement, or between a preposition and its object. (See Chapter 40.)

8 Check for capitalization

traditional medicines ephedra
> Some Traditional Chinese PaaS containing ee remain
legal. *
Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives, the first words of
sentences, and important words in titles, along with certain words
indicating directions and family relationships. Do not capitalize most
other words. When in doubt, check a dictionary. (See Chapter 46.)

9 Look for missing words

against
> The site foreman discriminated women and promoted men with
less experience. 4
Proofread carefully for omitted words, including prepositions (37a),
parts of two-part verbs (37b), and correlative conjunctions. Be
particularly careful not to omit words from quotations.

10 Look for cence sentence structures

> Theinformation whichhighschool athletes aegpamsoriss with

mainly inchides information on what credits Meniod to graduate,

colleges to t
and-thinking abeutthe-coHege whichh athletes are-bying to play
how to
for, and apply.
aA

A sentence that starts with one kind of structure and then changes
to another kind can confuse readers. Make sure that each sentence
contains a subject and a verb, that subjects and predicates make
sense together (26b), and that comparisons have clear meanings
 Top Twenty Tips. for Editing Your Academic Writing 33

(26c). When you join elements (such as subjects or verb phrases)

with a coordinating conjunction, make sure that the elements have
parallel structures (see Chapter 29).

11 Use commas with nonrestrictive elements

> Marina, who was the president of the club, was first to speak.
A “a
The clause who was the president of the club does not affect the basic
meaning of the sentence: Marina was first to speak.

A nonrestrictive element gives information not essential to the

basic meaning of the sentence. Use commas to set off a nonrestric-
tive element (40c).

12 Avoid unnecessary shifts in verb tense

slipped _ fell
> Priya was watching the great blue heron. Then she slips and falls
“A A
into the swamp.

Verbs that shift from one tense to another with no clear reason can
confuse readers (30a).

13 Use a comma between clauses in a compound

sentence

> Meredith waited for Samir, and her sister grew impatient.
“a
Without the comma, a reader may think at first that Meredith waited
for both Samir and her sister.

A compound sentence consists of two or more parts that could each

stand alone as a sentence. When the parts are joined by a coordinat-
ing conjunction, use a comma before the conjunction to indicate a
pause between the two thoughts (40b).

Check apostrophes (including its/it’s)

child’s
> Overambitious parents can be very harmful to a ehilds well-being.
A
its It’s
> The car is lying on it’s side in the ditch. Hs a white 2020 Passat.
Aa “A
34 Top Twenty Tips for Editing Your Academic Writing

To make a noun possessive, add an apostrophe and an -s (Ed’s

book) or an apostrophe alone (the boys’ gym). Do not use an apos-
trophe in the possessive pronouns ours, yours, and hers. Use its to
mean belonging to it; use it’s to mean it is or it has. (See Chapter 43.)

15 Look for fused (run-on) sentences

but
> Klee’s paintings seem simple, they are very sophisticated.
a
Although she
> She doubted the value of meditation, she decided to try it once.
aA A

A fused sentence (also called a run-on) joins clauses that could

each stand alone as a sentence with no punctuation or words to
link them. Fused sentences must either be divided into separate sen-
tences or joined by adding words or punctuation. (See Chapter 38.)

16 Look for comma splices

for
> Iwas strongly attracted to her, she was beautiful and funny.
Aa
that
> We hated the meat loaf, the cafeteria served it every Monday.
aA

A comma splice occurs when only a comma separates clauses that

could each stand alone as a sentence. To correct a comma splice, you
can insert a semicolon or period, connect the clauses with a word
such as and or because, or restructure the sentence. (See Chapter 38.)

7 Check for pronoun-antecedent agreement

‘ its
> Each of the proposals has theix merits.
A
All students uniforms.
> Every-student must provide their own uniform.
Aa “aA

In formal academic writing, pronouns agree with their anteced-

ents both in gender (male or female) and in number (singular or
plural). Traditionally, indefinite pronouns such as every, every-
one, and each have been treated as singular antecedents and have
required singular pronouns such as his or her, his, her, or its. Many
writers choose to rewrite such sentences as plural, as in the second
 Top Twenty Tips for Editing Your Academic Writing 35

example. However, the use of they/their/them is acceptable with sin-

gular indefinite pronouns—to include people who do not identify as
he/his or she/her. (See 36b.)

> Everyone should check their passport’s expiration date before the
trip.

18 Integrate quotations smoothly

showed how color affects taste:
>» Schlosser cites a 1970s study that “Once it became apparent that
a
the steak was actually blue and the fries were green, some people
became ill” (565).
According to Lars Eighner,
> “Dumpster diving has serious drawbacks as a way of life”
a
(Bighnex 383). Finding edible food is especially tricky.

Quotations should all fit smoothly into the surrounding sentence

structure. They should be linked clearly to the writing around them
(usually with a signal phrase) rather than dropped abruptly into the
writing. (See 14b.)

49 Check for missing or unnecessary hyphens

> This paper looks at fictional and real life examples.

“A
A compound adjective modifying a noun that follows it requires a hyphen.

> The buyers want to fixfup the house and resell it.
A two-word verb should not be hyphenated.

A compound adjective that appears before a noun needs a hyphen.

However, be careful not to hyphenate two-word verbs or word
groups that serve as subject complements. (See Chapter 48.)

Check for sentence fragments

NO SUBJECT

> Marie Antoinette spent huge sums of money on herself and her
Her extravagance
favorites. And helped bring on the French Revolution.
Aa
36 Top Twenty Tips for Editing Your Academic Writing

NO COMPLETE VERB
was
> The old aluminum boat sitting on its trailer.
“A

BEGINNING WITH A SUBORDINATING WORD

where
> We returned to the drugstore/, Where we waited for our buddies.
“A

A sentence fragment is part of a sentence that is written as if it were

a complete sentence. Reading your draft out loud, backwards, sentence
by sentence, will help you spot sentence fragments. (See Chapter 39.)

EXERCISE Using the Top Twenty Editing Tips

The following sentences are from a student's research-based essay. The stu-
dent quotes two sources, “Because Partying Is Too Mainstream: Alternative
Spring Breaks” by Valeria Delgado (Collegemagazine.com, March 20, 2012)
and “We Did Not Give Up Our Spring Break, We Took Advantage of It,” a
United Way blog post (Unitedway.org, March 11, 2012). Revise each num-
bered item, using the twenty most common sentence-level errors written by
first-year students to do so. Example:
spring
College students are usually eager to spend Spring break having as
much fun as possible. £3

1. After months of stressful schoolwork, students understandably want to

spend the week relaxing or blowing off steam with there friends.
2. Popular spring break destinies over the years have included Mexican
resorts, Florida beaches, and Caribbean islands.
3. A growing number of students, however, are beginning to recognize
that its actually rewarding to spend vacation time in more useful
ways.
4. A new trend, known as alternative spring breaks, allows college stu-
dents to contribute their time to humanitarian causes. Or environmen-
tal organizations.
5. Each year, thousands of students decide to skip the wild party scenes,
they choose instead to do something meaningful for people or places in
need.
6. There are a host of options available to students who want to volunteer
over their spring break. “Programs range from working with kids in U.S.
cities to building sustainable water systems in Nicaragua” (Delgado),
 Top Twenty Tips for Editing Your Academic Writing 37

Usually a student will seek out a volunteer opportunity that best suits
their talents and interests. Of course, many students still want to go
somewhere warm.
Students can find the best match for their interests and desired location
with the help of large nonprofit organizations such as United Way. They also
frequently subsidize the costs of the trips to make them more affordable.
Although volunteering opportunities have always been available to stu-
dents, the concept of alternative spring breaks is fairly recent. United
Way began setting alternative spring breaks in 2006.
10; Some students work within their own communities others may travel
thousands of miles to volunteer over spring break.
ial. Services that students provide include, painting community centers,
planting trees in parks, cleaning up the environment, and teaching
English as a second language.
12: In Michigan, students who renovated a community recreation center and
added a reading corner to encourage children to read after school each day.
13% In New Orleans, Habitat for Humanity brought students together to
help build new-houses for people who lost their homes in Hurricane
Katrina in 2005.
14. On the Gulf Coast where the 2010 oil spill devastated shorelines stu-
dents helped clean up beaches and safeguard sea turtle nests.
ASE Some students have traveled to Rock Hill, south Carolina, to clean up
an old cemetery and repair homes on the Catawba Indian Reservation.
16. All students have their own reasons for embarking on an alternative
spring break but many find that they come away with benefits they had
not anticipated.
Whe According to one source, students may go on an alternative spring
break to improve their résumé or to take an affordable trip, but they
end up having an important emotional experience and building lifelong
memories.
18. Moreover, as noted in a United Way blog entry, “What many students
don’t realize until they arrive is the impact it will have on their own
lives”. (“We Did Not Give Up”)
19% According to Valeria Delgado, one student reluctantly volunteered at the
Boys and Girls Club in Newark, New Jersey, over spring break in 2011
and finds that he enjoyed it much more than he thought he would.
20. Another student Delgado interviewed found that through helping oth-
ers he was actually helping himself. After volunteering with poor fami-
lies in south Mississippi he realized how fortunate he was and gained a
better sense of his priorities in life (Delgado).
 Sharing and Reflecting on Your Writing

6 Sharing and Reflecting on Your

Writing
Once you have completed a piece of writing, share it! You’ve worked
hard on a topic that’s important to you, and there’s a good chance
others will care about it, too. Sharing and talking about a piece of
writing that you’ve finished are also good steps toward reflecting on
the entire writing experience and assessing what you learned from it.

6a Sharing with audiences

onan
Chances are, you already share your writing with family, friends, and
others via social media (1b). So why not go ahead and share your
academic writing with others you think will be interested? And if you
invite them, you may well start a conversation that will keep going.

¢ Can you find interested readers through social media sites like Twitter?
¢ Should you keep a blog to share your writing, using a free site such
as Weebly?
Would your work find audiences on YouTube, Instagram, or other
visual platforms?
¢ Could you submit your writing to student publications or organiza-
tions on your campus?

You can also share your ideas by joining conversations started by

others. You might contribute to Wikipedia or other wikis; comment
on online newspaper or magazine articles, editorials, or videos;
write reviews for books and other products on Amazon; post to fan
fiction sites; or find other public sites where you can participate in
producing content and responding to what others have written. As
a writer today, you have nearly limitless possibilities for interaction
with other readers and writers.

6b creating a portfolio
exon
One especially good way to share your writing is by developing
a portfolio that showcases your abilities and experience. Most
 Reflecting on your own work 39

instructors who assign portfolios as a culmination of a course will

give you advice about what to include, such as a cover letter, a per-
sonal reflection, and several polished pieces of your writing. You
may also want to keep a portfolio throughout your college career,
adding outstanding examples of your work from year to year.

6c Reflecting on your own work

ED
Thinking back on what you’ve learned helps make that learning
stick. Whether or not your instructor requires you to write a for-
mal reflection on a writing course or piece of writing, make time
to think about what you have learned from the experience. Student
Thanh Nguyen created a political poster for a course on immigra-
tion. On his personal blog, he posted the image of his poster with
some reflections about what he had learned:

REFLECTIVE BLOG POST (EXCERPT)

It’s not too obvious whatI was trying to get at in this poster, which is my
own fault. I replaced the cherubs and angels from Michelangelo’s Creation
of Adam with ICE agents and politicians to comment on anti-immigrant
practices. I could have gotten my point across in a better and less
confrontational way!

The following questions can help you to think critically about

your writing and to develop a reflective statement:

¢ What lessons have you learned from the writing? How will they
help you with future writing?
¢ What about your writing are you most confident of? What needs
additional work?
¢ What confused you during your writing? How did you resolve your
questions?
¢ How has this piece of writing helped you clarify your thinking or
extend your understanding?
* Identify a favorite passage of your writing. What pleases you about
it? Can you apply what you learn from this analysis to other writing
situations?
 Sharing and Reflecting on Your Writing

¢ How would you describe your development as a writer?

¢ How might you organize a formal reflection on your writing?
Will you begin by describing your writing at the beginning of your
course and then tracing changes and improvements? By summing
up what you have learned about writing and then “flashing back”
to examples of how you learned those lessons?

6d a sample reflection (excerpt)

ay
Student James Kung wrote a reflective cover letter as part of a port-
folio for his first-year writing course. Part of that letter appears here.

Dear Professor Ashdown:

“Writing is difficult and takes a long time.” You have uttered

this simple yet powerful statement so many times in our class
Reflectson that it has essentially become our motto. In just ten weeks, my
Bla persuasive writing skills have improved dramatically, thanks to
many hours spent writing, revising, polishing, and (when I wasn’t
writing) thinking about my topic. The various drafts, revisions,
and other materials in my course portfolio clearly. show this
improvement.

Ae I entered this first-quarter Writing and Rhetoric class with both

overa
strengths and strengths and weaknesses. I was strong in the fundamentals of
weaknesses writing: logic and grammar. I have always written fairly well-
organized essays. However, despite this strength, I struggled
throughout the term to narrow and define the various aspects of
my research-based argument.

The restof The first aspect of my essay that I had trouble narrowing and defining
th : 5 : 2 oe
ee was my major claim, or my thesis statement. In my first writing
specific assignment for the class. . .
pieces of
writing
 Contexts for
Writing, Reading,
and Speaking

Learning from Low-Stakes Writing 42

8 Reading and Listening Analytically,

Critically, and Respectfully 44

9 Arguing Ethically and Persuasively 51

10 Writing in a Variety of Disciplines

and Genres 67

11 Creating Presentations 81
 7 Learning from Low-Stakes Writing :
Professor Peter Elbow differentiates between “high-stakes writing”—
which you do for formal graded assignments and exams—and “low-
stakes writing”—informal writing that is often ungraded but that
helps you think about, learn, and remember course material and
stay engaged with your classes. So a very good way to put your writ-
ing to work is to use it as a way to learn and to retain that learning.
This kind of writing is always helpful, but it is particularly effective
when you are engaged in online learning. It provides a chance for
you to mull over what you got from an online class, to synthesize
the ideas you took away from the session, to sum up things that
confused you or were ignored, and to spend some time reviewing
and reflecting on these lessons.

Za_ The value of low-stakes writing

ese

Sometimes referred to as “writing to learn,” low-stakes writing

is powerful because it gives you a chance to figure out what you
know and don’t know about a topic, and it can help you watch
your own mind at work—all without having to be judged or graded.
Research shows that reflecting on your own thinking, writing, and
learning style can contribute significantly to your development as
a critical thinker. Your instructor may assign such low-stakes writ-
ing throughout the term; if so, take advantage of it. If not, do some
informal writing yourself and see how it helps improve both your
understanding of course material and your grades.

7b Types of low-stakes assignments

as
Quickwrites A good way to get mental gears going, quickwrites
are prompts—usually open-ended questions about a topic of study—
to which writers respond in short bursts of two to eight minutes.
Instructors often use quickwrites to get class discussion started and
focused, but you can use them on your own to get your thinking
about a subject down in words.

42
 Types of low-stakes assignments 7b S) 43

Freewrites Like quickwrites, freewrites ask you to write about a

topic without stopping, usually for ten minutes. Freewrites let you
explore your thinking without worrying about correctness, grades,
and so on. For quickwrites or freewrites, use the language or variety
of language that is most comfortable and familiar to you—and don’t
worry about anything except capturing your ideas.

WY Checklist
Participating in Class Blogs, Wikis, Zooms, and
Other Forums
V If you are participating in discussions through video apps like
Zoom, be sure to check your microphone and camera before
the session and make sure you are presentable(!). Look into
the camera when you are speaking and mute yourself when
you are not.
V Take advantage of opportunities to engage with others about
the course material—even if you’re a little nervous about
being onscreen—and sum up your views in writing; doing so
will help you internalize the information.
Y Be polite and professional when contributing to an online
forum.
Y Avoid unnecessary criticism of others; the point of these
activities is to have productive exchanges about what you
are learning. Rather than criticize, simply ask for clarification
(Are you saying that. . .?) or offer what you take to be correct
information.
VY If others criticize you, give them the benefit of the doubt and
reply with courtesy and patience.
V For email threads, decide whether to reply off-list to the
sender of a message or to the whole group, and be care-
ful to use REPLY Or REPLY ALL accordingly to avoid potential
confusion.
VY Remember that many class forums are archived, so more
people than you think may read your messages.
 Reading and Listening Analytically

Thought pieces Some instructors assign thought pieces—pieces

of writing that sum up background information and your own
opinions and analyses of a subject. They can help you see how
much you know—and how much more you need to know—about
your topic.

Reading responses These may be the most frequently assigned

type of low-stakes writing. In reading responses, you sum up your
understanding of an assigned reading and evaluate its effectiveness.
Whether or not your instructor assigns such responses, you will
profit by setting up a reading log file on your computer and record-
ing your responses and critical evaluations there.

Class discussion forums Whether your classes are online, in per-

son, or some blend of the two, most instructors will set up online
spaces for discussion forums—on a local course management sys-
tem, a series of Zoom sessions, a class blog or wiki, or a class page
on Facebook or other social media site—as a place to talk about the
reading, writing, and speaking you are doing in the class. Active par-
ticipation in these forums will allow you to get your views out there
for others to respond to and help you understand the viewpoints of
others.

8 Reading and Listening Analytically,

Critically, and Respectfully
In a time of 24/7 newsfeeds, misinformation, and fake news,
critical reading demands defensive reading strategies that will
help protect you from being manipulated by the texts you read.
But critical reading also calls on you to engage with, understand,
and respect messages from people who may hold views very dif-
ferent from your own. So while it’s important to remain skeptical
until you know a text is accurate, it’s also important to remem-
ber that there are real people on the other side of the screen,
with feelings of their own. In any case, most important to critical
reading is attention, focusing intently and purposefully on any
text you approach.
 Annotating 45

8a _ Reading collaboratively
cose?
Especially for difficult or high-stakes reading, there’s nothing better
than tackling the task with others. Researchers tell us, in fact, that if
you read and take notes on a reading in small groups, understanding
of the text improves, as do test scores based on the material. So why
not ask a couple of classmates to form a group and set up a shared
folder on Google Drive where you can share notes and annotations
and responses to what you are reading. Doing so will help you gain
various perspectives on the text and try out your own ideas about it.

8b Previewing
TEER
Find out all you can about a text before beginning to read or listen
to it analytically and critically, considering its context, author,
subject, genre, and design.

¢ Where have you encountered the work? Is it in its original context?

What can you infer about its intended audience and purpose?
¢ What information can you find about the author, creator, or
sponsor of the text? What purpose, expertise, and possible agenda
might you expect this person to have?
¢ What do you know about the subject of the text? What opinions do
you have about it, and why? What more do you want to learn about it?
¢ What does the title (or caption or other heading) indicate?
¢ What role does the medium play in achieving the purpose and con-
necting to the audience?
¢ What is the genre of the text? Is it a letter? a report? an essay?
What can it tell you about the intended audience or purpose?
¢ How is the text presented? What do you notice about its language,
style, design, and general appearance?

8c Annotating
er
As you read or listen to a text for the first time, begin analyzing it
by marking it up or taking notes. Make note of the author’s main
ideas and key terms, considering content, author, intended audi-
ence, genre, and design. Write questions you'd like to ask the writer,
46 Reading and Listening Analytically

and talk back to the text throughout, noting where you agree and
disagree—and why.

Are you sure you are really hearing what the text is saying rather
than rushing to conclusions about it? Are you open to the ideas in
the text and respectful of the writer’s right to hold them?
What’s confusing or unclear about the text? Who can you ask for
more information—your instructor? classmates? someone else?
What are the key terms and ideas or patterns? What key images
stick in your mind?
What sources or other works does this text refer to? Are they
reliable and trustworthy—should you fact-check them (see 13a)?
Which points do you agree with? Which do you disagree with? Why?
Do the authors or creators present themselves as you anticipated?
For what audience was this text created? Are you part of its
intended audience?
What underlying assumptions can you identify in the text?
Are the medium and genre appropriate for the topic, audience, and
purpose?
Is the design appropriate for the subject and genre?
Does the organization help you see what is more and less important
in the text?
How effectively do words, images, sound, and other media work
together?
How would you describe the style of the text? What contributes to
this impression—word choice? references to research or popular
culture? formatting? color? something else?

8d Summarizing
<eaEne
A summary briefly captures the main ideas of a text in your own words
and omits information that is less important for the reader. Try to iden-
tify the key points in the beginning, middle, and end of the text, along
with the major support for those points. Use transitions to connect your
summary points in order of occurrence and explain the points concisely
and fairly, so that a reader unfamiliar with the original text can make
sense of it all. Deciding what to leave out can make summarizing a
 Analyzing 8Se & 47

tricky task. To test your understanding—and to avoid unintentional pla-

giarism—put the text aside while you write your summary.

Se Analyzing
em

You can learn many good lessons about how to make appropriate
and effective choices in your own writing by identifying and study-
ing the choices other writers have made. You may want to begin the
process of analysis by asking several key questions: What are the text’s
main points and claims? Are they implied or explicitly stated? Which
points do you agree with? Which do you disagree with? Why?

WY Checklist
Analyzing and Fact-Checking Texts

VY What cultural contexts inform the text—the time and place

the argument was written; the economic, social, and political
events surrounding the argument; and so on? What do they
tell about where the writers, creators, or sponsors are coming
from and what choices they have had to make?
VY What emotional, ethical, or logical appeals has the writer chosen
to use in the text? Are the appeals reasonable, fair, and honest?
Y Does the writer have a particular “slant” on the topic? A site
like allsides.com labels articles on it as leaning left, leaning
right, or center—where might the text you are analyzing fit in?
VY What are other sources saying about this text? If you are read-
ing the text online, open another browser and search for the
author and/or title of the text or the sponsor of the site and
see what other sites say about it and about its credibility. (Find
out more about this kind of “lateral reading” in 13c.)
V What strategies has the writer chosen to establish credibility?
V What assumptions does the writer make? Are those assump-
tions valid?
V Are alternative perspectives included and treated respect-
fully? Are some perspectives left out, and if so, how does this
exclusion affect the argument?
V What sources does the author use to inform the text? How
can you tell that they are current, reliable, and trustworthy? >
 Reading and Listening Analytically

hat kinds of evidence does the text off

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EXERCISE 8.1

1. Think about the last film you watched for fun. What did you know
about it before you watched it? What did you feel and learn as you
watched? What have you told others about the film, both in terms of
summarizing the story and of analyzing what the overall experience of
viewing the film meant to you?
2. Write a paragraph describing how you might use previewing, summariz-
ing, and analyzing the next time you are asked to read a text.
3. Search for a topic or text using two different search engines—choose
from Google, Bing, Yahoo, DuckDuckGo. Because each has a different
algorithm, the results you get in response to your search terms will
differ. What do you learn about web searching from this activity?

Sf Rhetorical analysis
ap
eee For a class assignment, Cameron Hauer was
| assigned to analyze the rhetorical choices and
7 the emotional, ethical, and logical appeals in a
New York Times op-ed article in which columnist
Nicholas Kristof argues that American public
lands are being threatened.
Cameron Hauer
 Rhetorical analysis 49

lt Me eee aaa names STUDENT

| WRITING
| Hauer 1 :

Cameron Hauer :
| Professor Walters |
| Writing and Rhetoric 1
| 7 March 2019
| Appeal, Audience, and Narrative in Kristof’s Wilderness |
Growing up in the Pacific Northwest instilled a love of the
outdoors in me. As an adolescent, I spent practically every weekend in Uses
ae : ; : : personal
| the pristine wilderness of Washington, Idaho, and Montana. Alpine ski experience
| trips and weeklong backpacking treks were a big part of my life. I owe to help
a lot of personal development and fond memories to the vast public rhe
wilderness of the United States, the value of which Nicholas Kristof /
captures stirringly in his New York Times op-ed column, “Fleeing to the |
Mountains.” He warns, however, that this wilderness is under attack. /
if
To strengthen his case for the specialness of wildlands in the |
US, Kristof relies on ethical and emotional appeals: a lively account of Provides an
| his family’s backpacking trips and the ways they free people from the oe
buzz and hum of modern life. Kristof’s style here ranges from breezy argument
and playful (the wilderness is “heaven with blisters”) to awestruck |
and reverent (it is “our inheritance and shared playground”). He also
offers personal testimony; having spent time in wild places, Kristof is |
well positioned to describe their virtues. He invites readers to share States
| this ethic, to see the joy of open spaces, and to regard them as a see
sacred inheritance.
Halfway through the column, Kristof shifts his focus to address
threats facing the US wilderness. He lays blame on those in power, like _ Transitions
members of the administration, who, Kristof alleges, “see this heritage biol
as an opportunity for development” and are “systematically handing of threats to
over America’s public lands for private exploitation in ways that will Ae
scar the land forever.” He moves to using logos rather than the ethos Focuses on
and pathos of the earlier sections. Whereas earlier he tries to evoke Kristof's use
of appeals
a particular feeling and ethic, his present goal is to marshal facts—
including the administration's lifting of a moratorium on new mining
 Reading and Listening Analytically

Sei a ST
STUDEN] kiz=—= a ee
|
WRITING
| Hauer 2 |
i

Shows how leases and the opening up of new lands to fossil fuel extraction—to
Kristof
convince readers that public lands in the US are under threat. Kristof
engages his
audience lessens the abruptness of this shift in appeal by maintaining his
narrative of wilderness as an inheritance.
Analyzes Several elements of Kristof’s argument give insight into
shaeek, his context and audience. The place of Donald Trump in Kristof’s
audience narrative is significant. The policies Kristof describes are simply the
| implementation of long-standing Republican priorities and have little |
| to do with Trump himself. But in Kristof’s rhetorical context—a left-of-
center newspaper in 2017—choosing Trump as an anti-environmental |
symbol is a strong, if obvious, rhetorical move. The mention of the |
| sitting president invites Kristof’s liberal readership to adopt a pro- |
wilderness platform as one plank of a broader anti-Trump agenda. |
Practices There are some notable omissions in Kristof’s argument. In his |
ane 6 framing, wildlands are either public and devoted to use by the people |
point out or privatized for resource extraction and for “ranches for the rich.” |
Oren To a liberal already inclined to value publicly owned resources, this |
| framework may be convincing, but conservatives often view public |
| ownership of natural resources with suspicion. Kristof portrays public
ownership as a means of providing equal access for all US residents,
Considers but rural conservatives may view it as a way that valuable resources
veuneie are turned into playgrounds for yuppies. They may also resist Kristof’s |
| portrayal of private ownership as promoting degradation and waste,
viewing it instead as a way for hardworking people to make a living |
off the land.
Questions Another evasion in Kristof’s argument, one that may stand out
SAG, sharply to left and right, is his characterization of public lands as “a
bastion of equality.” This is true in a sense—most public lands are
open to everyone, free of charge; but in practical terms, access to
wilderness requires a salary and paid time off, among other things.
In a country where millions struggle to make ends meet, frequent
recreational use of US wildlands remains out of reach.
 Arguing Ethically and Persuasively 51

STUDENT
WRITING
Hauer 3

These evasions and omissions may indicate Kristof’s biases

and his own rhetorical stance, but they are not damning. An op-ed
article is, after all, crafted for a particular audience. To address the
concerns of staunch conservatives would require Kristof to adopt
different rhetorical strategies. Kristof’s readers are likely a self-
selected group of liberal-minded people already sympathetic to his Underscores
Kristof's
views. His rhetorical goal is not to convince a group of adversaries
major
of his position but to persuade a group of amenable readers that this purpose
particular issue—and this particular ethic—is one that they should
adopt as their own.

|| Hauer 4
|
| |
Work Cited |
t

Kristof, Nicholas. “Fleeing to the Mountains.” The New York Times, Follows
12 Aug. 2017, www.nytimes.com/2017/08/12/opinion/sunday
/hiking-pacific-crest-trail.html. Op-ed. :

- 9 Arguing Ethically and Persuasively ‘ig

If you wonder whether one person’s argument can make a differ-
ence, consider recent college grad Kennedy Mitchum, who wrote an
email message to the editors of the Merriam-Webster dictionary,
arguing that their definition of “racism” needed to be revised and
updated:

Racism is not only prejudice against a certain race due to the color
of a person’s skin, as it states in your dictionary. It is both preju-
dice combined with social and institutional power. It is a system of
advantage based on skin color.
 Arguing Ethically and Persuasively

After careful consideration, the editors agreed, saying that Mitchum’s

argument was convincing and that they would revise their defini-
tion accordingly. Learning how to compose your own persuasive
and ethical arguments will serve you well not just in college but far
beyond.

9Ya_ Listening (and reading) purposefully

@=8 and openly

The arguments you make are often in response to something oth-

ers have written or said, so in a very important sense, your own
arguments depend on how well you have attended to the conversa-
tion surrounding the topic you are addressing. As you do research
and reading on your topic, make sure you are doing so carefully,
purposefully, and openly: what you take in about your topic from
others can help you craft an effective argument, but you need to
make sure that you are giving respectful attention to those sources
that inform your work and considering sources that others might
have ignored.

9b Identifying basic appeals in an argument

SED

Emotional appeals Emotional appeals stir our feelings and

remind us of deeply held values. In analyzing any text, look carefully
to see how the writer has chosen to use emotional appeals to rouse
the audience’s pride, fear, anger, grief, or other emotions.

Ethical appeals Ethical appeals support the credibility, moral

character, and goodwill of the argument’s creator. To identify these
appeals, ask how knowledgeable, credible, and trustworthy the
author is about the topic. What words, phrases, or examples show
that knowledge, credibility, and trustworthiness?

Logical appeals Recent scientific research demonstrates that most

people make decisions based on emotion more than anything else, but
logical appeals are still important to Western audiences. As some say,
“The facts don’t lie” (though as you know, even facts can be manipu-
lated, taken out of context, or presented in unfair ways). In addition
 Arguing purposefully
Q& 53

to carefully checking the facts of any text, then, look for firsthand
evidence drawn from observations, interviews, surveys or question-
naires, experiments, and personal experience, as well as secondhand
evidence from authorities, precedents, the testimony of others, sta-
tistics, and other research sources. As you evaluate these sources, ask
how trustworthy they are and whether all terms are clearly defined.

9c Analyzing the elements of an argument

ees
According to philosopher Stephen Toulmin’s framework for analyz-
ing arguments, most arguments contain common features: a claim
(or claims); reasons for the claim; stated or unstated assumptions
that underlie the argument (Toulmin calls these warrants); evi-
dence such as facts, authoritative opinion, examples, and statistics;
and qualifiers that limit the claim in some way.
Suppose you read a brief argument about abolishing the Electoral
College, often a hot topic. The diagram that follows shows how you
can use the elements of argument for analysis.

Elements of Toulmin Argument

Reason: The Electoral College gives states

Claim: The Electoral College should because with small populations a disproportionate
be abolished. <— >»
influence in presidential elections.

Assumption: Every vote in a presidential

election should count equally.

Evidence/Backing: The writer might

Qualifiers such as “within the next prove, for instance, that an Electoral
decade” may modify the claim. College vote in North Dakota represents
far fewer people than an Electoral College
vote in Texas.

9d Arguing purposefully
Ee
Since all language is in some sense argumentative, the purposes of
argument vary widely.
 Arguing Ethically and Persuasively

Arguing to win In the most traditional purpose of academic

argument, arguing to win, you aim to present a position that pre-
vails over the positions of others.

Arguing to convince A frequent goal of argument is to convince

others to change their minds about an issue. To convince, you must
provide reasons so compelling that the audience willingly agrees
with your conclusion.

Arguing to understand Rogerian argument (named for psychol-

ogist Carl Rogers) and invitational argument (named by research-
ers Sonja Foss and Cindy Griffin) both call for understanding as
a major goal of arguing. Your purpose in many situations will be
to share information and perspectives in order to make informed
political, professional, and personal choices.

9e Making an argument
op
Chances are you’ve been making convincing arguments since early
childhood. But if family members and friends are not always easy
to convince, then making effective arguments to those unfamiliar
with you presents even more challenges, especially when such audi-
ences are anonymous and in cyberspace. To get started, you’ll need
an arguable statement.

Arguable statements An arguable statement must meet three

criteria:

1. It should ask readers to change their minds or support some action.

2. It should address a problem that has no obvious or absolute solu-
tion or answer.
3. It should present a position that readers can have varying perspec-
tives on.

ARGUABLE Playing violent video games leads to violent

STATEMENT behavior.

UNARGUABLE Video games earn millions of dollars every year.

STATEMENT
 Making an argument 55

Using the three criteria just listed, decide which of the fol-
EXERCISE 9.1 . :
lowing sentences are arguable and which are not. Example:

One of the best health decisions a person can make is to become a

vegetarian. arguable

1. Humans were never intended to eat meat, and we would all live longer,
healthier lives if we stopped eating it.
2. Health experts agree that vegetarians tend to have lower blood pressure
and a lower mortality rate from heart disease than meat eaters do.
3. Killing animals for food is cruel, unethical, and unnecessary.
4. During World War I, the U.S. government encouraged citizens to eat
vegetarian diets one day per week—on “Meatless Tuesdays”—to con-
serve meat for the troops.
5. Nothing is more disgusting than the way animals in slaughterhouses
are killed for their meat.

Argumentative thesis or claim To make the move from an

arguable statement to an argumentative thesis, begin with an argu-
able statement:
ARGUABLE Pesticides should be banned.
STATEMENT

Attach at least one good reason.

REASON Pesticides endanger the lives of farmworkers.

You now have a working argumentative thesis.

ARGUMENTATIVE Because they endanger the lives of farmworkers,

THESIS pesticides should be banned.

Develop the underlying assumption that supports your argument.

ASSUMPTION Farmworkers have a right to a safe working

environment.

Identifying this assumption will help you gather evidence in sup-

port of your argument. Finally, consider whether you need to qualify
your claim in any way.

Ethical appeals Ethical appeals support the writer’s credibility,

moral character, and goodwill using words, phrases, and examples
 Arguing Ethically and Persuasively

to show knowledge and trustworthiness. Here are some ways to use

ethical appeals effectively:

¢ Demonstrate that you are knowledgeable about the issues and topic.
¢ Show that you respect the views of your audience and have their
best interests at heart.
¢ Demonstrate that you are fair and evenhanded by showing that
you understand alternative or opposing viewpoints and can make
a reasonable and fair counterargument.

Remember that the language you use can also help establish credi-
bility. You may choose to use standardized English, another dialect
of English, or another language to connect most effectively with a
particular audience. Finally, remember that visuals can also make
ethical appeals. Just as you consider the impressions your LinkedIn
profile photo or the photos you share on Instagram make on your
audience, you should think about what kind of case you’re making
when you choose images and design elements for your argument.

Logical appeals Audiences almost always want proof—logical reasons

that back up an argument. Remember, though, that all of the evidence
you present must be trustworthy and accurate—and must seem so to
your audience. You can create good logical appeals in the following ways:

A Visual That Makes a Logical Appeal

The States Most & Least

Likely To Wear Face Masks
Share of the public who have worn a face mask
in public over the past two weeks®
0-29% & 30-39% 40-49% Mi 50-60%

* States and D,C.

n=89,347 (Mar 26-Apr 29, 2020)
Source: YouGov

TOTS)
 Organizing an argument

Provide strong examples that are representative and that clearly

support your point.
Introduce precedents—particular examples from the past—that sup-
port your point.
Use narratives or tell stories in support of your point.
Cite authorities and their testimony, as long as each authority is
timely and is genuinely qualified to speak on the topic.
¢ Establish that one event is the cause—or the effect—of another.

Visuals that make logical appeals can be useful in arguments, since

they present factual information that can be taken in at a glance.
Consider how long it would take to explain all the information in
the map on p. 56 by using words alone.

Emotional appeals Emotional appeals stir our feelings and remind

us of what we value. You can appeal to the hearts as well as to the minds
of your audience with the ethical use of strong emotional appeals:
¢ Introduce a powerful and credible quotation or image that supports
your point.
¢ Use personal interest stories, your own or others’, to make your point.
Use concrete nouns, active verbs, and details to make your points
more vivid.
Use figurative language—metaphors, similes, analogies, and so on—
to make your point both lively and memorable.

Visuals that make powerful emotional appeals can add substance

to your argument as long as you test them with potential readers to
check whether they interpret the visual the same way you do.

Of organizing an argument
ED
Although there is no universally “ideal” organizational framework
for an argument, the following patterns, first for Classical argument
and then Rogerian argument, may give you some ideas about how to
proceed. You can also use the elements of a Toulmin argument as an
organizational framework (see 9c).
In any organizational pattern you choose, remember that there is
seldom anything more powerful in appealing to audiences than a good
story. In fact, a powerful story can serve as the major organizing prin-
ciple for an argument, so don’t forget to put narratives to work for you.
 |i
UF
58 @ Of Arguing Ethically and Persuasively

Classical argument

Get attention

Establish
Introduction common Be fair
ground

State your thesis

operant Key debates

narratives
Background
Data

Reason 1 Evidence*

Reason 2 Evidence*
Lines of argument
Organize by importance
Reason 3
(4. etc) Evidence
i x

*why your argument is in reader's best

interest; logical and emotional appeals

Alternative Alternative Advantages &

argument(s) argument(s) disadvantages

What you want

Implications of readers to
Conclusion
your thesis think, feel, or
do*
*strong ethical or emotional appeal
 Organizing an argument

Rogerian/invitational argument

Describe the problem/issue

- First : Establish | chow eam

Aim to understand connection espe ;

re
. ao . = , ; :
’ Gr uh | Discuss alternative perspectives
Then i \ ce W
Consider all points

Explain why
it’s valid

Show how it responds to or

includes other perspectives
pry :
’ ol Show how your position offers |
|Bt) soeithe, mutual
gece sph benefits
si to all Siena!

ha
- a cai tees =

ao
bar 3 4) ' ih ‘
nes

7
cuisines Serer
pa ee pos Se

2 | Focus on common ground and

understanding
 Arguing Ethically and Persuasively

9 An argument essay
CD
STUDENT WRITER
In this essay, student L.J. Bryan argues that low
voter turnout threatens democracy in the United
States and is fueled by lack of knowledge, distrust
of the government, and voter suppression.

|
|
|
|
|
L.J. Bryan
Professor Clements
/ English Composition 1
| 10 October 2020
Title Low Voter Turnout: A Lesion in the Land of the Free
eco Civil rights icon John Lewis once said, “The right to vote is
comment the most powerful nonviolent tool we have in a democracy.” This
Opens sentiment rings true for many democratic nations; however, in the
iid, United States, many citizens lack a basic trust in this tool, resulting
provocative in a dismal voter turnout rate: US elections represent only around
quota sixty percent of the population’s opinions (DeSilver). Because
| this fundamental element of trust is missing, many Americans are
| choosing not to participate in elections without realizing how the
Thesis denial of this powerful right can affect their lives. Americans who can
meee understand how ignorance, distrust, and voter suppression cause the
low voter turnout rate will be better equipped to call for changes that
| protect and promote democracy.
First claim Ignorance about politics is one of the leading contributors
peers: bs to the low voter turnout rate, but it might also be the easiest to
Clarification Mend. To be clear, when I say ignorance, I do not mean to imply
prey that US citizens are unwilling or unable to learn, only that many
etnos
(credibility) |

aS
 An argument essay

wee STUDENT
WRITING
Bryan 2 {

have been inadequately educated on the government and its |

political systems. In fact, most schools do not even have entry-

level civics classes, and according to a survey by the Center for |

American Progress, only twenty-six percent of American citizens Cites

authorita-
can name each branch of government (Brown and Shapiro). The
tive source
Center argues that “[w]ithout an understanding of the structure in support
of claim
of government; rights and responsibilities; and methods of public
|
engagement, civic literacy . . . will continue to plague American
{

|
democracy.” The use of the word plague is especially fitting in this Metaphor
underscores
circumstance since if many people within a population are ignorant,
the serious-
that ignorance will continue to spread. But writer and former librarian ness of the
claim
Pat Scales emphasizes that this is not a failing of the citizens {

themselves, but rather of the education system. Because so many Presents

reason in
people have not been properly educated about government, many do support of
not realize the importance of voting or feel entitled to make political claim
decisions. If the United States made civics a priority in public i

education, more citizens would be empowered to vote. '

j

Unfortunately, there are some who believe that the uneducated |

|
should have less of a voice. Jason Brennan, a professor of public Alternative
argument
policy at Georgetown University, argues that democracy in the US
presented
should be replaced with epistocracy, which gives more voting power fairly
|
to those with more knowledge. Brennan explains, “An epistocracy
|
might deny citizens the franchise unless they can pass a test of basic
political knowledge . . . and submit their demographic information.”
He argues, “With such data, any statistician could calculate the
public’s ‘enlightened preferences; that is, what a demographically
identical voting population would support if only it were better
informed.” This way of thinking can have dangerous ramifications.
Rebuttal
Though the intent may be pure, there are glaring concerns about shows
weakness of
where this could lead, with the most notable precedent being the
alternative
literacy tests that wrongfully suppressed people of color from voting argument
 Arguing Ethically and Persuasively

STUDENT iii amie ho o> + lg i an

WRITING
Bryan 3
|
|

decades ago. Similarly, claims of what the public's “enlightened

preferences” are would simply be assumptions and could easily be used
to silence the voices of communities that already struggle to be heard.
If something like this were to occur, it would become extremely difficult
for the US to maintain its moniker as the land of the free because many
citizens would be left under the subjugation of the “elites” like the
livestock of Animal Farm or the proles of 1984. More effort should be
spent attempting to inform the public instead of silencing those who
may be less informed.
Transition While ignorance is a major and easily addressable reason
to second
for low voter turnout, distrust of the government is a more
claim
complex issue. When a person looks at the countless incidents of
Example police brutality or the statistics that show how people of color
supports
routinely receive a worse punishment than their white peers despite
claim and
makes committing similar offenses, it is easy to see how some might lose
emotional
trust in the government and choose to distance themselves from
appeal
these institutions. While this might seem illogical because it leaves
important decisions in the hands of others, this thinking is difficult
to overcome because once people feel distrust, they get caught up
in a cyclical state of mind that reinforces their notions about the
government. Unfortunately, the action of not voting based on one’s
distrust in the government does nothing but harm the potential
voter's chances of creating positive change. If forty percent of
potential voters aren’t casting ballots, there is no way of knowing if
the majority's voice is truly being heard. This is why it is imperative

Transition
| to encourage citizens to use their voices and votes to create change.
Even after the hurdles of ignorance and distrust are overcome,
to third
claim
voter suppression cuts a path through the electoral process in a
variety of ways. Voter ID laws are just one of these ways, culling
Presents out around 21 million potential voters each election cycle (“Voter
example
ID”). Voter ID laws require individuals to provide identification to
that sup-
ports claim participate in elections. Upon first glance, this seems benign,
 An argument essay 63

STUDENT
WRITING
Bryan 4

but “[a]ccessing a photo ID is much more challenging for the

young, the elderly, people of color, and people with low incomes”
(“Voter ID”). If the United States wants to empower all people’s
voices, then there should be as few barriers to the voting process as
possible. Many continue to advocate for voter ID laws, citing how
easily its abolition could lead to voter fraud. However, this notion Additional
has already been disputed: one study found only thirty-one credible logical
appeals and
incidents of voter impersonation out of more than one billion support for
the claim
ballots cast between 2000 to 2014, whereas in only four states
during this same time period “more than 3,000 votes (in general
elections alone) have reportedly been affirmatively rejected for lack
of ID” (Levitt). Studies like these highlight both the uselessness and
the harm of voter ID laws.
In addition to voter ID laws, some voters are held up by Use of
prohibitively long lines, seen in figure 1, and mishandling of polling a visual
provides
procedures. The Democratic Party of Georgia even sued the state emotional
during the 2020 primary election for this exact scenario, where appeal

voters were forced to wait in line for over four hours to cast their
ballots and multiple voting machines broke down without sufficient
backup paper ballots, despite the state’s spending more than
$100 million on their voting system (Cassady; Gallagher et al.). In
the lawsuit, the Party claimed that “the myriad problems voters
encountered . . . were ‘directly traceable’ to election officials” Presents
and
(Cassady). The Secretary of State placed the blame on the COVID-19
counters
pandemic and inadequate training (Gallagher et al.), but others saw alternative
perspective
this as an attempt to suppress voters, especially voters of color, since
voting districts with a higher population of people of color saw the
longest lines.
Even when citizens are able to vote successfully, gerrymandering
can suppress and effectively negate people’s votes. Gerrymandering
is the redrawing of voting districts in order to manipulate the vote to
favor a specific party. For example, in the 2018 state Senate election
 Arguing Ethically and Persuasively

IMAGES
MILLER/GETTY
ETHAN

Fig. 1. Ethan Miller. Five States Hold Primaries as Pandemic Continues

|| in America. 9 June 2020. Getty Images, www.gettyimages.com/detail/

news-photo/people-who-are-registering-to-vote-or-who-need-a-ballot

| -news-photo/1248635497.

| in North Carolina, which took place after lines were redrawn,

| “Democrats received 50.5 percent of the vote, but Republicans won

||
57.9 percent of the seats” (Tausanovitch and Root). Gerrymandering
continues this cycle of voter suppression that undermines the entire
idea of democracy and in turn helps to feed the seeds of distrust that
| cause many to lose faith in the US political system. However, it is
that very political system that has the power to create change and
stop voter suppression.
Conclusion Many obstacles stand in the path of a true democracy; however,
ees in spite of all of this, the voter turnout rate in the United States
calls for can improve if the country makes an effort to combat the lack of
action
basic political knowledge, distrust of the government, and voter
suppression. As a collective, US residents must face these issues head
 An argument essay 65

STUDENT
WRITING
Bryan 6
|

on and effectively call for change, bettering education, government, ||

and the voting system. This ensures the well-being of not only the
country’s democracy, but the lives of its citizens for generations to Closing
lines echo
come. While the task may seem daunting, it is something that must opening
be done in order to preserve our most powerful democratic tool. quotation
|
|
|
|

||
|
|
}
|

|
|

|
|
66 Arguing Ethically and Persuasively

STUDENT i
WRITING

Works Cited
Brennan, Jason. “The Right to Vote Should Be Restricted to Those
with Knowledge.” Aeon, 29 Sept. 2016, aeon.co/ideas/the-nght
-to-vote-should-be-restricted-to-those-with-knowledge.
Brown, Catherine, and Sarah Shapiro. “The State of Civics
Education.” Center for American Progress, 21 Feb. 2018,
www.americanprogress.org/issues/education-k-12/reports/
2018/02/21/446857/state-civics-education.
Cassady, Daniel. “Democrats Sue Georgia Election Officials over Long
Lines during Primary Election.” Forbes, 6 Aug. 2020, www
.forbes.com/sites/danielcassady/2020/08/06/democrats-sue
-georgia-election-officials-over-long-lines-during-primary
-election.
DeSilver, Drew. “U.S. Trails Most Developed Countries in Voter
Turnout.” Pew Research Center, 21 May 2018, www.pewresearch
-org/fact-tank/2018/05/21/u-s-voter-turnout-trails-most
-developed-countries.
Gallagher, Dianne, et al. “Polls Closed in Georgia after a Day Marked
by Voters Waiting for Hours to Cast Their Ballots.” CNN, 10 June
2020, www.cnn.com/2020/06/09/politics/georgia-primary
-election-delays/index.html.
Levitt, Justin. “A Comprehensive Investigation of Voter
Impersonation Finds 31 Credible Incidents out of One Billion
Ballots Cast.” The Washington Post, 6 Aug. 2014, www
-washingtonpost.com/news.
Lewis, John. “The right to vote is the most powerful nonviolent tool
we have in a democracy. . . .” Facebook, 25 Feb. 2013, www
-facebook.com/RepJohnLewis/posts/the-right-to-vote-is
-the-most-powerful-nonviolent-tool-we-have-in-a-democracy
-i-/473010132753004.
Scales, Pat. “Weighing In: Trouble, Folks.” Book Links, vol. 26, no. 1,
Sept. 2016, p. 40. EBSCOhost, ebscohost.com.
 Recognizing expectations of academic disciplines

[ STUDENT
WRITING
Bryan 8

Tausanovitch, Alex, and Danielle Root. “How Partisan Gerrymandering

Limits Voting Rights.” Center for American Progress, 8 July
2020, www.americanprogress.org/issues/democracy/reports
/2020/07/08/487426/partisan-gerrymandering-limits-voting
-rights.
“Voter ID 101: The Right to Vote Shouldn’t Come with Barriers.”
Indivisible, 23 July 2020, indivisible.org/resource/voter-id-101
-right-vote-shouldnt-come-barrers.

10 Writing in a Variety of Disciplines

and Genres
One of your goals as a writer will be to learn to enter the conversa-
tions going on in different academic disciplines—learning to “talk
the talk” and “walk the walk” in each one. You will begin to get a
sense of such differences as you prepare assignments for courses in
the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. You are also
likely to write in other, more public contexts with the goal of mak-
ing a difference in the world, and you will need to make choices
about how to reach your intended audience.

10a _ Recognizing expectations of academic

@==e disciplines

It’s frustrating to know that there is no one single “correct” style of

communication in any discipline. In addition, effective written and
multimodal styles differ from effective oral styles (Chapter 11),
and what is considered good writing in one field of study may not be
viewed as appropriate in another. Even the variety of English often
 Writing in a Variety of Disciplines and Genres

referred to as “standard” or “standardized” covers a wide range of

styles (Chapter 23). In each discipline you study, you can learn how
to use different sets of conventions, strategies, and resources.
Even though disciplinary expectations differ, you can begin
figuring them out by becoming a bit of a sleuth, looking very closely
at examples of good writing from any discipline and seeing what
makes them tick.

Study disciplinary vocabulary A good way to enter into the

conversation of a field or discipline is to study its vocabulary. High-
light key terms in your reading or notes to help you distinguish any
specialized terms. Mark any disciplinary jargon or technical terms
that aren’t familiar to you and ask for clarification from the instruc-
tor or fellow students. And pay careful attention to your textbook’s
vocabulary: try to master unfamiliar terms by checking to see if the
textbook has a glossary, by asking your instructor questions, and by
looking up key words or phrases.

Study disciplinary style Here are some questions that will help
you identify a discipline’s stylistic features:

How would you describe the overall tone of the writing—serious?

scholarly? matter-of-fact? Do writers in the field usually strive for
an objective stance (2d)? Are they aggressive or argumentative?
Is the level of writing highly formal, highly technical, aimed at a
general audience, or more informal and conversational?
Do they use the first person (I) or prefer such terms as one or the
investigator? What is the effect of this choice?
In general, how long are the sentences and paragraphs?
Are verbs generally active or passive—and why? (See 31f.)
How many and what kinds of examples seem to be featured? What
kinds of evidence seem to be valued?
How does the writing integrate visual elements—graphs, tables,
charts, photographs, or maps—or include video or sound?
How is the writing organized? Does it typically include certain
features, such as an abstract, a discussion of methods, headings, or
other formatting elements?
 Recognizing expectations of academic disciplines 69

Study the use of evidence As you grow familiar with any area
of study, you will develop a sense of what it takes to prove a point
in that field. As you read assigned materials, consider the following
questions about evidence:

¢ How do writers in the field use precedent, authority, and evidence?

How are stories or narratives or personal experience used in this field?
What kinds of evidence do writers in this field seem to ignore and why?
What kinds of quantitative data (items that can be counted and
measured) and qualitative data (items that can be systematically
observed) are used—and why?
* How is logical reasoning used? How are definition, cause and effect,
analogy, and example used in this discipline?
¢ What are the primary materials—the firsthand sources of
information—in this field? What are the secondary materials—the
sources of information derived from others? (See 12c.)
* How is research (by others, or by the authors) used and integrated
into the text?
* What documentation style is typically used in this field? (See Chap-
ters 16-19.)

Evidence inthe humanities Evidence for assignments in the humanities

may come from a primary source you are examining closely, such
as a poem, a philosophical treatise, an artifact, or a painting. For
certain assignments, secondary sources such as journal articles
or reference works can also provide useful evidence. Ground your
analysis of each source in key questions about the work you are
examining that will lead you to a thesis.

Evidence in the social sciences You will need to understand both the
quantitative and qualitative evidence used in your sources as well
as other evidence you may create from research you conduct on
your own. Summarizing and synthesizing information drawn from
sources will be key to your success.

Evidence in the natural and applied sciences You will probably draw
on two major sources of evidence: research—including studies,
experiments, and analyses—conducted by credible scientists, and
research you conduct by yourself or with others. Each source should
provide a strong piece of evidence for your project.
 Writing in a Variety of Disciplines and Genres

10b Understanding and using genres

SAUALS
Early on in your writing in any discipline, consider the genre or
kind of text the instructor expects you to produce: a lab report
for biology, for example, or a review of the literature for psy-
chology, or a proposal for political science. If you are not sure
what kind of text you are supposed to write, ask for clarification
from your instructor, and check to see if your school’s writing
center has examples of such genres as well. You can ask your
instructor to recommend examples of the kind of writing you
will do in the course, and you can also take a look at major
scholarly journals to find other examples of the genre you are
aiming to write. You may also gather multiple examples to get
a sense of how different writers approach the same genre. Then
ask what genres seem to be most prevalent in your discipline:
what is their major purpose?

Consider organization Genres often use a generally agreed-

upon organizational plan. A typical laboratory report, for instance,
follows a fairly standard framework (often the “introduction,
methods, results, and discussion” format known as IMRAD) and
uses these as major headings in the report. Ask:

¢ How exactly is the text organized in this genre?

¢ What are its main parts?
¢ Are the parts labeled with headings?

Consider format Genres sometimes have an agreed-upon format.

Also ask:

Is a title page called for? If so, what should be on it?

e What size and shape does the genre call for? a trifold layout? or
double-columned or double-sided? Does it feature information in
boxes or sidebars?
¢ Does an abstract precede the main text? If so, how long is it?
¢ What kind of spacing is used? What are typical fonts?
Does the genre seem to call for the use of color?
Does the genre call for use of visuals or other illustrations?
Does the genre seem to have a typical way of beginning or ending?
 Adapting genre structures 71

10c Adapting genre structures

eae
Learning to borrow and adapt transitional devices and pieces of
sentence structure from other writing in the genre in which you
are working is one way to help you learn the conventions of that
discipline. Avoid copying the whole structure, however, or your bor-
rowed sentences may seem plagiarized (Chapter 14). Find sample
sentence structures from similar genres but on different topics so
that you borrow a typical structure (which does not belong to any-
one) rather than the idea or the particular phrasing. Write your
own sentences first, and look at other people’s sentences just to
guide your revision.

ABSTRACT FROM A SOCIAL SCIENCE PAPER

Using the interpersonal communications research of J. K. Brilhart

and G. J. Galanes, along with T. Hartman’s personality assess-
ment, I observed and analyzed the group dynamics of my project
collaborators in a communications course. Based on results of the
Hartman personality assessment, I predicted that a single leader
would emerge. However, complementary individual strengths and
gender differences encouraged a distributed leadership style.

EFFECTIVE BORROWING OF STRUCTURES

Drawing on the research of Deborah Tannen on conversational

styles, | analyzed the conversational styles of six first-year students
at DePaul University. Based on Tannen’s research, I expected that
the three men I observed would use features typical of male con-
versational style and the three women would use features typical
of female conversational style. In general, these predictions were
accurate; however, some exceptions were also apparent.

Consider some of the genres that you have encountered as

EXERCISE 10.1 a student, jotting down answers to the following questions
and bringing them to class for discussion.

1. What are some genres that you read but don’t usually write?
2. What are some genres that you are generally assigned by teachers?
3. What are some genres that you write to or with other students?
 Writing in a Variety of Disciplines and Genres

4. What are some genres that you will likely encounter in your major or in
your career?
5. How are some of the genres you listed different from those you encoun-
tered in high school?

10d Choosing genres for public writing

es
At some point during your college years or soon after, you are
highly likely to create writing that is not just something you turn
in for a grade but writing that is important to you because it tries
to make something good happen. Public writing has a very clear
purpose, is intended for a specific audience, and addresses that
audience directly, usually in straightforward, everyday language. It
uses the genre most suited to its purpose and audience (a poster,
a newsletter, a brochure, a letter to the editor), and it appears in
a medium (print, online, or both) where the intended audience
will see it. For example, if you want to convince your neighbors to
pool time, effort, and resources to build a local playground, you
might decide that a print flyer delivered door-to-door and posted
at neighborhood gathering places would work best. If you want
to create a flash mob to publicize ineffective security at chemical
plants near your city, on the other hand, an easily forwarded mes-
sage—text, tweet, or email—will probably work best.

10e Samples in a variety

eof disciplines and genres

The following pages show examples of some of the many forms aca-
demic and public writing can take.

Student writing in academic disciplines

Close reading of poetry The following excerpt is taken from student
Bonnie Sillay’s close reading of two poems by E. E. Cummings, an
assignment for her second-year American Literature seminar. This
excerpt includes the introduction to the essay and Bonnie’s reading
of the first poem, “since feeling is first,” in which she uses evidence
from the poem to create her own interpretation. Note that she uses
MLA style for her documentation (see Chapter 16).
 Samples in a variety of disciplines and genres

m STUDENT
WRITING
Sillay 1

Bonnie Sillay
Instructor Angela Mitchell
English 1102
4 December 2019
“Life’s Not a Paragraph”: The Triumph of Emotion in
the Poetry of E. E. Cummings
Throughout his poetry, E. E. Cummings leads readers deep into a Present
tense for
thicket of scrambled words, missing punctuation, and unconventional
poetry
structure. Within Cummings’s poetic bramble, ambiguity leads the reader i

through what seems at first a confusing and winding maze. However, this
confusion actually transforms into a path that leads the reader to the Foreshadows
discussion
center of the thicket where Cummings’s message lies: readers should not
of work to
allow their experience to be limited by reason and rationality. In order to come
communicate his belief that emotional experience should tnumph over
reason, Cummings employs odd juxtapositions, outlandish metaphors,
and inversions of traditional grammatical structures that reveal the illogic
of reason. Indeed, by breaking down such formal boundaries, Cummings's
Introductory
poems “since feeling is first” and “as freedom is a breakfastfood” suggest paragraph
ends with
that emotion, which provides the compositional fabric for our experience
thesis
of life, should never be defined or controlled. statement

In “since feeling is first,” Cummings urges readers to reject |

attempts to control emotion, using English grammar as one example /

{

of the restrictive conventions present in society. Stating that |

“since feeling is first /who pays any attention / to the syntax of
|
|
|
things” (lines 1-3), Cummings suggests that emotion should not be
forced to fit into some preconceived mold. He carries this message
throughout the poem by juxtaposing images of the abstract and the
concrete—images of emotion and grammar. Cummings’s word choice
enhances his intentionally strange juxtapositions, with the poet using
grammatical terms that suggest regulation. For example, in the line
“And death i think is no parenthesis” (16), Cummings uses the idea
that parentheses confine the words they surround in order to warn
the reader not to let death confine life or emotions.
 Writing in a Variety of Disciplines and Genres

STUDENT
WRITING
Sillay 2

Transition The structure of the poem also rejects traditional conventions.

sentence
Instead of the final stanzas making the main point, Cummings opens
connects
the previous his poem with his primary message, that “feeling is first” (1). Again,
paragraph
Cummings shows that emotion rejects order and structure. How can
to this one
emotion be bottled in sentences and interrupted by commas, colons,
and spaces? To Cummings, emotion is a never-ending run-on sentence
that should not be diagrammed or dissected.
Quotation In the third stanza of “since feeling is first,” Cummings states
introduced
his point outright, noting “my blood approves, / and kisses are a
effectively
better fate / than wisdom” (7-9). Here, Cummings argues for reveling
Metaphor in the feeling during a fleeting moment such as a kiss. He continues,
captures
“the best gesture of my brain is less than / your eyelids’ flutter” (11-12).
the spirit of
Cummings’‘s Cummings wants the reader to focus on a pure emotive response (the
point
flutter of an eyelash)—on the emotional, not the logical—on the
meanings of words instead of punctuation and grammar.
Cummings’s use of words such as kisses and blood (8, 7) adds to
the focus on the emotional. The ideas behind these words are difficult
to confine or restrict to a single definition: kisses mean different
things to different people, blood flows through the body freely and
continually. The words are not expansive or free enough to encompass
all that they suggest. Cummings ultimately paints language as more
restrictive than the flowing, powerful force of emotion.
Paragraph The poet’s use of two grammatical terms in the last lines, “for
reiterates
life’s not a paragraph / And death i think is no parenthesis,” warns
Cummings’s
claim and against attempts to format lives and feelings into conventional and
sums up his
rule-bound segments (15-16). Attempts to control, rather than feel,
argument
are rejected throughout “since feeling is first.” Emotion should be
limitless, free from any restrictions or rules.
Clear and While “since feeling is first” argues that emotions should
explicit
not be controlled or analyzed, “as freedom is a breakfastfood”
transition
from discus- suggests the difficulty of defining emotion. In this poem, Cummings
sion of first
uses deliberately far-fetched metaphors such as “freedom is a
poem
breakfastfood” and “time is a tree” (1, 26)....

Sa a ee a er
 Samples in a variety of disciplines and genres 75

aici ee i a: Ce ae a a a ——! STUDENT

~ WRITING
| Sillay 5 :

| Works Cited Sources

; ‘ ; a eee cited
Cummings, E. E. “as freedom is a breakfastfood.” FE. E. Cummings: according
Complete Poems 1904-1962, edited by George J. Firmage, to MLA
style
Liveright, 1991, p. 511.
---. “since feeling is first.” E. E. Cummings: Complete Poems
1904-1962, edited by George J. Firmage, Liveright, 1991,
p. 291.

Psychology research essay For a psychology class, student Martha Bell

was assigned to write a research essay that follows the conventions
of social science writing in this genre. She chose to analyze evidence
that suggests a range of choices for—as well as a robust debate
about—treatments for Lyme disease. To read her paper, see 17e.

Chemistry lab report Student Allyson Goldberg prepared a lab report

on an experiment she was assigned as part of her chemistry class.
The excerpt that follows includes the Introduction, Materials and
Methods, and Results sections of the report. Not included are the
title page, which comes first in such reports, the discussion section,
and the conclusion.
 76 Writing in a Variety of Disciplines and Genres

ne
STUDENT _jiaenieeienenenenenannenaeneiienaiemninimaiainiliiiia iia
WRITING
|
Goldberg 2
|
|

Introduction Introduction
explains
The purpose of this investigation was to experimentally
purpose
of lab determine the value of the universal gas constant, R. To
and gives
accomplish this goal, a measured sample of magnesium (Mg)
overview of
results was allowed to react with an excess of hydrochloric acid (HCL) at
|
room temperature and pressure so that the precise amount and
|| volume of the product hydrogen gas (H2) could be determined and
|
the value of R could be calculated using the ideal gas equation,
|
| PV=nRT.
Materials Materials & Methods
and meth-
Two samples of room temperature water, one about 250mL
ods section
explains lab and the other about 400mL, were measured into a smaller and
setup and
larger beaker, respectively. 15.0mL of HCL was then transferred into
procedure
a side arm flask that was connected to the top of a buret (clamped
to a ringstand) through a 5/16” diameter flexible tube. (This “gas
buret” was connected to an adjacent “open buret,” clamped to
the other side of the ringstand and left open to the atmosphere of
the laboratory at its wide end, by a 1/4” diameter flexible tube.
These two burets were adjusted on the ringstand so that they were
vertically parallel and close together.) The HCl sample was transferred
to the flask such that none came in contact with the inner surface of
the neck of the flask. The flask was then allowed to rest, in an almost
horizontal position, in the smaller beaker.
The open buret was adjusted on the ringstand such that its
20mL mark was horizontally aligned with the 35mL mark on the gas
buret. Room temperature water was added to the open buret until the
water level of the gas buret was at about 34.00mL.
Passive A piece of magnesium ribbon was obtained, weighed on an
voice
analytical balance, and placed in the neck of the horizontal side arm
throughout
is typical flask. Next, a screw cap was used to cap the flask and form an airtight
of writing
seal. This setup was then allowed to sit for 5 minutes in order to
in natural
sciences reach thermal equilibrium.

Ox serdes
 Samples in a variety of disciplines and genres 77

i. ~~ etna sidun olnin fi Ania seh Eee

| WRITING
| Goldberg 3

After 5 minutes, the open buret was adjusted so that the

menisci on both burets were level with each other; the side arm flask
was then tilted vertically to let the magnesium ribbon react with
the HCL. After the brisk reaction, the flask was placed into the larger
beaker and allowed to sit for another 5 minutes.
Next, the flask was placed back into the smaller beaker, and the
open buret was adjusted on the ringstand such that its meniscus was
level with that of the gas buret. After the system sat for an additional
30 minutes, the open buret was again adjusted so that the menisci on
both burets were level.
This procedure was repeated two more times, with the exception |
that HCL was not again added to the side arm flask, as it was already |
present in enough excess for all reactions from the first trial. |

Results and Calculations pois

eea ete eee Organized in
Trial Lab Lab Mass of Mg Initial Buret Final Buret 4 table
# Temp. Pressure Ribbon Used Reading Reading |
(°C) (mbar) (9) (mL) (mL) |
1 24.4 1013 0.0147 32.66 19.60

2 24.3 1013 0.0155 33.59 N/A* |

3 25.0 1013 0.0153 34.35 19.80

*See note in Discussion section.

Trial Volume Moles of H2 Lab Partial Value of | Mean

# of He Gas Produced Temp. Pressure R(Latm/ Value of
(L) (K) of He mol K) R (L atm/
(atm) mol K)
1 0.01306 6.05 xX 10-4 298 0.970 0.0704 0.0728

2 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

3 0.01455 6.30 X 10-4 298 0.968 0.0751

Table 1 Experimental results

lo a
78 10e@ writing ina Variety of Disciplines and Genres

Student writing in more public contexts

Poster Student Hebron Warren won first place in the New York
City Police Department’s contest for posters encouraging victims
to report campus sexual assaults to the police. Hebron’s eye-
catching design focuses on the action he wants audiences to take:
“Speak up!” He uses visual symmetry to emphasize that assaults
happen to both men and women, and includes simple statistics to
persuade the audience that too few of these crimes are reported.
The message is concise and simple enough to be understood
quickly by passersby.

SPEAK UP!
lind = 1int6
Only a few report it. : Only a few report it.

CALL 911

HEBRON/NYPD
WARREN
 Samples in a variety of disciplines and genres 79

Fundraising web page Student Justin Dart created this fundraising

web page with a very clear purpose: to crowd-source the funding
to help Jey, a young street vendor in Accra, Ghana, get a college
education. Using the Indiegogo template, Justin posted a video
spelling out the background and purpose of his fundraiser, a short
written description of the project, and a list of perks for donors
at various levels. Other tabs offered updates from Justin on his
progress, comments from donors, photos, and more. To reach as
many people as possible, Justin shared this page with his friends and
acquaintances and urged them to share it on social media outlets.
Justin ended up raising enough to pay for Jey’s university tuition for
his college career, as well as housing and incidentals.

= Teach a Man: Wisdom

A story about a man in Ghana and his desire to attend college.
1 Education — Bouldec Colorado, United States

Campaign Home | Updates /10 Comments / 29 Gallery

/13

$4,925 usb

Raised
of $3,600 Goal

us O time Jef

Flexible Funding
This campaign hasended sndwitreceive wil
funds rsined. Funding derpton: June 14, 2012 -
August 93, 2012 (11:59m PT),

Select a Perk foryour contribution

$10 uso
Primary Education
Every litle bit helps, so THANK YOU for your
Share This Campaign: | > htp:/igp.me/p/121615

iu Co

“Teach s Mon: Wisdom T-shirt. A good-looking,

What's the goal? | comfortable cause-related Tee you'll sctusily
want towear (Gee Gallery).
Raise $3,800 tovend my Ghanaian friend Jey to the University ofGhana for3 yearssothat he con
‘eam his bachelors degree inAfforestation (the conservation snd reintroduction ofplant lifein 16 ciaimed
barren aress).

Who is Jey? $50 USD

Jey is» 28-year-old Ghanaian mon who lives In Aco. Hisfather ppssed away when he was 9 and High School Diploma
he grew up in single mother household, polishing shoes on the street until he was 16 to help SEs i we ee -
support
his emily. He made ifalltheway through high schoo! (eaming good grades), butwas | In.
addlition to8 Wisdom’ Tee.Hi beforwarding }
unable to continue into college because of» |ack offunds. He's smart, caring, good-natured,
and you'an elecironig copy ofthepicture ofJey }
passionate
about education. Right now, Jey lives hand-to-mouth selling handmade bracelets and sitting in the clsssmom
snd giving you o |
neskiaoes totourists whostayatornestThe Rising Phoenix Hotel. fintiering shout outbothhere and.on Facebook. |
4 claimed
DART
JUSTIN
80 10e@ writing ina Variety of Disciplines and Genres

Web comic Student Zack Karas worked with a team of classmates

on an assignment to do field research in a public space. His group
chose a local coffee shop, and after conducting observations of
the environment and the interactions among people there, they
presented a critical analysis of the coffee-drinking scene to the rest
of the class.
Zack then used his team’s coffee shop experience as the basis for
a comic, which he posted on a blog created to host his artwork. The
final panels include a twist: Zack’s comic avatar fails to recognize
that he, like many of the customers, is also a “post-ironic hipster .. .
with facial hair, a hoodie, and an iPhone.” Turning the report into
a comic allowed Zack to reach an audience beyond his classmates—
readers who share his interest in humor, online comics, and the
critique of the coffee-culture demographic.

No!
STAY BACK YOU COFFEE

GULPING HIPSTERS!

Sees ONG
By Zack Karas
KARAS
ZACK
 Using explicit structure and signpost language 81

11 Creating Presentations
It’s a good idea to jump at every opportunity you can to make pre-
sentations, since this form of creating and sharing knowledge is
getting more and more prominent in almost all fields. This chapter
will help you put your best foot forward as you do so.

11a Considering task, purpose, and audience

RE
Think about how much time you have to prepare; where the pre-
sentation will take place and how long it will be; whether you will
use written-out text or note cards; whether visual aids are called for;
and what equipment you will need. If you are making a group pre-
sentation, divide duties and practice with your classmates.
It’s important to start by answering a few questions. What’s
the purpose of your presentation—to lead a discussion? teach a
lesson? give a report? make a proposal? present research? Also,
who’s your audience? What do they know about your topic, what
opinions and values do they have about it, and how can you help
them follow your presentation and perhaps accept your point of
view?

411b writing a memorable introduction

@==e and conclusion

Listeners tend to remember beginnings and endings most readily.

Make yours memorable by using a surprising statement, opinion, or
question; a vivid anecdote; or a powerful quotation or image. Make
sure that at the end, the audience gets the main takeaway.

411¢ Using explicit structure and signpost

“=e language

Organize your presentation clearly and give an overview of your

main points up front. Then pause between major points, and use
signpost language to move from one idea to the next: The second cri-
sis point in the breakup of the Soviet Union came hard on the heels of the
 Creating Presentations

first instead of Another thing about the Soviet Union’s problems. . . .

Signposts also include repeating key words and ideas. Finally, avoid
complicated sentences, and use as many concrete verbs, nouns, and
examples as possible.

11d Preparing a script for ease of presentation

pe
If you decide to speak from a script, use a large double- or triple-
spaced print. End each page with the end of a sentence so you won’t
have to pause to turn a page. Whether you speak from a full text, a
detailed outline, note cards, or points on flip charts or slides, mark
the places where you want to pause, and highlight the words you
want to emphasize.

11e Planning visuals

CED
Think of your visuals not as add-ons but as a major means of getting
your points across. Many speakers use presentation software (such
as Google Slides or Prezi) to help keep on track and to guide the
audience. And posters, flip charts, or interactive whiteboards can
also help you make strong visual statements.
When you work with visuals for your presentation, they must be
large enough to be easily read—even if you are sharing your screen
during a Zoom or other online presentation. Be sure the informa-
tion is simple, clear, and easy to understand. Do not read from your
visuals or, if it’s a live presentation, turn your back on your audience
as you refer to them. Most important, make sure your visuals help
listeners understand rather than distract from your message. Try out
each visual on classmates or friends: if they don’t grasp the meaning
and purpose of the visual, scrap it and try again.

Slides Here are some guidelines for preparing effective slides:

¢ Keep information on each slide minimal; simple words or a picture

can make a point.
¢ Avoid more than five bullet points (or forty words) on a slide, and
never read the slides to your audience. Instead, say something to
explain or emphasize what’s on the slide.
 J
v
Practicing 11f @ 83

WY Checklist
Reviewing Your Presentation
Before your instructor or another audience evaluates your pre-
sentation, do a review for yourself:

VY Does your presentation have a clear thesis, a compelling intro-

duction and conclusion, and a simple, clear structure?
VY Do you use sources to support your points and demonstrate
your knowledge? Do you include a works cited slide at the
end of the presentation?
VY ls your use of media (posters, slides, video clips, and so on)
appropriate for your topic and thesis? If you are using slides,
will they appeal to your audience and make your points
effectively?
V Do you use clear signpost language and effective repetition?
V Have you thought about your delivery—tone and projection
of voice, pacing, and stance?

Use light backgrounds in a darkened room, dark backgrounds in

a lighted one. In an online presentation, a light background with
dark type is best.
¢ Make sure that audio or video clips with sound are clearly audible
and captioned.
¢ Use only images large and sharp enough to be clearly visible to your
audience, and remember to describe the images as you present them.

Handouts You may also want to prepare handouts for your audi-
ence: pertinent bibliographies, for example, or text too extensive to
be presented otherwise. Unless the audience will need the handout
as you speak, share it after the presentation.

41f practicing
TD
Set aside enough time to practice your presentation at least twice.
Record your rehearsals, or practice with friends who can com-
ment on content and style. Timing your run-throughs will tell you
 Creating Presentations

whether you need to cut (or expand) material to make the presenta-
tion an appropriate length.

11g Delivering the presentation

ems
To calm your nerves and get off to a good start, know your mate-
rial thoroughly and use the following strategies to good advantage
before, during, and after your presentation:

Visualize your presentation with the aim of feeling comfortable

during it.
If possible, stand: speakers make a stronger impression standing
rather than sitting.
Face your audience (know where the camera is on your laptop! ),
and make eye contact whenever possible.
Allow time for questions, and thank the audience at the end of the
presentation.

11h Excerpts from a presentation

Here’s the opening of the script student writer Shuqiao Song pre-
pared for her presentation, “The Residents of a DysFUNctional
HOME: Text and Image.”

Welcome! I’m Shugiao Song and I'm here to talk about “The Residents
of a DysFUNctional HOME.” We meet these characters in a graphic memoir
called Fun Home, which later became a hit Broadway musical. [Here Song
showed a three-second video clip of author Bechdel saying, “I love words,
and I love pictures. But especially, I love them together—in a mystical
way I can’t even explain.”]
That was Alison Bechdel, author of Fun Home. In that clip, she
conveniently introduces the topics of my presentation today: Words.
Pictures. And the mystical way they work together.

Note that Shuqiao opens with a play on words (“DysFUNctional

HOME”), to which she returns later on, and with a short video clip
that sums up her main topic. Also note the use of short sentences
 Excerpts from a presentation 85

and fragments, special effects that act like drumbeats to get and
hold the audience’s attention.
For her presentation, Shuqiao developed a series of very simple
slides aimed at underscoring her points and keeping her audience
focused on them. She began by introducing the work, showing the
book cover on an otherwise black slide. Throughout the presenta-
tion, she used very simple visuals—a word or two, or a large image
from the book she was discussing—to keep her audience focused on
what she was saying.

2.
IMAGES deceive...
...Out are necessary.

In her presentation, Shuqiao Song uses simple visuals to focus her

audience on her analysis.
1
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 Research

Conducting Research 88 2

Evaluating Sources and Taking

Notes 96

Integrating Sources and Avoiding

Plagiarism 113

oe
ae
Writing a Research Project 120
2 12 Conducting Research >
Whether you’re figuring out the best software to use for a proj-
ect or investigating ways to earn money while going to school,
you are doing research. And in college, you are part of a research
community—one that values the work of researchers and knows
that the results of research can lead to important breakthroughs.
Research can help you earn a good grade, of course, and it can also
help you make your mark—make something good happen in the
world around you.

12a Understanding challenges to research today

SACs st]

You’d think that research should be easier than ever to conduct,

with so much information instantly available through technology.
But more doesn’t always or even often mean better: today, dis- and
misinformation, fake news, outright lies, and conspiracy theories
can overwhelm credible, trustworthy information. As a result, you
need to recognize the challenges that face you and read defensively
and skeptically rather than simply accepting what sources say. That’s
what two University of .Washington science professors are doing
with a course that teaches students to recognize how statistics and
visual representation of data (especially “big” data) can be used to
misinform and confuse. And it’s what researchers everywhere are
doing when they fact-check and triangulate sources—or, in other
words, when they look at the evidence from several different stand-
points. Finally, ethical researchers never rely solely on social media
as a main source. You'll be wise, then, to stick with fully credible
sources you can access through library databases and reliable, ethical
websites. (See 12d.) As a researcher, you want to be able to vouch
for your sources, to make sure that they are accurate, credible, and
trustworthy.

12b Beginning the research process

ED
Once you have your skeptical/critical hat on and have a topic that’s
assigned to you or that you have chosen, move on to analyze the

88
 Beginning the research process

assignment, articulate a research question to answer, and form a

hypothesis. Then, after your preliminary research is complete, you
can refine your hypothesis into a working thesis (see 3b) and begin
your research in earnest.

Considering context Ask yourself what the purpose of your

research project is—perhaps to describe, survey, analyze, persuade,
explain, classify, compare, or contrast. Then consider your audience.
Who will be most interested, and what will they need to know?
What assumptions and values might they hold? What response
do you want from them? Also examine your own stance or attitude
toward your topic (see 2d). Do you feel curious, critical, confused,
or something else entirely? What influences have shaped your
stance? What biases may you have about this topic?
Then consider how many and what kinds of sources you need to
find. What kinds of evidence will help your audience understand
or agree with your position? Where will you be most likely to find
evidence that will speak directly to your audience, including stories
and narratives, personal experience, and information from sources
you have not considered before or that have been ignored? What
visuals might you need? Would it help to do field research, such as
surveys, observations, interviews, or more informal conversations?
Finally, consider how long your project will be, how much time it
will take, and when it is due.

Formulating a research question and hypothesis After ana-

lyzing your project’s context, work from your general topic to a
research question and a hypothesis.

TOPIC How tourism affects residents/

neighborhoods
NARROWED TOPIC How tourism in Harlem affects its residents
ISSUE Many types of tourism business are
operating in historic Harlem, not all of
which bring benefits to residents.
RESEARCH QUESTION What type of tourism business is more
beneficial to residents of Harlem, a small
locally owned business or an outside tour
company?
90 Conducting Research

HYPOTHESIS Small locally owned businesses may benefit

residents of Harlem more than those that
come in from outside of Harlem.

After you have explored sources to test your hypothesis and sharp-
ened it by reading, writing, and talking with others, you can refine
it into a working thesis (3b).

WORKING THESIS Although economic initiatives have favored

big tourism companies from outside,
research shows that small locally owned
and culturally relevant companies provide
more economic and social benefits to
residents of Harlem.

Planning research Once you have formulated your hypothesis,

determine what you already know about it and where you found
this information. Think hard about the kinds of sources you expect
to consult—articles, print or digital books, specialized reference
works, experts on your own campus, and so on—and the number
you think you will need, how current they should be, and where you
might find them.

12¢€ Choosing among types of sources

eo)
Keep in mind some important differences among types of sources.

Primary and secondary sources Primary sources provide you

with firsthand knowledge, while secondary sources report on or
analyze the research of others. Primary sources are basic sources of
raw information, including your own field research; films, works
of art, or other objects you examine; literary works you read; and
eyewitness accounts, photographs, news reports, and historical
documents. Secondary sources are descriptions or interpretations
of primary sources, such as researchers’ reports, reviews, biogra-
phies, and encyclopedia articles. What constitutes a primary or
secondary source depends on the purpose of your research. A film
review, for instance, serves as a secondary source if you are writ-
ing about the film but as a primary source if you are studying the
critic’s writing.
 Choosing among types of sources i
Scholarly and popular sources Nonacademic sources like mag-
azines can be helpful, and you should draw on them, especially if
they are well known to your audience. In addition, you will want to
look to scholarly journals, authorities in a field, whose articles have
been vetted by other experts. Here are some tips for distinguishing
between scholarly and popular sources:

SCHOLARLY POPULAR
Title often contains the word Journal usually does not appear
Journal in title
Source is available (for free) Source is generally available at
mainly through your library newsstands or on the free web
databases
Few or no commercial Many advertisements
advertisements
Authors are identified with Authors are usually journalists
academic credentials or reporters hired by the
publication, not academics
Summary or abstract appears No summary or abstract;
on first page of article; articles _ articles are fairly short
are fairly long
Articles cite sources and provide Articles may include quotations
bibliographies but rarely cite sources or provide
bibliographies

Older and more current sources Most projects can benefit from
both older, historical sources and more current ones. Some older
sources are classics; others are simply dated.

Personal experience and narratives Remember that your own

experience can serve as an important source, one you can call on
during your research. What in your experience illustrates or explains
something about your topic? In addition, how might you use narra-
tives or stories—either from your own experience or from the experi-
ences of others—as powerful sources to support and exemplify your
topic or claim? Pay special attention to narratives or stories from
those who have often been ignored or misrepresented—they may
offer particularly compelling evidence for your topic and audience.
92 Conducting Research

12d Using web and library resources

ERD
To find scholarly, popular, primary, secondary, and other sources,
you will most often turn to the web or to your college library.

Starting with online searches Writers today often begin research

by turning to Google, so remember that a quick search can give you
an overview of what’s out there. Wikipedia also offers a good place
to begin research: the entries are relatively short, clearly written,
and well organized and can point to themes or issues you can then
pursue on sites like Google Scholar. Because Wikipedia articles can
and do change often, you may not want to use them for formal
citations.

Finding authoritative sources on the open web The Internet

will let you enter virtual libraries that allow access to some collections
in libraries other than the one at your school. Collections available
through government sites can be especially useful: see, for instance,
the Library of Congress (www.loc.gov); the National Institutes of
Health (www.nih.gov); or the U.S. Census Bureau (www.census
.gov). Online versions of reputable newspapers such as the Black Star
News, Washington Post, El Nuevo Herald, or the Wall Street Journal or
sites like C-SPAN can provide sources of current news. In addition,
general interest magazines (including Slate and Salon) are published
only on the web, and many other reputable publications, like News-
week, Ebony, The New Yorker, or The New Republic, make some of their
content available online for free. Finally, media networks such as
ABC, NPR, and Telemundo regularly post online content.

Consulting your library’s staff Your library’s staff—especially

reference librarians—can be a valuable resource. You can talk with
a librarian about your research project and get specific recommen-
dations about databases and other helpful places to begin your
research. Many libraries also have online tours and chat rooms
where students can ask questions.

Catalogs Library catalogs show whether a book is housed in

the library and, if so, offer a call number that helps you find the
book on the shelf. Because books are organized by subject, brows-
ing through books near the one you’ve found in the catalog can
 Using web and library resources 12d 93

WY Checklist
Effective Search Techniques
You can access online catalogs, databases, and websites without
going to the library. And you can search the web by using care-
fully chosen keywords to limit the scope of your search and refine
a search.
Y Advanced search tools let you focus your search more
narrowly—by combining terms with Anp or eliminating them
with not, by specifying dates and media types, and so on—so
they may give you more relevant results.
VY Adding site:.org or site:.edu to a search term can help limit
results to nonprofit sites or university-sponsored sites.
V If you don’t see an advanced search option, start with key-
words. Check the first page or two of results. If you get many
irrelevant options, think about how to refine your keywords
to get more targeted results.
V Most college libraries classify material using the Library of
Congress Subject Headings, or LCSH. When you find a library
source that seems especially relevant, be sure to use the
subject headings for that source as search terms to bring up all
the entries under each heading.

help locate other works related to your topic. Catalogs also indicate
where to find a particular periodical, either in print or in an online
database, at the library.

Indexes and databases Remember that most college libraries

subscribe to a large number of indexes and databases that you can
access online for free, and these sources contain much information
that you will not have access to in a general Google search. Some
databases include the full text of articles from newspapers, maga-
zines, journals, and other works; some offer only short abstracts
(summaries), which give an overview so you can decide whether to
spend time finding and reading the whole text. Indexes of reviews
provide information about a potential source’s critical reception.
Check with a librarian for discipline-specific indexes and data-
bases or those related to your specific topic, such as the International
 Conducting Research

Index to Black Periodicals, the Hispanic American Periodicals Index,

the LGBT Magazine Archive, American Indian History and Culture,
Scottish Women Poets, and many others.

Reference works General reference works, such as encyclope-

dias, biographical resources, almanacs, digests, and atlases, can help
you get an overview of a topic, identify subtopics, find more special-
ized sources, and identify keywords for searches.

Bibliographies Bibliographies—lists of sources—in books or arti-

cles related to your topic can lead you to other valuable resources.
Ask a librarian whether your library has more extensive bibliogra-
phies related to your research topic.

Other resources Your library can help you borrow materials

from other libraries (this can take time, so plan ahead). Check with
reference librarians, too, about audio, video, multimedia, and art
collections; government documents; and other special collections
or archives.

12e Doing field research

Pe Sy

For many research projects, you will need to collect field data. Con-
sider where you can find relevant information, how to gather it, and
who might be your best providers of information. You may also want
to talk with your instructor about any field research you plan to do,
to make sure your research will not violate your college’s guidelines
for doing research that involves people.

Interviews Some information is best obtained by asking direct

questions of other people. If you can talk with an expert—in person,
on the telephone, or online—you may get information you cannot
obtain through any other kind of research. Think carefully, there-
fore, about what kind of interviewees will be able to provide you
with the most useful and reliable information.

¢ Determine your exact purpose; make sure it relates to your research

question and your hypothesis.
¢ Set up the interview well in advance. Specify how long it will take,
and if you wish to record the session, ask permission to do so.
 Doing field research

¢ Prepare a written list

of factual and open-
ended questions. If
the interview proceeds
& sail (y] 9:13 PM
in a direction that
seems fruitful, don’t May 9, 2019
feel that you have to Interview with Carolyn Johnson
ask all of your pre-
1. How long have you lived in Harlem?
pared questions.
2. Describe the most significant changes
Record the subject, you've seen in Harlem in the past
date, time, and place 25 years.
of the interview. . Why was it important to you to start a
Thank those you tour business where you live?
interview, either in . What are some challenges of running
person or in a letter a small, local tour business? What is
or email. the relationship between small tour
businesses in Harlem and larger
non-Harlem-based companies?
Alternatives to formal . What kind of relationship do you as a
interviews Formal, business owner have with fellow
structured interviews will residents?
not be appropriate in . What do you think is unique and
every situation. In some important about the way your tours
cultures, the kind of operate?
direct questions used . How have you benefited from UMEZ
in such interviews can funding?
even be offensive. Indig-
enous researchers often
prefer more informal,
unobtrusive methods of
gathering information.
For example, they may Sample questions for a personal interview
prefer to meet informally
in a comfortable setting where they can join together in some activity,
to share their own experiences, to leave quiet time and to respect the
other person’s silences, and not to ask direct questions, preferring to
let the conversation develop naturally.

Observation Trained observers report that making a faithful record

of an observation requires intense concentration and mental agility.
 Evaluating Sources and Taking Notes

e Determine the purpose of the observation, how it relates to your

research question and hypothesis, and what you think you may find.
¢ Brainstorm about what you are looking for, but don’t be rigidly
bound to your expectations.
¢ Develop an appropriate system for recording data. Consider using
a split notebook or page: on one side, record your observations
directly; on the other, record your thoughts or interpretations.
Record the date, time, and place of observation.

Opinion surveys Surveys usually depend on questionnaires. On

any questionnaire, the questions should be clear and easy to under-
stand and designed so that you can analyze the answers without
difficulty. Questions that ask respondents to say yes or no or to rank
items on a scale are easiest to tabulate.

e Write out your purpose, and determine the kinds of questions to ask.
¢ Figure out how to reach respondents—either online via email, apps,
or social media; over the phone; or in person.
¢ Draft questions that call for short, specific answers.
¢ Test the questions on several people, and revise questions that seem
unfair, ambiguous, or too hard or time-consuming.
¢ Draft a cover letter or invitation email. Be sure to state a deadline.
¢ If you are using a print questionnaire, leave adequate space for
answers.
Proofread the questionnaire carefully.

13 Evaluating Sources and Taking

Notes
All research builds on the careful and sometimes inspired use of
sources—that is, on research done by others. Since you want the
information you glean from sources to be reliable and persuasive,
evaluate each potential source carefully.
 Reading vertically °F
13a Checking facts
es

Especially with online sources, practice what media analyst Howard

Rheingold calls “crap detection,” which means identifying infor-
mation that is faulty or deceptive. Rheingold recommends finding
three separate credible online sources that corroborate the point you
want to make. Here are some tips for becoming a good fact-checker:

¢ Consider the facts carefully. Are any taken out of context? Can you
find them corroborated in other sources? If not, be suspicious. How
thoroughly documented is each source?
Become familiar with nonpartisan fact-checkers that can help you,
like PolitiFact, FactCheck.org, and AmericanPressInstitute.org.
Snopes.com is also useful for fact-checking general rumors and
Internet memes.
Be on the lookout for claims that are unsubstantiated, for quota-
tions or statistics that are not attributed to a reliable source, for
clickbait headlines or titles, and for nonstandard URLs—those that
have, for instance, a “.co” ending. (NYTimes.com.co is not the New
York Times.)
Also be attentive to the tone with which facts are presented or rep-
resented: if it is sensationalistic or highly exaggerated, take special
care that the facts are not also exaggerated.

13b Reading vertically

SW
When you are considering online sources, judging credibility can
be especially tricky. One good, basic way to evaluate a source is to
examine it closely, top to bottom, front to back, really drilling down
on it to make sure you understand not only its content but also its
stance, where it’s coming from. The following guidelines will help
you do this kind of vertical reading to begin assessing each source.

¢ Your purpose. How does the source add to your research project?
Does it help you support a major point? demonstrate that you have
researched the topic fully? help establish your credibility?
¢ Relevance. Is the source closely related to your research question?
Read beyond the title and opening paragraph to check for relevance.
98 Evaluating Sources and Taking Notes

¢ Name of the author and sponsor or publisher. Is it obvious who

composed the material? Is the author’s name included? Are cre-
dentials or an area of expertise listed? Can you tell who sponsors
or publishes the site? Often you can visit an “About” page for such
information.
* Date of publication. Recent sources are often more useful than
older ones, particularly in fields that change rapidly. However, the
most authoritative works may be older ones. The publication dates
of Internet sites can often be difficult to pin down. And even for
sites that include the dates of posting, remember that the material
posted may have been composed sometime earlier.
¢ Stance of source. Identify the source’s point of view or rhetorical
stance, and scrutinize it carefully. Does the source present facts
that you can verify? Does it interpret or evaluate them, and if so,
is this interpretation overly biased? If it presents facts, what is
included and what is omitted, and why? If it interprets or evaluates
information that is not disputed, the source’s stance may be obvi-
ous, but at other times you will need to think carefully about the
source’s goals. What does the author or sponsoring group want—to
convince you of an idea? sell you something? call you to action in
some way?
¢ Level of specialization. General sources can be helpful as you begin
your research, but you may then need the authority or currency of
more specialized sources. On the other hand, extremely specialized
works may be very hard to understand.
* Audience of source. Was the source written for the general public?
specialists? advocates or opponents? a group with a particular bias
or ideology?

Vertical reading will go a long way toward helping you evaluate

sources, but often not far enough because it keeps you focused only
on the source itself. Especially with web-based sources that can
so easily be made to appear to be trustworthy and credible, smart
researchers move beyond the source itself. Combining vertical read-
ing with lateral reading (13c) is the best way to judge whether a
source is credible and will be useful for your project.
 Reading laterally °F
Vertical Reading

Author?
oe Purpose?

Is this oe
info Sponsor?
credible? Bina?

Relevance?
Facts?

13C Reading laterally

CED
When a group of Stanford researchers asked historians, undergrad-
uates, and professional fact-checkers to examine two websites and
determine which was the more authoritative, they found that the
historians and undergraduates did not do very well while the fact-
checkers were 100 percent correct. What was their secret? Rather
than reading vertically—that is, staying within a website to deter-
mine whether or not it is credible—the fact-checkers immediately
left the websites in question, opened new tabs, visited new sites, and
checked what other sources had to say about the sponsors of the
websites under examination. They used external sites as lenses for
evaluating their “target” site. The researchers refer to this as lateral
reading, and it’s a practice you can take up as you evaluate sources,
especially those you find online. Here are a few guidelines that can
help you begin reading laterally.

¢ For any website, first check the “about” or “about us” tab, which
may tell you what groups the site is associated with or sponsored by.
¢ Make sure the site/source is clearly relevant to your research project.
* Open new browser tabs and search for the sponsor or publisher to
see what others have had to say about their credibility, trustworthi-
ness, political leanings or bias, and so on. Don’t simply click on the
100 Evaluating Sources and Taking Notes

Lateral Reading

Author | Search Search | Sponsor

OK? result result OK?

Search Is this Search

result info result
credible?
Facts? Purpose?
Relevance? Bias?

first search result that pops up; rather, search for the most repu-
table, reliable one. And don’t settle for just one opinion—see if you
can corroborate, or confirm, what the search result site is saying
about your “target” site.
Do the same kind of lateral searching for information about
the author of the source. What can you learn about the author’s
credentials?
Search for what other sources have to say about the major claims
your source or site is making. Do other sources confirm the claim
or call it into question?
Do fact-checking to corroborate any facts presented by the source.
Practice what the Stanford researchers call “click restraint”: see
what you can tell about a source’s reliability before clicking on it.

13d Reading and analyzing sources

ec ia
After you have determined that a source is potentially useful, read
it carefully and critically (see Chapter 8), asking yourself the fol-
lowing questions about how this research fits your writing project:
How relevant is this material to your research question and
hypothesis?
What claim(s) does the source make and how is each supported?
Does the source include counterarguments that you should address?
 Synthesizing sources 101

* How credible and persuasive is the evidence? Does it represent

alternative views fairly? Will it convince your audience?
¢ Will you need to change your thesis to account for this
information?
¢ What quotations from this source might you want to use?

As you read and take notes on your sources, keep in mind that
you will need to present data and sources clearly to other readers so
that they can understand your point.

13e Synthesizing sources

cae)
Analysis requires you to take apart something complex (such as
an article in a scholarly journal) and look closely at each part to
understand how the parts fit together (or don’t!). Academic writ-
ing also calls for synthesis—grouping similar pieces of information
together and looking for patterns and themes, or similarities and
differences—so you can put your sources and your own knowledge
together in an original argument. Synthesis is the flip side of analy-
sis: you assemble the parts into a new whole.
To synthesize sources for a research project, try the following
tips, which continue on page 106:

* Don’t just grab a quotation and move on. Rather, read the
material carefully (see Chapter 8). A national study of first-year
college writing found that student writers often used sources
they hadn’t read carefully enough to realize they were not
really relevant to their point. Another study showed that some
students tended to use quotations only from the first one or two
pages of a source, suggesting that they may not really know how
relevant it is.
Understand the purpose of each source. Make sure the source is
relevant and necessary to your argument.
* Determine the important ideas in each source. Take notes on each
source (13f). Identify and summarize the key ideas.
¢ Formulate a position. Figure out how the pieces fit together. Look
for patterns and themes, similarities and differences. Consider mul-
tiple perspectives on the topic before deciding what you want to say.
 Determine the sponsor or publisher of the source. See what informa-
tion you can get from the URL. The domain names for government
sites may end in .gov or .mil and for educational sites in .edu. The end-
ing .org may—but does not always—indicate a nonprofit organization.
Also check the header and footer, which may identify the sponsor. The
web page on p. 103 is a .org site sponsored by The American College of
Pediatricians with a publication date of 2020.
Look for an About page or a link to a home page for background
information on the sponsor. Is a mission statement included? What are
the sponsoring organization’s purpose and point of view? Is the mis-
sion statement balanced? What is the purpose of the site (to inform, to
persuade, to advocate, to advertise, or something else)?

Conduct a new search to read laterally. Search for the author,

publisher, or sponsor to see what others say about the credibility
and accuracy of the target site. A web search may lead you to a list of
results that call the organization into question. In the example on
p. 103, articles by the Southern Poverty Law Center (a civil rights
group), Wikipedia, and Psychology Today point out the conservative
bias and anti-LGBTQ positions of the target site.

Follow links to read more, gather a fuller perspective, confirm (or

reject) claims, and check facts presented on the target site. From the
search result sites, what can you tell about the target source's point of
view, stance, goals, and target audience?

Return to the target site and weigh what you have learned from your
lateral reading; then determine whether the target site fits your purpose
and goals and meets high standards for credibility.
 About Us Resources Contact Us Donate Become 2 Member

About Page

Pn Best for
’ Children
© 2020 American College of Pediatricians | Privacy Policy | Terms

@ Sponsor or
american college of pediatricians
Publisher

www.splcenter.org > extremist-files » group » american... ¥

American College of Pediatricians | Southern Poverty Law ...

The American College of Pediatricians (ACPeds) is a fringe ant-LGBTQ hate group that
masquerades as the premier U.S. association of pediatricians to push ...
Date founded: 2002

en.wikipedia.org » wiki » American_College_of_Pediat... +

Search Results
American College of Pediatricians - Wikipedia
The American College of Pediatricians (ACPeds) is a socially conservative advocacy group of
pediatricians and other healthcare professionals in the United States. The group was founded in
2002, In 2005, it reportedly had between 150 and 200 members and one employee; in 2016 it
reportedly had 500 physician members.

www.psychologytoday.com > blog »political-minds >t... ¥

The American College of Pediatricians Is an Anti-LGBT Group ...
May 8, 2017 ~ A small anti-LGBT group called the “American College of Pediatricians (ACP)”

SPLC
(iy) Southern Poverty RESOURCES » WHATWEDO » OURISSUES ~ HATEWATCH HATEMAP PODCAST Q.
= [aw Center

AMERICAN COLLEGE OF PEDIATRICIANS Search Result

Site init br
Tho American College of Pediatricians (ACPeds) is a fringe anti-LGBTQ hate group that masquerades as the premier
U.S, association of pediatricians to push anti-LGBTQ junk science, primarily via far-right conservative media and fillng
amicus briefs in cases related to gay adoption and marriage equality.

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ACPeds opposes adaption by LGBT) couples, links homosexuality to pedophilia,

endorses so-called reparativeofsexual orientation conversion therapy for homosexual
youth, believes transgender people have a mental ness and has called transgender
health care for youth child abuse.
Determine the relevance of the source.
& Look for an abstract or summary of the article. Is this source directly
related to your research? Does it provide useful information and in-
sights? Will readers consider it persuasive support?

Determine the credibility of the publication.

@ Consider the title. Words such as Journal, Review, and Quarterly may
indicate that the periodical is a scholarly source (see 12c). Most research
projects rely on authorities in a particular field, whose work usually ap-
pears in scholarly journals.

3 Try to determine the publisher or sponsor. The journal on p. 105 is

published by the University of Illinois. Academic presses such as this
one generally review articles carefully before publishing them. Also do
a web search to see what others are saying about this article, publisher,
or sponsor. For more on lateral reading, see 13c.

Determine the credibility of the author.

a Evaluate the author’s credentials. In this case, they are given in a note
that indicates the author is a college professor.

Determine the currency of the article.

©) Look at the publication date, and think about whether your topic and
your credibility depend on your use of very current sources.

Determine the accuracy of the article.

6 Look at the sources cited by the author of the article. Here, they are
listed in a bibliography. Ask yourself whether the works the author has
cited seem credible and current. Are any of these works cited in other
articles you've considered?

In addition, consider the following questions:

e What is the article’s stance or point of view? What are the author's
goals? What does the author want you to know or believe?
¢ How does this source fit in with your other sources? Does any of the
information it provides contradict or challenge other sources?
 ELIZABETH TUCKER

Changing Concepts of Childhood:

Children’s Folklore Scholarship
since the Late Nineteenth Century

‘This essay examines children’ folklore scholarship from the late nineteenth century
to the present, tracing key concepts from the Gilded Age to the contemporary era.
These concepts reflect significant social, cultural, political, and scientific changes.
From the “savage child” to the “secret-keeping child,” the “magic-making child,” the
“cerebral child,” the “taboo-breaking child,” the “monstrous child,” and others, schol-
which mentions
arly representations of young people have close connections to the eras in which
they developed. Nineteenth-century children's folklore scholarship relied on evolu-
s and my studies
tionism; now evolutionary biology provides a basis for children’ folklore research, Prouchiny. word
so we have re-entered familiar territory. pact énchidves

f : : aes ).
SINCE 1977, WHEN THE American Folklore Society decided to form a new section for
scholars interested in young people's traditions, I have belonged to the Children’s
folklore Section, It has been a joy to contribute to this dynamic organization, which

Abrahams, Roger. 1976, ‘The Complex Relations of Simple Forms, Folklore Genres, ed, Dan Ben-Amos,
pp. 193-214. Austin; University of Texas Press.
Anglund, Joan Walsh. 2003. Little Angels’ Alphabet of Love. New York: Simon and Schuster,
Ariés, Philippe. 1962. Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family Life. New York: Vintage.
Beresin, Anna R. 2010. Recess Battles: Playing, Fighting, and Storytelling, Jackson: University Press of
Mississippi.
Berres, Allen. 2002. “Everybody Is Their Enemy”: Goths, Spooky Kids, and the American School Shoot
ing Panic. Children’s Folklore Replay 24(1- 2):43~54,

from nineteenth-century scholars’ feseeeek but may find, ihe reading sitetbenths p Childhood and
century works, that we have stayed fairly close to our scholarly “home base.”
Before examining ¢ developed, I will of-
fer a working definitio @ Title of Publication ginning of childhood
studies. [ will also s ; i
thirty-four years. Accq Journal of American
“the state or stage of li Folklore
birth to puberty” (201
and adolescence, which begins atyee in follows pre- vac stene The fokklore : ,
ore Society. Chil-
EvizApets TUCKER is Professor of English at Binghamton University
is FolkloreReview
Journal ofAmerican Fotklare 125(498):389-410
Copyright © 2012 by the Board of Trustees of the University of Mlinois iiversity Press of

hd Humanities3:145-60. e@ Publisher
~ . Why Children’s Studies? ti. Board of rustees —
of
the University
of Illinois

2):33-42.
Crandall, Bryan Ripley. 2009, Cow Project, bryanripleycrandall.files. wordpress.com/2009/05/slbscow-
project.pdf,
Darwin, Charles. 1859. On the Origin ofSpecies by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Fa-
voured Races in the Struggle for Life (1st edition). London: John Murray.
Dégh, Linda. 2001. Legend and Belief. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Dorson, Richard M. 1968. The British Folklorists: A History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
are Norman. {1916] 1968. London Street Games. Detroit: Snes ‘Tree Press.
106 Evaluating Sources and Taking Notes

e Gather evidence to support your position. Consider using para-

phrases, summaries, or direct quotations from your sources as
evidence (13g), and don’t forget your own personal experience or
prior knowledge.
¢ Consider alternative viewpoints. Recognize and respect valid per-
spectives that differ from yours, and try to understand them fully
before explaining why you don’t accept them.
Identify patterns and themes that run through several or even all
of your sources. What do these patterns suggest about your topic?
Where do your sources agree—and where do they disagree, and why?

Write out a page or two in which you answer the questions above
and show how your sources, taken together, can add to and/or sup-
port your argument. Be careful to avoid simply summarizing all of
your research. Try to weave the various sources together rather than
discuss each of your sources one by one.
Even after you have fully evaluated a source, take time to look
at how well the source works in your specific rhetorical situation.
(If you change the focus of your work after you have begun doing
research, be especially careful to check whether your sources still fit.)

13f Keeping track of sources

re)
Because sources are so readily available, it’s sometimes hard to keep
them under control, and you end up with snippets, bits and pieces,
and links that you no longer remember or can identify. You will save
time in the long run, then, if you have a system for keeping careful
track of sources you want to use in your research.

¢ Not many researchers print out their sources. Often you can use
the “save page as PDF” function in your browser to save a web-
based source. You will want to annotate the source to identify
key passages and vocabulary and ask critical questions. Avoid just
copying and pasting passages from online sources into a Word or
Google doc unless you also copy accurate publication information.
¢ If you take notes on a source, record the author, title, place and
date of publication, volume and issue, and page number. You will
need this information for your bibliography or list of works cited,
so getting the information down will save you a lot of time later on.
 Working with quotations, paraphrases, summaries DY wo
¢ For online resources, make sure you have the accurate URL so you
can find the source again easily.
« Set up a special computer file for your sources, and arrange them in
a way most convenient to you—alphabetically by author, according
to topics or points in your research essay, and so on.

13g Working with quotations, paraphrases,

@==® and summaries

Whatever method you use to capture and annotate your sources,

you should make sure that for each one you (1) record enough
information to help you recall the major points of the source; (2)
put the information in the form in which you are most likely to
incorporate it into your project, whether a quotation, paraphrase,
or summary; and (3) note all information you will need to cite
the source accurately. Keep a working bibliography that includes
citation information for each source in a file or another format
that you can rearrange and alter as your project takes shape. Doing
so will simplify the process of documenting sources for your final
project. For every note or entry you make, be sure to include the
author’s name, the title, and a page number (if available).

Quoting Quoting involves bringing a source’s exact words into

your text. Limit your use of quotations to those necessary to your
thesis or memorable for your readers. To guard against uninten-
tional plagiarism, photocopy or print out sources and identify the
needed quotations right on the page.

¢ If you need to copy a quotation into your notes, make sure that
all punctuation, capitalization, and spelling are exactly as in the
original.
¢ Enclose the quotation in quotation marks (44a).
¢ Use brackets if you introduce words of your own into the quota-
tion or make changes in it (45b). Use ellipses if you omit words
from the quotation (45f). If you later incorporate the quotation
into your research project, copy it from the note precisely, including
brackets and ellipses.
 Evaluating Sources and Taking Notes

Quotation-Style Note

Running a socially conscious business Subject heading

Church, “The Wave of Social Entrepreneurship” Author and

short title of
Stanford University (online podcast)
source (no page
number for
“Social entrepreneurs look at their businesses online source)
as nine parts cause, one part business. In the
beginning, it needs to be nine parts business,
One part cause, because if the business doesn’t
stay around long enough because it can’t make
it, you can’t do anything about the cause.”
Indication that
(Quotation) note is direct
quotation

Paraphrasing When you paraphrase, you’re putting brief mate-

rial from an author (including major and minor points, usually
in the order they are presented) into your own words and sentence
structures.

Include all main points and any important details from the original
source in the same order in which the author presents them, but
in your own words. Put the original source aside to avoid following
the wording too closely.
If you want to include any language from the original, enclose it in
quotation marks.
Save your comments, elaborations, or reactions for another note.
Recheck to be sure that the words and sentence structures are your
own and that they express the author’s meaning accurately.
Finally, identify this note as a paraphrase.

The following examples of paraphrases resemble the original

material either too little or too much.
 Working with quotations, paraphrases, summaries °
ORIGINAL

Just in the last ten or fifteen years, nearly everyone started to

carry a little device called a smartphone on their person all the
time that’s suitable for algorithmic behavior modification. A lot
of us are also using related devices called smart speakers on our
kitchen counters or in our car dashboards. We’re being tracked
and measured constantly, and receiving engineered feedback all the
time. We’re being hypnotized little by little by technicians we can’t
see, for purposes we don’t know. We’re all lab animals now... .
This book argues in ten ways that what has become suddenly
normal—pervasive surveillance and constant, subtle manipulation—
is unethical, cruel, dangerous, and inhumane. Dangerous? Oh yes,
because who knows who’s going to use that power, and for what?
—Jaron Lanier, Ten Arguments for Deleting
Your Social Media Accounts Right Now (pp. 5, 7-8)

UNACCEPTABLE PARAPHRASE: STRAYING FROM THE AUTHOR’S IDEAS

Lanier argues that today our many digital devices are controlling and
manipulating how we act. The constant use of these devices allows
them to gather data on much of what we do and say without our even
knowing it. But this constant surveillance is damaging and harmful. In
addition, these devices could even affect our brains in negative ways.

This paraphrase starts off well enough, but in the last sentence
veers off into the writer’s own ideas about the danger devices pose
to the brain.

UNACCEPTABLE PARAPHRASE: USING THE AUTHOR’S WORDS

Lanier argues that in recent years almost everyone has a smartphone

and other devices that control us and modify our behavior, tracking
us constantly. Yet we don’t even realize that we are being hypnotized
and treated like animals in labs. Lanier offers ten ways in which this
new normal is actually unethical and dangerous.

Because the underlined phrases are either borrowed from the origi-
nal without quotation marks or changed only superficially, this
paraphrase plagiarizes.
 Evaluating Sources and Taking Notes

UNACCEPTABLE PARAPHRASE: USING THE AUTHOR’S SENTENCE

STRUCTURES

Lanier argues that the constant presence of cell phones and other
digital devices controls and manipulates us through tracking
our words and movements though we don’t even know it. We’re
mesmerized one step at a time by people we don’t know, for uses
we can’t explain. Lanier offers ten ways in which such control is
unethical and dangerous.

Here the second sentence uses the same structure as the fourth sen-
tence in the original passage.

ACCEPTABLE PARAPHRASE: IN THE STUDENT WRITER’S OWN WORDS

Jaron Lanier argues that most people today have cell phones and
other digital devices that control and manipulate them without
their knowledge, gathering data on our movements, our thoughts,
and our words. Lanier illustrates this problem, which he sees as
severe, by describing in detail ten reasons to show that the cur-
rent situation is untenable, unacceptable, and a chilling misuse of
power.

Summarizing A summary is a significantly shortened version of

a passage or even a whole chapter, article, film, or other work that
captures main ideas in your own words. Unlike a paraphrase, a sum-
mary uses just enough information to record the points you wish
to emphasize.

¢ Put the original aside to write your summary. If you later decide to
include language from the original, enclose it in quotation marks.
Label your work “summary.”
¢ Recheck to be sure you have captured the author’s meaning and
that the words are entirely your own.
 Creating an annotated bibliography

Identifying Sources
While some language communities and cultures expect audi-
ences to recognize the sources of important documents and texts,
thereby eliminating the need to cite them directly, academic con-
ventions for writing in the United States call for careful attribu-
tion of any quoted, paraphrased, or summarized material. When
in doubt, explicitly identify your sources.

Summary Note

Dangers of social media Subject heading

Lanier, Ten Arguments, pp. 5, 7-8 Author, short

title, page
Lanier argues that because social media reference
sites collect data and then use that data to
manipulate users, we should all strongly consider
abandoning social media and smart devices.

(Summary) Label

13h creating an annotated bibliography

Gorey
You may want to annotate your working bibliography, or your
instructor may ask you to submit some annotated bibliography
entries as part of your research project. Annotating sources can help
you understand and remember what the source says. Here are some
tips for doing so:
¢ Decide whether you will prepare a descriptive or an evaluative
annotated entry. A descriptive one sticks to a clear, concise sum-
mary of the source’s content; an evaluative one adds your assess-
ment of the source’s usefulness.
 Evaluating Sources and Taking Notes

¢ Decide if the source is worth annotating—that is, whether you will

use it in your research project. If so, read the source carefully, being
open and fair but also critical. Identify the major points the author
makes and what evidence is offered in support. Also check out the
author(s) to make sure that they are reliable and credible.
Write a brief, succinct descriptive summary of the source’s content,
in your own words. Include major points and claims.
If you are writing an evaluative entry, add your assessment of the
source’s usefulness.

13) Annotated bibliography

aD entries

Here are three student annotated bibliography entries—the first

descriptive, the second evaluative, and the third a combination:

DESCRIPTIVE ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ENTRY

Diamond, Edwin, and Stephen Bates. The Spot: The Rise of Political
Advertising on Television. 3rd ed., MIT Press, 1992.
Diamond and Bates illustrate the impact of television on
political strategy. The two argue that Lyndon Johnson’s ad
“Daisy Girl” succeeded by exploiting the television medium,
using violent images and sounds and the words “nuclear bomb”
to sway viewers’ emotions. Emphasizing Johnson’s control over
the production of the ad, the authors illustrate the role the ad
played in portraying Goldwater as a warmonger.

EVALUATIVE ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ENTRY

Pearson, Taylor. “Why You Should Fear Your Toaster More Than Nuclear
Power.” Everything's an Argument with Readings, 7th ed., by Andrea
A. Lunsford and John J. Ruszkiewicz, Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2016,
pp. 174-79.
The author argues that since the dangers of nuclear power,
such as waste, radiation, and death, are less than those of
 Integrating Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism 113

energy sources we rely on today, nuclear plants represent the

most practical way to generate power while still reducing
greenhouse gases. The article is well written and provides facts
and examples related to nuclear energy, but it doesn’t identify
its sources. As a result, I will need to corroborate the facts
with information from other sources.

COMBINED DESCRIPTIVE AND EVALUATIVE ANNOTATED

BIBLIOGRAPHY ENTRY
Davila, Arlene. “Empowered Culture? New York City’s Empowerment Zone
and the Selling of El Barrio.” The Annals of the American Academy of
Political and Social Science, vol. 594, no. 1, July 2004, pp. 49-64.
JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4127693.
NYU sociology professor Arlene Davila explains that programs
designed to stimulate tourism in Harlem have ignored Latino/a
residents of East Harlem, known as Fl Barrio. Rather than
blaming leaders of Harlem’s Black neighborhoods, which she
suggests are seen as more marketable to tourists, she questions
the anti-Latino bias of the economic policies of the Upper
Manhattan Empowerment Zone. Davila calls for debate about
the problems that come with treating culture as a commodity.
Although the article is older, Davila’s argument is valuable. She
provides a counterpoint to the idea that economic initiatives
have benefited all Harlemites.

14. Integrating Sources and Avoiding

Plagiarism
As a writer and thinker, you have been influenced by what you have
already read and experienced—and this includes your sources. So
you will need to know how best to integrate and acknowledge the
work of others in your own research. Integrating sources seamlessly
into your writing means not letting them take over your writing
or drown out your voice but rather using them to add support to
114 Integrating Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism

your own good ideas. And to acknowledge your sources fully calls
on you to understand current definitions of plagiarism (which
have changed over time and differ from culture to culture) as well
as the concept of intellectual property—works protected by copy-
right or by alternatives such as a Creative Commons license—so
you can give credit where credit is due. An age of instant copying
and linking may someday lead to revised understandings in the
United States about who can “own” a text. But in college today,
you should cite your sources carefully and systematically to avoid
plagiarism, the use of someone else’s words and ideas as if they
were your own.

14a Using sources ethically

esc

If you’ve ever had your words taken out of context or twisted in some
way that doesn’t represent what you really said, then you know how
it feels to have a source (in this case, you!) used unethically. As you
begin to work with your sources, keep these tips in mind:

¢ Have respect for the author’s intentions; don’t misrepresent them.

¢ Don’t ignore sources that disagree with you; rather, take them into
consideration.
¢ Don’t take the author’s words out of context, and be careful not
to lead readers to interpret the source favorably or unfavorably. For
example, use neutral language such as “the author states” rather
than “the author badgers” or “the author falsely claims.”
¢ Avoid “selective” quoting that chooses only phrases or passages that
agree with your point of view while ignoring others that oppose
your perspective.
Finally, never use an author’s words or ideas as if they were your
own: that’s plagiarism.

14b integrating quotations, paraphrases,

@= and summaries

Integrate source materials into your writing with care to ensure that
the integrated materials make grammatical and logical sense and
that your readers understand which words and ideas came from
your sources.
 Integrating quotations, paraphrases, and summaries °°
Quotations Because your research project is primarily your own
work, limit your use of quotations to those necessary to your the-
sis or especially memorable for your readers. Use an author’s exact
words when those words are so memorable or express a point so
well that you cannot improve or shorten it without weakening it,
when the author is an authority whose opinion supports your ideas,
or when an author disagrees profoundly with others in the field.
Short quotations should run in with your text, enclosed by quo-
tation marks. Longer quotations should be set off from the text
(44a). Integrate all quotations into your text so that they flow
smoothly and clearly into the surrounding sentences. Be sure that
the sentence containing the quotation is grammatically complete,
especially if you incorporate a quotation into your own words.

Signal phrases Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase or

signal verb, such as those underlined in these examples.

> As Eudora Welty notes, “Learning stamps you with its moments.
Childhood’s learning,” she continues, “is made up of moments.
It isn’t steady. It’s a pulse” (9).
> In her essay, Haraway strongly opposes those who condemn
technology outright, arguing that we must not indulge in a
“demonology of technology” (181).

Choose a signal verb that is appropriate to the idea you are express-
ing and that accurately characterizes the author’s viewpoint. Other
signal verbs include words such as acknowledges, agrees, asserts,
believes, claims, concludes, describes, disagrees, explains, objects, offers,
reports, reveals, says, suggests, and writes.
When you follow Modern Language Association (MLA) style,
used in the examples in this chapter, put verbs in signal phrases in
the present tense. For Chicago style, use the present tense (or use
the past tense to emphasize a point made in the past).
If you are using American Psychological Association (APA) style
to describe research results, use the past tense or the present per-
fect tense (the study showed or the study has shown) in your signal
phrase. Use the present tense to explain implications of research
(for future research, these findings suggest).
When using the Council of Science Editors (CSE) style, in general
use the present tense for research reports and the past tense to describe
specific methods or observations, or to cite published research.
 Integrating Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism

Brackets and ellipses In direct quotations, enclose in brackets any

words you change or add, and indicate any deletions with ellipsis points.

> “There is something wrong in the [Three Mile Island] area,” one
farmer told the Nuclear Regulatory Commission after the plant
accident (“Legacy” 33).
> Economist John Kenneth Galbraith pointed out that “large
corporations cannot afford to compete with one another... .In
a truly competitive market someone loses” (Key 17).

Be careful that any changes you make in a quotation do not alter

its meaning. Use brackets and ellipses sparingly; too many make for
difficult reading and might suggest that you have removed some of
the context for the quotation.

Paraphrases and summaries Introduce paraphrases and sum-

maries clearly, usually with a signal phrase that includes the author
of the source, as the underlined words in this example indicate.

> Professor of linguistics Deborah Tannen illustrates how

communication between women and men breaks down and
then suggests that a full awareness of “genderlects” can improve
relationships (297).

Read the brief original passage that follows. Then decide

EXERCISE 14.1
which attempts to quote or paraphrase it are acceptable
and which are not.

The strange thing about plagiarism is that it’s almost always pointless.
The writers who stand accused, from Laurence Sterne to Samuel Taylor
Coleridge to Susan Sontag, tend to be more talented than the writers
they lift from.
— Malcolm Jones, “Have You Read This Story Somewhere?”

1. According to Malcolm Jones, writers accused of plagiarism are always

better writers than those they are supposed to have plagiarized.
2. According to Malcolm Jones, writers accused of plagiarism “tend to be
more talented than the writers they lift from.”
3. Plagiarism is usually pointless, says writer Malcolm Jones.
4. Those who stand accused of plagiarism, such as historian Stephen
Ambrose, tend to be better writers than those whose work they use.
5. According to Malcolm Jones, “plagiarism is... almost always pointless.”
 Knowing which sources to acknowledge

14¢ integrating visuals and media

aE
Choose your visuals and media wisely, whether you use video, audio,
photographs, illustrations, charts and graphs, or any other kinds of
images. Integrate all visuals and media smoothly into your text.

¢ Does each visual or media file make a strong contribution to the

message? Purely decorative visuals and media may weaken the
power of your writing.
¢ Is each fair to your subject? An obviously biased perspective may
seem unfair to your audience.
¢ Is each appropriate for your audience?
¢ Have you made sure not to alter or manipulate the visual
in any way?

While it is considered “fair use” to use such materials in an essay

or other project for a college class, once that project is published on
the web, you might infringe on copyright protections if you do not
ask the copyright holder for permission to use the visual or media
file. If you have questions about whether your work might infringe
on copyright, ask your instructor for help.
Like quotations, paraphrases, and summaries, visuals and media
need to be introduced and commented on in some way.

¢ Refer to the visual or media element in the text before it appears:

... as figure 3 illustrates.
¢ Explain or comment on the relevance of the visual or media file.
This explanation can appear after the visual.
¢ Check the documentation system you are using to make sure you
label and caption visual and media elements appropriately; MLA,
for instance, asks that you number (Table 1) and title (Average
Rainfall by Region) all tables and figures.
¢ If you are posting your work publicly, make sure you have
permission to use any copyrighted visuals.

14d Knowing which sources to acknowledge

Gas

As you do your research, remember the distinction between materi-

als that require acknowledgment (in in-text citations, footnotes, or
 Integrating Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism

endnotes; and in the list of works cited or bibliography) and those

that do not.
While you need to prepare accurate and thorough citations in
most formal academic assignments, much of the writing you do
outside of college will not require formal citations. In writing on
social media, for example, or even in highly respected newspapers
and magazines like The New York Times, Black Enterprise, or The
Atlantic, providing a link is often the only “citation” the authors
need. So learn to be flexible: use formal citations when called for
in formal college work, and weave in and acknowledge your sources
more informally in most out-of-college writing.

Materials that do not require acknowledgment You do not

usually need to cite a source for the following:

* Common knowledge—facts that most readers are already

familiar with
Facts available in a wide variety of sources, such as encyclopedias,
almanacs, or textbooks
Your own findings from field research. You should, however, acknowl-
edge people you interview as individuals rather than as part of a survey.

Materials that require acknowledgment You should cite all

of your other sources to be certain to avoid plagiarism. Follow the
documentation style required (see Chapters 16-19), and list the
source in a bibliography or list of works cited. Be especially careful
to cite the following:

* Sources for quotations, paraphrases, and summaries that you include

¢ Facts not widely known or arguable assertions
¢ All visuals from any source, including your own artwork, photo-
graphs you have taken, and graphs or tables you create from data
found in a source
¢ Any help provided by a friend, an instructor, or another person

14e Avoiding plagiarism

onan
Academic integrity enables us to trust those sources we use and to
demonstrate that our own work is equally trustworthy. Plagiarism is
 Avoiding plagiarism

especially damaging to one’s academic integrity, whether it involves

inaccurate or incomplete acknowledgment of one’s sources in
citations—sometimes called unintentional plagiarism—or deliberate
plagiarism that is intended to pass off one writer’s work as another’s.
Whether or not it is intentional, plagiarism can have serious
consequences. Students who plagiarize may fail the course or be
expelled. Others who have plagiarized, even inadvertently, have had
degrees revoked or have been stripped of positions or awards.

Unintentional plagiarism If your paraphrase is too close to the

wording or sentence structure of a source (even if you identify the
source); if after a quotation you do not identify the source (even if
you include the quotation marks); or if you fail to indicate clearly
the source of an idea that you did not come up with on your own,
you may be accused of plagiarism even if your intent was not to
plagiarize. This inaccurate or incomplete acknowledgment of one’s
sources often results either from carelessness or from not learning
how to borrow material properly.
Take responsibility for your research and for acknowledging
all sources accurately. To guard against unintentional plagiarism,
photocopy or print out sources and identify the needed quotations
right on the copy. You can also insert footnotes or endnotes into the
text as you write.

Deliberate plagiarism Deliberate plagiarism—such as handing in

an essay written by a friend or purchased or downloaded from an
essay-writing company; cutting and pasting passages directly from

Thinking al
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120 Writing a Research Project

source materials without marking them with quotation marks and

acknowledging their sources; failing to credit the source of an idea or
concept in your text—is what most people think of when they hear
the word plagiarism. This form of plagiarism is particularly troubling
because it represents dishonesty and deception: those who intention-
ally plagiarize present someone else’s hard work as their own and
claim knowledge they really don’t have, thus deceiving their readers.
Deliberate plagiarism is also fairly simple to spot: your instructor
will be well acquainted with your writing and likely to notice any
sudden shifts in the style or quality of your work. In addition, by
typing a few words from a project into a search engine, your instruc-
tor can identify “matches” very easily.

7 15. Writing a Research Project >

When you are working on a research project, there comes a time
to draw the strands of your research together and articulate your
conclusions in writing.

15a Drafting your text, including illustrations

REG
Once you have all the information you think you'll need, try arranging
your notes and visuals to identify connections, main ideas, and pos-
sible organization. You may also want to develop a working outline, a
storyboard, or an idea map. And don’t forget to figure out where you
will place illustrations such as visual images, video clips, and so on.
For almost all research projects, drafting should begin well before
the deadline in case you need to gather more information or do
more drafting. Begin drafting wherever you feel most confident. If
you have an idea for an introduction, begin there.

Working title and introduction The title and introduction set

the stage for what is to come. Ideally, the title announces the subject
in an intriguing or memorable way. The introduction should draw
readers in and provide any background they will need to understand
your discussion. Consider opening with a question, a vivid image, or
a provocative statement.
 Editing and proofreading

Asking Experienced Writers to Review a Thesis

You might find it helpful to ask one or two classmates who have
more experience with the particular type of academic writing
you are doing to look at your explicit thesis statement. Ask if the
thesis is as direct and clear as it can be, and revise accordingly.

Conclusion A good conclusion helps readers know what they have

learned. One effective strategy is to begin with a reference to your
thesis and then expand to a more general conclusion that reminds
readers why your discussion is significant. Try to conclude with
something that will have an impact—but avoid sounding preachy.

15b Reviewing and revising a research project

eae
Once you’ve completed your draft, reread it slowly and carefully.
As you do so, reconsider the project’s purpose and audience, your
stance and thesis, and the evidence you have gathered. Then, ask
others to read and respond to your draft. (For more on reviewing
and revising, see Chapter 5.)

15¢€ Preparing a list of sources

CHD
Once you have a final draft with your source materials in place, you
are ready to prepare your list of sources. Create an entry for each
source used in your final draft, consulting your notes and working
bibliography. Then double-check your draft to make sure that you
have listed every source mentioned in the in-text citations or notes
and that you have omitted any sources not cited in your project.
(For guidelines on documentation styles, see Chapters 16-19.)

15d Editing and proofreading

emia
When you have revised your draft, check grammar, usage, spell-
ing, punctuation, and mechanics. Proofread the final version of
 Writing a Research Project

your project, and carefully consider the advice of spell checkers and
grammar checkers before accepting it. (For more information on
editing, see 5c.)

15e Gia Outline of a research project

OED
Student writer Julia Sakowitz drew up a working outline of her
ideas as she was conducting research about tourism in Harlem. She
thought this simple structure would help her focus on the informa-
tion she still needed to find.
Thesis statement: Although there is no simple solution for tourism in
Harlem, small locally owned tourist businesses have the potential to more
directly and widely benefit the community while causing fewer social and
economic problems.
I. Tourism growth
A. Description of Upper Manhattan Empowerment Zone (UMEZ)
B. How has UMEZ encouraged tourism in Harlem?
II. Benefits and disadvantages of tourism
A. Economic benefits (statistics)
B. Research “gentrification”
III. Tour companies
A. Harlem-based vs. outside tour companies
B. Interviews with company owners
 Documentation

MLA Style 124

List of examples: In-text citations in MLA style 130
List of examples: Works cited in MLA style 136

APA Style 174

List of examples: In-text citations in APA style 178
List of examples: References in APA style 182

18 Chicago Style 212

List of examples: Notes and bibliographic entries in
Chicago style 216

CSE Style 235

List of examples: References in CSE style 238
 16 MLAStyle
Many fields in the humanities ask students to follow Modern Lan-
guage Association (MLA) style to format essays and to document
various kinds of sources. This chapter introduces MLA guidelines.
For further reference, consult the MLA Handbook, Ninth Edition
(2021).

16a _ Understanding MLA citation style

EGS
Why does academic work call for very careful citation practices when
writing for the general public may not? The answer is that readers of
your academic work expect source citations for several reasons:
¢ Source citations demonstrate that you’ve done your homework on
your topic and that you are a part of the conversation surrounding
it. Careful citation shows your readers what you know, where you
stand, and what you think is important.
¢ Source citations show your readers that you understand the need
to give credit when you make use of someone else’s intellectual
property. Especially in academic writing, when it’s better to be safe
than sorry, include a citation for any source you think you might
need to cite. (See 14d.)
¢ Source citations give explicit directions to guide readers who want
to look for themselves at the works you're using.

The guidelines for MLA style help you with this last purpose, giving
you instructions on exactly what information to include in your
citation and how to format that information.

16b Considering the context of your sources

ae
New kinds of sources crop up regularly. As the MLA Handbook con-
firms, there are often several “correct” ways to cite a source, so
you will need to think carefully about your own context for using
the source so you can identify the pieces of information that you
should emphasize or include and any other information that might
be helpful to your readers.

124
 Considering the context of your sources 125

Elements of MLA citations The first step is to identify elements

that are commonly found in most works that writers cite.

Author and title The first two elements, both of which are needed for
many sources, are the author’s name and the title of the work. Each
of these elements is followed by a period.
Author. Title.

Even in these elements, your context is important. The author of

a novel may be obvious, but who is the “author” of a television
episode? Is it the director? The writer? The show’s creator? The star?
The answer may depend on the focus of your own work. If an actor’s
performance is central to your discussion, then MLA guidelines ask
you to identify the actor as the author. If the plot is your focus, you
might name the writer of the episode as the author.

Container The next step is to identify elements of what the MLA

calls the “container” for the work. The context in which you are
discussing the source and the context in which you find the source
will help you determine what counts as a container in each case.
If you watch a movie in a theater, you won’t identify a separate
container after the film title. But if you watch the same movie on
a streaming service such as Netflix, the container title is the name
of the website or application on which you watched the movie. If
you read an article in a print journal, the first container will be
the journal that the article appears in. If you read it online, the
journal may also be part of a second, larger container, such as a
database. Thinking about sources as nested in larger containers
may help you visualize how a citation works.
The elements you may include in the “container” part of your
citation include the following, in this order: the title of the larger
container, if it’s different from the title of the work; the names of
any contributors such as editors or translators; the version or edi-
tion; the volume and issue numbers or other numbers such as season
and episode; the publisher or sponsor; the date of publication; and a
location such as the page numbers, DOI, permalink, or URL. These
elements are separated by commas, and the end of the container is
marked with a period.
Author. Title. Container title, contributor names, version or edition,
number(s), publisher, date, location.
126 1 16n MLA Style

Most sources won’t include all these pieces of information, so

include only the elements that are available and relevant to create
an acceptable citation. If you need a second container—for instance,
if you are citing an article from a journal you found in a database—
you simply add it after the first one, beginning with the container
title and including as many of the same container elements as you
can find. The rest of this chapter offers many examples of how ele-
ments and containers are combined to create citations.

Example from student writing One student researching messaging

technologies found a potentially useful journal article by searching
a library database, Academic Search Premier, through his library’s
website. The journal is the first container of the article, and the
database is the second container.
A complete citation for this article would look like this:

Counts, Scott, and Karen E. Fisher. “Mobile Social Networking as

Information Ground: A Case Study.” Library and Information Science
Research, vol. 32, no. 2, Apr. 2010, pp. 98-115. Academic Search
Premier, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2009.10.003.

Notice that the first container includes just four relevant elements—
the journal title, number (here, that means the volume and issue
numbers), date, and page numbers; and the second container
includes just two—the database title and location.

Types of sources Refer to the lists of examples for MLA style in

sections 16d and 16e to locate guidelines on citing various types of
sources, including print books, print periodicals (journals, magazines,
and newspapers), digital written-word sources, and other sources
(films, artwork) that consist mainly of material other than written
words. A digital version of a source may include updates or correc-
tions that the print version of the same work lacks, so MLA guidelines
ask you to indicate where you found the source. If you can’t find a
model exactly like the source you’ve selected, see the checklist in 16e.

Parts of citations MLA citations appear in two parts—a brief in-text

citation in the body of your written text, and a full citation in the list
of works cited, to which the in-text citation directs readers. A basic in-
text citation includes the author’s name and the page number (for a
print source), but many variations on this format are discussed in 16d.
 Considering the context of your sources 127

on Latino issues in East Harlem, or El Barrio, led her to surprising

conclusions about the UMEZ policies. Commodifying ethnic cultures
is problematic, Davila claims, because in the eyes of tourists,
policymakers, and eVeq scholars, not all culture is created equal. For
example, Harlem is internationally famous as a “Black Mecca,” yet it
is also more than half Latino aha center for “Nuyorican” identity,
Sakowitz 10
urban Latindad, and Latino dance afd music ($2). But what happens
Works Cited
Davila, Arlene. “Empowered Culture? New York City’s Empowerment
Zone and the Selling of El Barrio.” The Annals of the American
Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 594, no. 1, July
2004, pp. 49-64.
Fainstein, Susan S., and John C. Powers. “Tourism and New York's
Ethnic Diversity: An Underutilized Resource?” Tourism, Ethnic
Diversity and the City, edited by Jan Rath, Routledge, 2007, pp.
143-63.
Hoffman, Lily M. “The Marketing of Diversity in the Inner City: Tourism
and Regulation in Harlem.” International Journal of Urban
and Regional Research, vol. 27, no. 2, June 2003, pp. 286-99.
Academic Search Premier, https://doi.org/10.1111/1468

of its continued lack of infrastructure that many middle-class New

ls Galore: Where to Get a Look inside the
Yorkers take for granted. He notes that the biggest problem with
Homes and Gardens.” 6sqft, 5 May 2015,
Harlem tours are “perceptions that customers have” and he tries to
e-tours-galore-where-to-get-a-look-inside
avoid disrespecting the community, refusing to take part in “Gospel
lous-homes-and-gardens/.
Tours,” which he sees as violating Harlem’s places of worship. He
; ‘ 4 = nes Novy. Tourism as an Engine of
also cares about what Harlem residents think of his tours. In his
pration? Some Remarks towards a Better
opinion, Big Onion Walking Tours has “a unique relationship with
an Tourism beyond the “Beaten Path.” CMS
the community,” and he notes that many Black residents will stop to
No. 006-2006, Center for Metropolitan
listen to his white guides, to check that they're being respectful and
erx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.
accurate (Kamil). Pp1&type=pdf.
Johnson, Carolyn D. “About Us.” Welcome to Harlem, welcometoharlem
-com/page/aboutus/. Accessed 15 May 2019.
---. Interview with the author. 9 May 2019.
Kamil, Seth. Interview with the author. 11 May 2019.
Maurrasse, David. Listening to Harlem: Gentrification, Community, and
Business. Routledge, 2006.

In the text of her research essay (see 16f), Julia Sakowitz paraphrases
material from a journal article by anthropologist Arlene Davila. As
shown, she cites the article page on which the original information
appears in a parenthetical reference that points readers to the entry for
“Davila, Arlene” in her list of works cited. She also cites portions of a
personal interview she has conducted with Seth Kamil, which has no
page numbers. These examples show just two of the many ways to cite
sources using in-text citations and a list of works cited. You'll need to
make case-by-case decisions based on the types of sources you include.

Explanatory notes MLA citation style asks you to include explan-

atory notes for information that doesn’t readily fit into your text but
is needed for clarification or further explanation. In addition, MLA
permits bibliographic notes for information about or evaluation of
128 lace MLA Style
a source, or to list multiple sources that relate to a single point. Use
superscript numbers in the text to refer readers to the notes, which
may appear as endnotes (under the heading Notes or Endnotes on a
separate page immediately before the list of works cited) or as foot-
notes at the bottom of each page where a superscript number appears.

EXAMPLE OF SUPERSCRIPT NUMBER IN TEXT

Although such communication relies on the written word, many messagers

disregard standard writing conventions. For example, below is a snippet
from a DM conversation between two girls:+

EXAMPLE OF EXPLANATORY NOTE

1 This transcript of a DM conversation was collected on 20 Nov. 2020.

The teenagers’ names are concealed to protect their privacy.

16c Following MLA format

ER
The MLA recommends the following format for a research paper.
However, check with your instructor before preparing your final
draft. For a sample student essay in MLA style, see 16f.

First page and title For a project authored by an individual

writer, MLA style does not require a title page. Type each of the
following items on separate double-spaced lines on the first page,
beginning one inch from the top and aligned with the left margin:
your name, the instructor’s name, the course name and number,
and the date. On the next line, place the title, centered, with no
additional spacing above or below the title.
For a group project, create a title page with all members’ names, the
instructor’s name, the course, and the date, all aligned left on separate
double-spaced lines. Center the title on a new line a few spaces down.

Margins and spacing Leave one-inch margins at the top and

bottom and on both sides of each page. Double-space the entire
text, including set-off quotations, notes, tables, and the list of works
cited. Indent the first line of a paragraph one-half inch. Indent set-
off quotations one-half inch.

Page numbers Include your last name and the page number
on each page, one-half inch below the top and aligned with the
 Creating MLA in-text citations 129

right margin. For a group project, include all members’ last names
and the page number; if the names will not all fit on a single line,
include only the page number on each page.

Long quotations When quoting a long passage (more than four

typed lines), set the quotation off by starting it on a new line and
indenting each line one-half inch from the left margin. Do not
enclose the passage in quotation marks (44a).

Headings While headings are generally not needed for brief essays,
readers may find them helpful for long or complex essays. Place each
heading in the same style and size. Place headings, boldfaced, at the
left margin without any indent. If you need subheadings (level 2,
level 3), be consistent in styling them. Capitalize headings as you
would titles.

Visuals Visuals (such as photographs, charts, and tables) should be

placed as near as possible to the relevant text. (See 14c for guidelines
on incorporating visuals into your text.) Tables should have a label
and number (Table 1) and a clear title, each on its own line above
the table and aligned with the left margin. Give the source informa-
tion below the table. All other visuals should be labeled Figure (usually
abbreviated Fig.), numbered, and captioned below the visual. The label
and caption should appear on the same line. If your caption includes
full source information and you do not cite the source anywhere else
in your text, it is not necessary to include an entry in your list of works
cited. Remember to refer to each visual before it appears in your text,
indicating how it contributes to the point(s) that you are making.

16d _ creating MLA in-text citations

eas
MLA style requires a citation in the text of a writing project for
every quotation, paraphrase, summary, or other material requir-
ing documentation (see 14d). In-text citations document material
from other sources with both signal phrases and parenthetical refer-
ences. Parenthetical references should include the information your
readers need to locate the full citations in the list of works cited
at the end of the text. An in-text citation in MLA style gives the
reader two kinds of information: (1) it indicates which source on
the works-cited page the writer is referring to, and (2) it explains
 MLA Style

where
in the source the material quoted, paraphrased, or summa-
rized can be found,ifthe source has page numbers or other num-
bered sections.
The basic MLA in-text citation includes the author’s last name —
or both a first and last name if the source is being mentioned for
the first time in the essay—either in a signal phrase introducing
the source material (see 14b) or in parentheses at the end of the
sentence. For sources with stable page numbers, it also includes the
page number in parentheses at the end of the sentence.

SAMPLE CITATION USING A SIGNAL PHRASE

In his discussion of Monty Python routines, David Crystal notes that the
group relished “breaking the normal rules” of language (107).

SAMPLE PARENTHETICAL CITATION

A noted linguist explains that Monty Python humor often relied on

“bizarre linguistic interactions” (Crystal 108).

(For digital sources without stable page numbers, see model 2.)
Note in the examples on the following pages where punctuation
is placed in relation to the parentheses. We have used underlining in
some examples only to draw your attention to important elements.
Do not underline anything in your own citations.

LIST OF EXAMPLES
In-text citations in MLA style
. Basic format for a quotation, 131 . Work in an anthology or collection,
. Digital or nonprint source, 131 133
. Two authors, 131 . Sacred text, 133
. Three or more authors, 132 . Encyclopedia or dictionary entry, 134
. Organization as author, 132 . Government source, 134
. Unknown author, 132 . Entire work, 134
. Two or more works by the same . Indirect source (source quoted in
author, 132 another source), 134
. Two or more authors with the same . Two or more sources in one citation,
last name, 132 134
. Multivolume work, 132 . Visual, 135
. Literary work, 133
 Creating MLA in-text citations 131

1. Basic format for a quotation The MLA recommends using the

author’s name in a signal phrase to introduce the material and cit-
ing the page number(s) in parentheses.

Stan Lee claims that his comic-book character, Thor, was “the first regularly
published superhero to speak in a consistently archaic manner” (199).

When you do not mention the author in a signal phrase, include

the author’s last name before the page number(s), if any, in the
parentheses. Use no punctuation between the author’s name and
the page number(s).

The word Bollywood can be considered an insult because it implies that

Indian movies are merely “a derivative of the American film industry”
(Chopra 9).

2. Digital or nonprint source Give enough information in a signal

phrase or in parentheses for readers to locate the source in your list
of works cited. If the source lacks numbered pages but has num-
bered paragraphs, sections, or divisions, use those numbers with the
appropriate abbreviation in your parenthetical citation. Do not add
such numbers if the source itself does not use them.
As a Slate analysis explains, “Prominent sports psychologists get praised
for their successes and don't get grief for their failures” (Engber).
The author's son points out that his father and Ralph Waldo Emerson, in
their lives and their writing, “together . . . met the needs of nearly all that
is worthy in human nature” (Hawthorne, ch. 4).
When quoting, paraphrasing, or summarizing from an audio or a
video source, include a time stamp for the material you are citing.
Kalika Bali explains that as the “digital divide between languages” with
and without technological resources grows, “the divide between the
communities that speak these languages is expanding” (00:04:40-51).

3. Two authors Name both authors in a signal phrase or in parentheses.

Gilbert and Gubar point out that in the Grimm version of “Snow White,”
the king “never actually appears in this story at all” (37).
132 MLA Style

4. Three or more authors Give the first author’s name followed by a

phrase such as and others in a signal phrase. Use the first author’s
name and et al. (“and others”) in parentheses.
Similarly, as Belenky and colleagues assert, examining the lives of women
expands our understanding of human development (7).

5. Organization as author Give the group’s full name in a signal

phrase (for example Girl Scouts of the United States of America); in
parentheses, shorten the name to the first noun and any preceding
adjectives, removing any articles (A, An, The).
One survey reports that seventy-five percent of young people want to
elect more women to Congress (Girl Scouts).

6. Unknown author Use the full title, if it is brief, in your text—or a

shortened version of the title in parentheses.
Coca-Cola and similar companies avoid public politics to uphold their
images as “emblems of American harmony” (“CEO Activism”).

7. Two or more works by the same author Mention the title of the
work in a signal phrase, or include a short version of the title in
parentheses.
Old Man Warner complains that the younger people calling for change will
next “be wanting to go back to living in caves” (Jackson, “Lottery” 295).

8. Two or more authors with the same last name Include the author’s
first and last names in a signal phrase or first initial and last name
in a parenthetical reference.
One approach to the problem is to introduce nutrition literacy at the
elementary level in public schools (E. Chen 15).

9. Multivolume work In parentheses, note the volume number first

and then the page number(s), with a colon and one space between
them. No volume number is needed if you cite only one volume of
the work in your text.
Modernist writers prized experimentation and gradually even sought to
blur the line between poetry and prose, according to Forster (3: 150).
 Creating MLA in-text citations

10. Literary work Because literary works are usually available in

many different editions, cite the page number(s) from the edition
you used followed by a semicolon, and then give other identifying
information that will lead readers to the passage in any edition. For
a novel, indicate the part or chapter (175; ch. 4).
In utter despair, Dostoyevsky’s character Mitya wonders aloud about the
“terrible tragedies realism inflicts on people” (376; bk. 8, ch. 2).

For a play, indicate the page number, then the act and/or scene:
(37; sc. 1). For a verse play, give only the act, scene, and line num-
bers, separated by periods.
The witches greet Banquo as “lesser than Macbeth, and greater” (1.3.65).

For a poem, cite the part (if there is one) and line(s), separated by
a period. If you are citing only line numbers, use the word line(s)
in the first citation (lines 33-34) and the line number(s) alone in
subsequent citations (34-36).
Whitman speculates, “All goes onward and outward, nothing collapses, /
And to die is different from what anyone supposed, and luckier”
(6.129-30).

11. Work in an anthology or collection Use the name of the author of

the work, not the editor of the anthology. Use the page number(s)
from the anthology.
In “How to Write Iranian-America, or The Last Essay,” Porochista Khakpour
details degrading experiences with English language instructors “who look
to you with the shine of love but the stench of pity” (3).

12. Sacred text The first time you cite the work, give the title of the
work as in the works cited entry, followed by the book, chapter, and
verse (or their equivalent) separated by a period. In your text, spell
out the names of books. In parenthetical references, use common
abbreviations for books. Omit the source’s title from the parenthe-
ses in all citations after the first.
He ignored the warning: “Pride goes before destruction, and a haughty
spirit before a fall” (New Oxford Annotated Bible, Prov. 16.18).
 MLA Style

13. Encyclopedia or dictionary entry An entry from a reference work—

such as an encyclopedia or a dictionary—without an author will
appear on the works cited list under the entry’s title. Enclose the
entry title in quotation marks, and place it in parentheses. Omit the
page number for sources that are only one page long.
The word crocodile has a complex etymology (“Crocodile” 139-40).

14. Government source In a signal phrase, include the full name of

the agency or governing body as given in the works cited list. In a
parenthetical citation, shorten the name.
The National Endowment for the Arts notes that social media and online
events play a significant role in “showcasing the importance of the arts to
the vitality of the nation” (15).
Social media and online events play a significant role in “showcasing the
importance of the arts to the vitality of the nation” (National Endowment 15).

If you cite more than one agency or department from the same gov-
ernment in your essay, you may choose to standardize the names by
beginning with the name of the government (see model 66 in 16e).
In that case, when shortening the names, give enough of each one
to differentiate the authors: (United States, National Endowment);
(United States, Environmental Protection).

15. Entire work Use the author’s name in a signal phrase or a paren-
thetical citation, without any page numbers.
Michael Pollan explores the issues surrounding food production and
consumption from a political angle.

16. Indirect source (source quoted in another source) Use the abbrevia-
tion gtd. in to indicate that you are using a source that is quoted in
another source.
Jordan “silently marveled” at her Black students’ dismissal of Black
language in the novel (qtd. in Baker-Bell 24).

17. Two or more sources in one citation List the authors (or titles) in
alphabetical order and separate them with semicolons.
Economists recommend that employment be redefined to include unpaid
domestic labor (Clark 148; Nevins 39).
 Creating an MLA list of works cited 135

18. Visual When you include an image in your text, number it and
include a reference to it in your text: see table 1; (see fig. 2). Num-
ber figures (photos, drawings, cartoons, maps, graphs, and charts)
and tables separately. Each visual should include a caption with
information about the source—either a complete citation or enough
information to direct readers to the works cited entry.
This trend is illustrated in a chart that includes data distributed by the
ACT as part of its 2018 analysis (see fig. 1).

If you cite information from a numbered visual in a source and

do not present the visual in your essay, use the abbreviation “fig.”
and the original figure number in place of a page number in your
parenthetical citation: (Manning, fig. 4). If you refer to the figure
in your text, spell out the word figure. If the visual does not have a
figure number in the source, use the visual’s title or a description
in your text and cite the author and page number as for any other
source.
If you are citing a work of art or other stand-alone visual, fol-
low the advice in model 2.

1G6e Creating an MLA list of works cited

ecoeatn
A list of works cited is an alphabetical list of the sources you have
referred to in your essay. (If your instructor asks you to list every-
thing you have read as background, call the list Works Consulted.)

Formatting a list of works cited

¢ Start your list on a separate page after the text of your document
and any notes.
¢ Center the heading Works Cited (not italicized or in quotation
marks) one inch from the top of the page.
¢ Begin each entry at the left margin, but indent subsequent lines of
each entry one-half inch. Double-space the entire list.
¢ List sources alphabetically by the first word of the works cited entry.
Start with the author’s name, if available, or the editor’s name. If
no author or editor is given, start with the title.
List continues on p. 137
136 MLA Style

LIST OF EXAMPLES
Works cited in MLA style
GUIDELINES FOR AUTHOR LISTINGS PRINT PERIODICALS
. One author, 139 PSY: Article in a print journal, 147
. Multiple authors, 139 SOURCE MAP, 146
. Organization or group author, 139 26. Article in a print magazine, 147
. Unknown author, 139 27. Article in a print newspaper, 147
. Two or more works by the same 28. Article that skips pages, 147
author, 139 20% Editorial or letter to the editor, 147
. Pseudonym or pen name, 140 30. Review, 148
. Screen name or social media
account, 140 DIGITAL WRITTEN-WORD SOURCES
Bile Work from a database, 148
PRINT BOOKS
SOURCE MAP, 149
. Basic format for a book, 140
323 Online article from a
SOURCE MAP, 141
journal, 150
. Author and editor both named, 142
33: Online article in a magazine, 150
. Editor, no author named, 142
34. Online article in a newspaper, 150
. Selection in an anthology or chapter
35: E-book or audiobook, 150
in a book with an editor, 142
36. Online poem, 151
. Two or more items from the same
anthology, 142 BY) Online editorial or letter to the
editor, 152
. Translation, 142
38. Online review, 152
. Book in a language other than
English, 143 ah), Entry in an online reference work or
wiki, 152
. Graphic narrative or comic, 143
40. Short work from a website, 152
. Edition other than the first, 143
SOURCE MAP, 154
. Multivolume work, 143
. Entire website, 153
. Preface, foreword, introduction, or
afterword, 144 . Blog, 155
. Entry in a reference book, 144 . Blog post, 155
. Book that is part of a series, 144 . Comment on a blog post or online
article, 155
. Republication (modern edition of
an older book), 144 . Tweet, 155

. More than one publisher's name, 144 . Other posts on social media, 155
. Book with a title within the title, 145 . E-mail or text message, 156
. Sacred text, 145 . Online interview, 156 ©
 Creating an MLA list of works cited 137

LIST OF EXAMPLES ~
Works cited in MLA style, continued
VISUAL, AUDIO, MULTIMEDIA, AND 62. Map or chart, 160
LIVE SOURCES
63. Cartoon or comic strip, 160
49. Film or movie, 156
64. Advertisement, 160
50. Online video, 157
OTHER SOURCES (INCLUDING
51. Television (broadcast or online),
DIGITAL VERSIONS)
157
65. Pamphlet or brochure, 160
52. Radio (broadcast or online), 157
66. Government publication, 160
53. Television or radio interview, 157
67. Published proceedings of a
54. Personal interview, 158
conference, 161
55. Music recording,
158 68
. Dissertation,161
56. Musical composition,
158 69
. Classroom materials, 161
57. Video game, 158 70. Letter, 162
58. Lecture or speech,
158 1
. Manuscript or other unpublished
59. Live performance,
159 work, 162
60. Podcast, 159 72. Legal source, 162
61. Work of art or photograph, 159

Continued from p. 135

¢ List the author’s last name first, followed by a comma and the
first name. If a source has two authors, the second author’s name
appears first name first (see model 2).
* Capitalize every important word in titles and subtitles. Italicize
titles of books and long works, but put titles of shorter works in
quotation marks.
138 MLA Style

Guidelines for author listings

The list of works cited is always arranged alphabetically. The in-text
citations in your writing point readers toward particular sources on
the list.

NAME CITED IN SIGNAL PHRASE IN TEXT

Robert Zaretsky notes... .

NAME IN PARENTHETICAL CITATION IN TEXT

... (Zaretsky 17).

BEGINNING OF ENTRY IN LIST OF WORKS CITED

Zaretsky, Robert.

Models 1-7 explain how to arrange author names. The information

that follows the name depends on the type of work you are citing.

WY Checklist
Citing Sources That Don’t Match Any Model Exactly
What should you do if your source doesn’t match any of the
models exactly? Suppose, for instance, your source is a translated
essay appearing in the fifth edition of an anthology.
V Identify a basic model to follow. For example, if you decide
that your source looks most like an essay in an anthology, you
would start with a citation that looks like model 11.
V After listing author and title information (if given), enter as
many of the elements of the container as you can find (see
16b): title of the larger container, if any; other contributors,
such as editor or translator; version or edition; number(s);
publisher; date; and page numbers or other location informa-
tion such as a DOI, permalink, or URL. End the container with
a period. If the container is nested in a larger container, collect
the information from the second container as well.
Y lf you aren’t sure which model to follow or how to create a
combination model with multiple containers, ask your instruc-
tor or a consultant in the writing center.
 Creating an MLA list of works cited 139

Consult the list of examples at the beginning of this section and

choose the model that most closely resembles the source you are using.

1. One author Put the last name first, followed by a comma, the first
name (and middle name or initial, if any), and a period.
Cronin, David.

2. Multiple authors For two authors, list the first author with the last
name first (see model 1). Follow this with a comma, the word and,
and the name of the second author with the first name first.
Stiglitz, Joseph E., and Bruce C. Greenwald.

For three or more authors, list the first author followed by a comma
and et al. (“and others”) or list all authors.
Lupton, Ellen, et al.

Lupton, Ellen, Farah Kafei, Jennifer Tobias, Josh A. Halstead, Kaleena

Sales, Leslie Xia, and Valentina Vergara.

3. Organization or group author When the author is a corporation, an

organization, or some other group, start the entry with the name of
the group. Omit an article (A, An, or The) that begins the name. (For
a source with a government agency listed as the author, see model 66.)
Human Rights Watch.

Jackson 5.

4, Unknown author When the author is not identified, begin the

entry with the title, and alphabetize by the first important word.
Italicize titles of books and long works, but put titles of articles and
other short works in quotation marks.
Women of Protest: Photographs from the Records of the National Woman's
Party.

“California Sues EPA over Emissions.”

5. Two or more works by the same author Arrange the entries alphabeti-
cally by title. Include the author’s name in the first entry, but in
subsequent entries, use three hyphens followed by a period.
 Coates, Ta-Nehisi. Between the World and Me. Spiegel and Grau, 2015.

---. We Were Eight Years in Power: An American Tragedy. One World, 2018.

Note: Use three hyphens only when the work is by exactly the same
author(s) as the previous entry.

6. Pseudonym or pen name The MLA offers two options.

Saunders, Richard [Benjamin Franklin].

Franklin, Benjamin [published as Richard Saunders].

7. Screen name or social media account Start with the account dis-
play name, followed by the screen name or handle (if available) in
brackets. If the account name is a first and last name, invert it.

Ng, Celeste [@pronounced_ing].

Pat and Stewart [@grammarphobia].

If the account name and handle are very similar, omit the handle.
See models 45 and 46 for more on citing social media.

Print books
8. Basic format for a book Take information from the book’s title
page and copyright page, not from the book’s cover. The source map
on p. 141 shows where to find information in a typical book.

@ author. List the last name first. End with a period. For variations,
see models 2-6.
@ Title. Italicize the title.and any subtitle; capitalize all major words.
End with a period.
3 Publisher. Identify the publisher's name as given on the book's
title page or copyright page. If there is more than one publisher,
separate the names with a slash, leaving a space before and after
the slash. Abbreviate University and Press as U and P, but do not
abbreviate Press if University is not also in the publisher’s name.
Omit terms such as Company and Incorporated. End with a comma.
a Year of publication. If more than one copyright date is given,
use the most recent one. End with a period.

Cabral, Amber. Allies and Advocates: Creating an Inclusive and Equitable

—8 @
Culture. Wiley, 2021.
THE VALUE OF NOTHING

HOW TO RESHAPE
MARKET SOCIETY AND
REDEFINE DEMOCRACY

4 Year of Publication
Raj Patel 2009

LB)
Publisher| ING: HOW TO RESHAPE AJARKET SOCIETY
peracy. Copyright © 2009 by Raj Patel.
rinted in the United States of America.
» |, address Picador, 175 Fifth Avenue,
lew York, N.Y. 10010.
PICADOR
New York /ww.picadoru §a.com

Picador” is a U.S. registered trademark and is used by

St. Martin’s Press under license from Pan Books Limited.

For information on Picador Reading Group Guides,

please contact Picador.
-mail: [email protected]

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Patel, Raj.
The value of nothing : how to reshape market society and redefine
democracy / Raj Patel.—Ist ed.
p.cm,
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-312-42924-9
1. Free enterprise. 2. Democracy. 3. Economics. I. Title.
HB95.P3185 2009
330.12'2—de22
2009041546

First Picador Edition: January 2010

Citation

£ | : f
Patel, Raj. The Value of Nothing: How to Reshape Market Society and
pape
aor TE
Redefine Democracy. Picador, 2009.
142 MLA Style

9. Author and editor both named

Cummings, E. E. Complete Poems, 1904-1962. Edited by George James
Firmage, Liveright, 2016.

Note: To cite the editor’s contribution, begin with the editor’s name.
Firmage, George James, editor. Complete Poems, 1904-1962. By E. E.
Cummings, Liveright, 2016.

10. Editor, no author named

Coates, Colin M., and Graeme Wynn, editors. The Nature of Canada. On
Point Press, 2019.

11. Selection in an anthology or chapter in a book with an editor List

the author(s) of the selection; the selection title; the title of the
book; the editor(s); the publisher; the year; and the selection’s page
numbers.
Symanovich, Alaina. “Compatibility.” Ab Terra 2020: A Science Fiction
Anthology, edited by Yen Ooi, Brain Mill Press, 2020, pp. 116-23.

Note: You may provide original publication information as a second

container (see 16b):
Byatt, A. S. “The Thing in the Forest.” The 0. Henry Prize Stories 2003,
edited by Laura Furman, Anchor Books, 2003, pp. 3-22. Originally
published in The New Yorker, 3 June 2002, pp. 80-89.

12. Two or more items from the same anthology List the anthology as
one entry and list each selection separately with a cross-reference to
the anthology.
Challinor, Nels. “Porch Light.” Ooi, pp. 107-15.

Ooi, Yen, editor. Ab Terra 2020: A Science Fiction Anthology. Brain Mill
Press, 2020.

Symanovich, Alaina. “Compatibility.” Ooi, pp. 116-23.

13. Translation

Ullmann, Regina. The Country Road: Stories. Translated by Kurt Beals, New
Directions Publishing, 2015.
 Creating an MLA list of works cited 143

If the book has an editor and a translator, list both names after the
title, in the order they appear on the title page.
Kant, Immanuel. “Toward Perpetual Peace” and Other Wntings on Politics,
Peace, and History. Edited by Pauline Kleingeld, translated by David
L. Colclasure, Yale UP, 2006.

14. Book in a language other than English Capitalize the title accord-
ing to the conventions of the book’s language. Include a translation
of the title in brackets, if necessary.
Vargas Llosa, Mario. El suefio del celta [The Dream of the Celt]. Alfaguara
Ediciones, 2010.

15. Graphic narrative or comic If the words and images are created by the
same person, cite a graphic narrative just as you would a book (model 8).
Nguyen, Trung Le. The Magic Fish. Random House Graphic, 2020.

If the work is a collaboration, indicate the author or illustrator who

is most important to your research before the title of the work. List
other contributors after the title, in the order of their appearance
on
on the
the title
title page.
page. Label each person’s contribution to the work.
Martinez, Hugo, illustrator. Wake: The Hidden History of Women-Led Slave
Revolts. By Rebecca Hall, Simon and Schuster, 2021.

If there are multiple contributors but you are not discussing a spe-
cific contributor’s work, begin with the title. Treat issue numbers
of a comic series like issue numbers of journals, as below.
Stealth. By Mike Costa, illustrated by Nate Bellegarde, colored by Tamra
Bonvillain, lettered by Sal Cipriano, no. 1, Image Comics, 2020.

16. Edition other than the first

Spivey, Chris. Harlem Unbound. 2nd ed., Chaosium, 2020.

17. Multivolume work Include the total number of volumes after the
publication date. If you cite only one volume, give the numberof
the volume before the publication information.

Brunetti, Ivan, editor. An Anthology of Graphic Fiction, Cartoons, and True

Stories. Yale UP, 2006-08. 2 vols.
144 (lace MLA Style

Brunetti, Ivan, editor. An Anthology of Graphic Fiction, Cartoons, and True

Stones. Vol. 2, Yale UP, 2008.

If you cite one volume that is individually titled, include both the
title of the volume and the title of the complete set.
Cather, Willa. Willa Cather: Later Novels. Edited by Sharon O’Brien, Library
of America, 1990. Vol. 2 of Willa Cather: The Complete Fiction and
Other Writings.

18. Preface, foreword, introduction, or afterword After the writer’s

name, include the part title, if any, and label for the part. After
the book title, indicate the book’s author (with by) or editor (with
edited by).

Coates, Ta-Nehisi. Foreword. The Ongin of Others, by Toni Morrison,

Harvard UP, 2017, pp. vii-xvii.

19. Entry in a reference book

Robinson, Lisa Clayton. “Harlem Writers Guild.” Africana: The Encyclopedia

of the African and African Amencan Experience, edited by Kwame
Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates Jr., 2nd ed., Oxford UP, 2005,
p. 163.

20. Book that is part of aseries After the publication information, list
the series name (and number, if any) from the title page.

Denham, A. E., editor. Plato on Art and Beauty. Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
Philosophers in Depth.

21. Republication (modern edition of an older book) Give the original

publication date after the title.

de Mille, Agnes. Dance to the Piper. 1951. New York Review Books, 2015.

22. More than one publisher's name If a book’s title page gives two
publishers’ names, separate them with a slash and spaces.

Acevedo, Elizabeth. With the Fire on High. HarperTeen_/ Quill Tree Books,
2019.
 Creating an MLA list of works cited 145

23. Book with a title within the title If the book title contains the title
of a long work normally italicized, do not italicize the title within
the book title. If the book title contains the title of a short work
normally placed in quotation marks, retain the quotation marks
and italicize the entire title.

Masur, Louis P. Runaway Dream: Born to Run and Bruce Springsteen's

American Vision. Bloomsbury, 2009.

Lethem, Jonathan. “Lucky Alan” and Other Stories. Doubleday, 2015.

24. Sacred text Give the title of the edition of the sacred text. Add
the name of the version, if there is one, before the publisher.

Quran: The Final Testament. Translated by Rashad Khalifa, Authorized

English Version with Arabic Text, Universal Unity, 2000.

Print periodicals
The source map on p. 146 shows where to find information in a
typical periodical.
@ Author. List the last name first. End with a period. For variations,
see models 2-6.
@® Article title. Put the title and any subtitle in quotation marks;
capitalize all major words. Place a period inside the closing
quotation mark.
(3) Periodical title. Italicize the title; capitalize all major words. End
with a comma.
@ Volume and issue. Give the abbreviation vo/. and the volume
number, and the abbreviation no. and the issue number, if the
periodical provides them. Put commas after the volume and issue.
Date of publication. List day (if given), month (abbreviated
except for May, June, and July), and year, or season and year, of
publication. Do not capitalize seasons. Put a comma after the date.
Page numbers. Give the abbreviation p. (for “page”) or pp. (for
“pages”) and the inclusive page numbers. If the article skips pages,
put the first page number and a plus sign. End with a period.

Altschuler, Sari. “The Gothic Origins of Global Health.” American Literature,

vol. 89, no. 3, Sept. 2017, pp. 557-90.

 “We Always Somebody Else”: Inherited Roles and @ Article
Innovative Strategies in Black Women’s Stand-Up Comedy Title

Jalylah Burrell

Abstract: This article traces Marsha Wartield’s stand-up comedy career as

the practice rose to prominence and revolutionized comedic performance
in the 1970s. Warfield’s uses of humor offer complex representations of
Black womanhood, and this essay links her work to companion projects
by Black feminist activists and writers in the 1970s and 1980s. It also dis-
cusses the strategies Warfield developed to take the stage as herself, which
resisted the inherited roles and routines that circumscribe Black women's
humorous expressivity. Keywords: Black feminism; stand-up comedy;
Marsha Warfield; humor; jokes; comedic performance

The theatrical legacy that minstrelsy has left continues to require thal the
woman on stage—especially the black woman—carry the fantasies ofthe
social order.
—Annemarie Bean, “Black Minstrelsy and
Double Inversion, Circa 1890”

@ Periodical
Marsha Warfield emerged on the stand-up comedy scene in the wake
Title of asea change in society, The 1970s represented a catalytic moment in
ht Black women comedi-
4a Volume and hderexamined, The activ-
ism of the Cow Issue Numbers
feminist activist
emphasized th 48:1&2
5 Date of Publication
Spring/Summer 2020

WSQ: Women's Studies Quarterly

48:| & 2 (Spring/Summer 2020) © 2020 by Jalylah Burrell. Alldh served

6 Page Numbers
182-98

Citation

Burrell, Jalylah. “‘We Always Somebody Else’: Inherited Roles and Innovative
2
Strategies in Black Women’s Stand-Up Comedy.” WSQ: Women’s Studies
aie ae
Quarterly, vol. 48, nos. 1-2, spring-summer 2020, pp. 182-98.
 Creating an MLA list of works cited 147

25. Article in a print journal include the volume number, the issue
number, and the date.

Beckwith, Sarah. “Reading for Our Lives.” PMLA, vol. 132, no. 2, Mar.
, L ,

ZAOUITES V0)9)5,Sieles {ey

26. Article in a print magazine Provide the date and the volume or
issue numbers, if any.

Armstrong, Rich. “Innovative Social-Distancing Volunteer Program

Launched.” Boat U.S., 5 Nov. 2020, p. 20.

Misner, Rebecca. “How I Became a Joiner.” Condé Nast Traveler, vol. 5

2018, pp. 55-56.

27. Article in a print newspaper Include the edition (if listed) and the
section number, letter, or name (if listed).

Fackler, Martin. “Japan’s Foreign Minister Says Apologies to Wartime

Victims Will Be Upheld.” The New York Times, 9 Apr. 2014, late ed.,
p.A6.
Note: For locally published newspapers, add the city in brackets
after the name if it is not part of the name: The Globe and Mail
[Toronto].

28. Article that skips pages When an article skips pages, give only the
first page number and a plus sign.

Corasaniti, Nick, and Jim Rutenberg. “Record Turnout Hints at Future of

Vote in U.S.” The New York Times, 6 Dec. 2020, pp. Al+.

29. Editorial or letter to the editor Include the writer’s name, if given,
and the title, if any. If there is no title or if the source is not clear
from the author or title, use the label Editorial or Letter.

Editorial Board. “A Misstep by Organizers of Pride.” The New York Times, 19

May 2021, p. A18.

MacEwan, Valerie. Letter. The Believer, vol. 12, no. 1, Jan. 2014, p. 4.
148 MLA Style

30. Review

Nussbaum, Emily. “Change Agents: Review of The Americans and Silicon

Valley.” The New Yorker, 31 Mar. 2014, p. 68.

Jopanda, Wayne Silao. Review of America Is Not the Heart, by Elaine

Castillo. Alon: Journal for Filipinx American and Diasporic Studies,
vol. 1, no. 1, Mar. 2021, pp. 106-08.

Digital written-word sources

31. Work from a database Library subscriptions provide access to
huge databases of articles, such as Academic Search Premier, Pro-
Quest, and JSTOR. The source map on p. 149 shows where to find
information for a work from a database.

@) Author. List the last name first. End with a period. For variations,
see models 2-7.
Article title. Enclose the title and any subtitle in quotation marks.
End with a period.
Periodical title. Italicize it. Follow it with a comma.
Volume and issue. List the volume and issue number, if any,
separated by commas. Use the abbreviations vol. and no.
Date of publication. Include the day (if given), month or season,
and year, in that order. Do not capitalize seasons. Add a comma.
Page numbers. Give the inclusive page numbers from the print
version, using the abbreviations p. or pp. End with a period.
Database name. Italicize the name of the database. End with a
comma.
Location. Give the DOI or other permalink. If neither is available,
give the URL. If a URL is longer than three lines in the list of works
cited, you may shorten it. End with a period.

Harris, Ashleigh May, and Nicklas Hallén. “African Street Literature: A

Method for an Emergent Form beyond World Literature.” Research in

eal;SRL fae aanOre
African Literatures, vol. 51, no. 2, summer 2020, pp. 1-26. JSTOR,

https://doi.org/10.2979/reseafrilite.51.2.01.
 @ Periodical Title
Cinema Journal
ProQuest
Alldatabases > Literature & Language databases > A ts & Humanities Database | Change databases

Arts & Humanities Database @ Database Name

Basic Search Advanced Search Publications Ab wt

Back to result 1 of 354 >

Representation and Diversity int >) Article Title

Comics Studies
Kirkpatrick, Ellen
fi, Scort, Suzanne Cinema Journal; Lawrence Vol. 55, iss. 1, (Fall 2015).
120-124, 68.

@ Authors 99 Cite = Emal

Full text © Print fa Save
Kirkpatrick, Ellen
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Kirkpatrick, Ellen, and Suzanne Scott. “Representation and Diversity

in Comics Studies.” Cinema Journal, vol. 55, no. 1, fall 2015,

Th ST RMT rE RR ie er
p. 120+. ProQuest Arts and Humanities Database, www.proquest
2 SS ee
.com/products-services/Arts_and_Humanities.html.
150 MLA Style

32. Online article from a journal Begin an entry for an online jour-
nal article as you would one for a print journal article (see model
25). End with the online location (DOI, permalink, or URL) and a
period.

McGuire, Meg. “Women, Healing, and Social Community: Cyberfeminist

Activities on Reddit.” Kairos, vol. 25, no. 2, spring 2021,
kairos.technorhetoric.net/25.2/topoi /mcquire/index.html.

33. Online article in a magazine List the author, article title, and name
of the magazine. Then identify the date of publication, and provide
a DOI or permalink, if one is available, or a URL.

Stuart, Tessa. “New Study Suggests Burning Fossil Fuels Contributed to 1

in 5 Deaths in 2018.” Rolling Stone, 17 Feb. 2021, www.rollingstone
olitics-news/fossil-fuels-air-pollution-premature
-deaths-statistics-1127586/.

34. Online article in a newspaper After the name of the newspaper,

give the publication date and the DOI or permalink (if you can find
one) or URL.

Jones, Ayana. “Chamber of Commerce Program to Boost Black-Owned

Businesses.” The Philadelphia Tribune, 21 Apr. 2021, www.phillytrib.com
/news/business/chamber-of-commerce-program-to-boost-black-owned
-businesses/article_6b14ae2f-5db2-5a59-8a67-8bbf974da451.html.

35. E-book or audiobook Provide information as for a print book (see

models 8-24). For an e-book, include “E-book ed.” before the pub-
lisher name.

Doerr, Anthony. All the Light We Cannot See. E-book ed., Scribner, 2014.

For an audiobook, include the phrase Narrated by followed by the

narrator’s full name. If the author and narrator are the same,
include only the last name. Then include “audiobook ed.,” the pub-
lisher, and the year of release.

de Hart, Jane Sherron. Ruth Bader Ginsburg: A Life. Narrated by Suzanne

Toren, audiobook ed., Random House Audio, 2018.
 Creating an MLA list of works cited 151

Citing Works from Websites

When citing online sources, give as many of the following ele-
ments as you can find:
1. Author. Provide the author of the work, if you can find one.
End with a period.
2. Title. Give the title of the work you are citing, ending with
a period. If the work is part of a larger container (such as a
video on YouTube), put the title in quotation marks.
3. Website title. If the title you identified is not the name of
the website itself, list the website title, in italics, followed by
a comma.
4. Publisher or sponsor. If the site’s publisher or sponsor is
different from the title of the site, identify the publisher or
sponsor, followed by a comma. If the name is very similar to
the site title, omit the publisher.
5. Date of publication. Give the date of publication, copyright,
or latest update, followed by acomma. | ;
6. DOI, permalink, or URL. Give a DOI or permalink (if you can find
one) or URL. End with a period. Ifyou do not need to provide live
n
links for your readers, you may remove the protocol (http:// or ¥:
https://) from a URL. IfaURLis longer than three lines in the list
* of works cited, you may shorten it,leaving at least the website 4.
host (for example, cnn.com or www.usda.gov)in the entry. — Z !
7. Date of teens! if the worl’ does not include any date, add
“Accessed” and the day, month (abbreviated, except for May,
i ~ June, ihe nd year you accessed the urce. End with ~ ‘
+ a period. Procerowtes Cane before peURL, omit the .
date, i a u
‘ee oe es ee Eee ee
36. Online poem Include the poet’s name, the title of the poem, and
the print publication information (if any) for the first container.
For the second container, give the website title and the DOI, per-
malink, or URL.

Giovanni, Nikki. “Dreams.” Black Feeling, Black Talk, Black Judgment,

HarperCollins, 1970. Poetry Foundation, www.poetryfoundation.org
/poems/48224/dreams-56d229494e255.
152 MLA Style

37. Online editorial or letter to the editor Cite as you would a print
editorial or letter to the editor (see model 29). End with the DOI,
permalink, or URL.
Kansas City Star Editorial Board. “Kansas Considers Lowering Concealed
Carry Age to 18. Why It’s Wrong for Many Reasons.” The Kansas
City Star, 9 Mar. 2021, www.kansascity.com/opinion/editorials
/article249793143.htmlL.

Rushlow, Lee. “My Recent Postal Ballot Was the Best I’ve Ever Cast.”
The Wall Street Journal, Dow Jones, 8 Oct. 2020, www.wsj.com
/articles/my-recent-postal-ballot-was-the-best-ive-ever-cast
-11602183549?reflink=desktopwebshare_permalink.

38. Online review Cite an online review as you would a print review
(see model 30). End with the DOI, permalink, or URL.
Bramesco, Charles. “Honeyland Couches an Apocalyptic Warning in a
Beekeeping Documentary.” The A.V. Club, G/O Media, 23 July 2019,
film.avclub.com/honeyland-couches-an-apocalyptic-warning-in-a
-beekeepin-1836624795.

39. Entry in an online reference work or wiki Begin with the title
unless the author is named. (A wiki, which is collectively edited, will
not include an author.) Include the title of the entry; the name of
the work, italicized; the sponsor or publisher; the date of the latest
update; and the location (DOI, permalink, or URL). Before using a
wiki as a source, check with your instructor.
a
“Oligarchy, N.” Mernam-Webster, 2021, www.merriam-webster.com
/dictionary/oligarchy.

“House Music.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia, Wikimedia Foundation,

8 Apr. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_music.

40. Short work from a website To cite a work on a website that is

not part of a regularly published journal, magazine, or newspaper,
include all of the following elements that are available. You may
need to browse other parts of a site to find some of these elements,
and some sites may omit elements. Uncover as much information
as you can. See the source map on p. 154 for an example.
 Creating an MLA list of works cited 153

Author. List the last name first. End with a period. If no author is
given, begin with the title. For variations, see models 2-7.
Title of work. Enclose the title and any subtitle of the work in
quotation marks.
Title of website. Give the title of the entire website, italicized.
Follow it with a comma.
Publisher or sponsor. Look for the sponsor’s name at the bottom
of the home page. If the sponsor’s name is roughly the same as the
site title, omit the sponsor. Follow it with a comma.
Date of publication or latest update. Give the most recent
date, followed by a comma.
Location. Give the DOI or permalink, if you can find one, or the
site’s URL, followed by a period.
Date of access. If the site is undated, end with Accessed and the
date you accessed the site.

Sigal I |
Bali, Karan. “Shashikala.” Upperstall, upperstall.com/profile/shashikala/.
on
ta Maied I
Accessed 22 Apr. 2021.

I II
“Mission & Vision.” UCSF Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Resource
ae, ——1 f@R aa
Center, Regents of the U of California, 2021, lgbt.ucsf.edu/mission

me Bal
-vision.

41. Entire website Follow the guidelines for a work from a website,
beginning with the name of the author or editor (if any), followed
by the title of the website, italicized; the name of the sponsor or
publisher (if different from the name of the site); the date of publi-
cation or last update; and the location.

Lift Every Voice. Library of America / Schomburg Center for Research in

Black Culture, 2020, africanamericanpoetry.org/.

The Newton Project. 2021, www.newtonproject.ox.ac.uk/.

 THE
NOBEL
PRIZE
Nobel Prizes & Laureates Nomination Alfred Nobel News & insights Events Education network

Mahatma Gandhi, the missing

laureate
Share this

Mohandas Gandhi (1869-1948) has become the strongest symbol! of non-

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THE NOBEL PRIZE Copyright © Nobel Media AB 2020

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Citation Nobel Media AB

Tonnesson, ®yvind. “Mahatma Gandhi, the Missing Laureate.”

The Nobel Prize, 2020, www.nobelprize.org/prizes/themes/

ee
mahatma-gandhi-the-missing-laureate/.
 Creating an MLA list of works cited

42. Blog For an entire blog, give the author’s name; the title of the
blog, italicized; the publisher (if different from the title of the blog);
the date; and the URL. If the site is undated, end with your access
date.

Horgan, John. Cross-Check. Scientific American, 2020, blogs

-scientificamerican.com/cross-check/.
Ng, Amy. Pikaland. 2020, www.pikaland.com.

43. Blog post Give the author’s name; the title of the post, in quota-
tion marks; the title of the site, italicized; the date of the post; and
the URL.

Edroso, Roy. “No Compassion.” Alicublog, 18 Mar. 2021, alicublog

.blogspot.com/2021/03/no-compassion.html.

44, Comment on a blog post or online article List the screen name of
the commenter and use the label Comment on before the title of
the post or article. Include the URL to the comment when possible;
otherwise, use the URL for the post or article.

satch. Comment on “No Compassion,” by Roy Edroso. Alicublog, 20 Mar.

2021, 9:50 a.m., disq.us/p/2fuOulk.

45. Tweet Give either the text of the entire tweet in quotation
marks, using the writer’s capitalization and punctuation, or a brief
description if you are focusing on a visual element of the tweet
rather than the text in your work. Follow with Twitter, then pro-
vide the date and end with the URL. (See model 7 for how to style
screen names.)

Abdurragib, Hanif [@NifMuhammad]. “Tracy Chapman really one of

the greatest Ohio writers.” Twitter, 30 Mar. 2021, twitter.com
/NifMuhammad/status/1377086355667320836.

46. Other posts on social media Cite as a short work from a website
(see model 40). If the post does not have a title, use the text accom-
panying the post, if it is brief, as the title; if the post is long, use the
first few words followed by an ellipsis. If the post has no title or text,
or if you are focusing on a visual element rather than the text in
156 l@)a6e MLA Style

your work, provide a description of the post. (See model 7 for how
to style screen names.)

ACLU. “Public officials have . . .” Facebook, 10 May 2021, www.facebook

.com/aclu/photos/a.74134381812/10157852911711813.
Rosa, Camila [camixvx]. Illustration of nurses in masks with fists raised.
Instagram, 28 Apr. 2020, www.instagram.com/p/B_h62W9pJaQ/.
Jones, James [@notoriouscree]. “Some traditional hoop teachings
#indigenous #culture #native #powwow.” 7ikTok, 6 Apr. 2021,
www.tiktok.com/@notoriouscree/video/6948207430610226438.

47. E-mail or text message

Primak, Shoshana. Text message to the author. 6 May 2021.

Lewis-Truth, Antoine. E-mail to the Office of Student Financial Assistance.

30 Aug. 2020.

48. Online interview Start with the name of the person interviewed.
Give the title, if there is one. Then give a descriptive label such as
Interview, neither italicized nor in quotation marks, and the inter-
viewer, followed by publication information.

Harjo, Joy. “The First Native American U.S. Poet Laureate on How Poetry
Can Counter Hate.” Interview by Olivia B. Waxman. Time, 22 Aug.
2019, time.com/5658443 /joy-harjo-poet-interview/.

Visual, audio, multimedia, and live sources

49. Film or movie If you cite a particular person’s work, start with
that name. If not, start with the title of the film; then name the
director, distributor or production company, and year of release.
Other contributors, such as writers or performers, may follow the
director. If you viewed the film on a streaming service, include the
app or the website name and URL at the end of the entry.

Judas and the Black Messiah. Directed by Shaka King, Warner Bros.
Pictures, 2021.

Youn, Yuh-Jung, performer. Minari. Directed by Lee Isaac Chung, Plan B

Entertainment / A24, 2020. Amazon Prime Video app.
 Creating an MLA list of works cited 157

50. Online video If the video is viewed on a video-sharing site such

as YouTube or Vimeo, put the name of the uploader after the name
of the website. If the video emphasizes a single speaker or presenter,
list that person as the author. (See model 58 for an example of how
to cite a TED Talk.)

“The Art of Single Stroke Painting in Japan.” YouTube, uploaded

by National Geographic, 13 July 2018, www.youtube.com/
watch?v=g7H8IhGZnpM.

51. Television (broadcast or online) If you are citing a particular episode,

begin with the title in quotation marks. Then give the program title in
italics. List important contributors (creator, writer, director, narrator,
actors), if relevant to your writing; the season and episode numbers; the
network, distributor, or production company;
and the date of broadcast
or publication. Unless you viewed or listened to the program on a live
broadcast, end with the site or service on which you accessed it.

“Shock and Delight.” Bridgerton, season 1, episode 2, Shondaland / Netflix,

2020. Netflix, www.netflix.com.

Hillary. Directed by Nanette Burstein, Propagate Content / Hulu, 2020.

Hulu app.

If you are focusing on the work of an episode-specific contributor,

you may include that person’s name after the episode title.

52. Radio (broadcast or online) If you are citing a particular episode

or segment, cite a radio broadcast as you would a television episode
(see model 51).

“Umbrellas Down.” This American Life, hosted by Ira Glass, WBEZ,

10 July 2020.

For a show or segment accessed online, follow the date of posting

with the website title, a comma, the URL, and a period.

53. Television or radio interview List the person interviewed and then
the title, if any. Then use the label Interview and the name of the
interviewer. End with information about the program.

Kendi, Ibram X. Interview by Eric Deggans. Life Kit, NPR, 24 Oct. 2020.
158 lace MLA Style

54. Personal interview Begin with the name of the person _inter-
viewed. Then describe the type of interview, followed by the date of
the interview.

Freedman, Sasha. Video interview with the author. 10 Apr. 2021.

55. Music recording List the name of the person or group you wish to
emphasize (such as the composer, conductor, or band); the title of
the recording or composition; additional contributors, if appropri-
ate; the record label; and the year of issue. If you are citing a par-
ticular song or selection, include its title, in quotation marks. Ifyou
listen
recording
to the online, include the URL for the recording or
the name of the app.

Bach, Johann Sebastian. Bach: Violin Concertos. Performances by Itzhak

Perlman, Pinchas Zukerman, and English Chamber Orchestra, EMI,
2002.

Bad Bunny. “Vete.” YHLQMDLG, Rimas, 2020. Apple Music app.

56. Musical composition Cite a published score as you would a book.

If you include the date that the composition was written, do so
immediately after the title.

Schoenberg, Arnold. Chamber Symphony No. 1 for 15 Solo Instruments,

Opus 9. 1906. Dover, 2002.

57. Video game Start with the developer or author (if any). After the
title, give the distributor and the date of publication.

Mojang. Minecraft Dungeons. Xbox Game Studios, 2020.

58. Lecture or speech For a live lecture or speech, list the speaker;
the title (if any), in quotation marks; the sponsoring institution or
group; the date; and the location. Add the label Lecture or Speech if
thereis no title or if readers will not otherwise be able to identify
the work.

Gay, Roxane. “Difficult Women, Bad Feminists and Unruly Bodies.” Beatty
Lecture Series, 18 Oct. 2018, McGill University.
 Creating an MLA list of works cited 159

For an online lecture or speech, such as a TED Talk, cite as you

would an online video (see model 50).

Kundu, Anindya. “The ‘Opportunity Gap’ in US Public Education

— and
How to Close It.” TED, May 2019, www.ted.com/talks/anindya
_kundu_the_opportunity_gap_in_us_public_education_and_how
_to_close_it.

59. Live performance List the title, the appropriate names (such as
the writer or performer), the date, and the location.

Schreck, Heidi. What the Constitution Means to Me. Directed by Oliver

Butler, 16 June 2019, Helen Hayes Theater, New York City.

60. Podcast Cite a podcast as you would a television or radio episode

or series (see models 51 and 52).

“Childish Gambino: Because the Internet.” Dissect, hosted by Cole Cuchna,

season 7, episode 1, Spotify, Sep. 2020. Spotify app.

Dolly Parton’s America. Hosted by Jad Abumrad, produced and reported by

Shima Oliaee, WNYC Studios, 2019, www.wnycstudios.org/podcasts
/dolly-partons-amenca.

61. Work of art or photograph List the artist’s or photographer’s name;

the work’s title, italicized; and the date of composition. Then cite the
name of the museum or other location and the city. To cite a repro-
duction in a book, add the publication information. To cite online
artwork, instead give the title of the database or website, italicized,
and the DOI, permalink, or URL.

Bronzino, Agnolo. Lodovico Capponi. 1550-55, Frick Collection, New York.

General William Palmer in Old Age. 1810, National Army Museum, London.
White Mughals: Love and Betrayal in Eighteenth-Century India, by
William Dalrymple, Penguin Books, 2002, p. 270.

Lange, Dorothea. Migrant Mother, Nipomo, California. Mar. 1936. MOMA,

www.moma.org/collection/works/50989.
160 MLA Style

62. Map or chart Cite a map or chart as you would a short work within
a longer work. End with the label Map or Chart if needed for clarity.

“Australia.” Perry-Castanieda Library Map Collection, U of Texas Libraries,

2016, legacy.lib.utexas.edu/maps/cia16/australia_sm_2016.gif.

“New COVID-19 Cases Worldwide.” Coronavirus Resource Center, Johns Hopkins

U and Medicine, 3 May 2021, coronavirus.jhu.edu/data/new-cases. Chart.

63. Cartoon or comic strip List the artist’s name; the title of the car-
toon or comic strip, in quotation marks; and the publication infor-
mation. If there is no title, use a label (Cartoon or Comic strip).

Shiell, Mike. Cartoon. The Saturday Evening Post, Jan.—Feb. 2021, p. 8.

Munroe, Randall. “Heartbleed Explanation.” xkcd, xkcd.com/1354/.

Accessed 10 Oct. 2020.

64. Advertisement Include the label Advertisement if there is no title.

Advertisement for Better World Club. Mother Jones, Mar.-Apr. 2021, p. 2.

“The Whole Working-from-Home Thing

— Apple.” YouTube, uploaded by
Apple, 13 July 2020, www.youtube.com/watch?v=6_pru8U2RmM.

Other sources (including digital versions)

If an online version is not shown in this section, use the appropriate
model for the source and then end with a DOI, permalink, or URL.

65. Pamphlet or brochure

Sierra County Public Health. Benefits of the COVID-19 Vaccine. 2021,

sierracounty.ca.gov/DocumentCenter/View/5522/Benefits-of-the
-COVID-19-Vaccine-Brochure. Brochure.

66. Government publication Give the name of the author as pre-

sented by the source.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. “Consumer Expenditures Report 2019.”

BLS Reports, Dec. 2020, www.bls.gov/opub/reports/consumer
-expenditures/2019/home.htm.
 Creating an MLA list of works cited ‘s6e(3) 161

If you are using several government sources, you may want to

standardize your list of works cited by listing the name of the gov-
ernment, spelled out, followed by the name of any agencies and
subagencies.

United States, Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. “Consumer

Expenditures Report 2019.” BLS Reports, Dec. 2020, www.bls.gov
/opub/reports/consumer-expenditures/2019/home.htm.

67. Published proceedings of a conference Cite the proceedings as you

would a book.

Zhang, Baosheng, et al., editors. A Dialogue between Law and History:

Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Facts and
Evidence. Springer, 2021.

68. Dissertation Italicize the title and add the year the work was
accepted, the institution, and a description of the type of degree.

Kabugi, Magana J. The Souls of Black Colleges: Cultural Production,

Ideology, and Identity at Historically Black Colleges and Universities.
2020. Vanderbilt U, PhD dissertation. Vanderbilt University
Institutional Repository, hdl.handle.net/1803/16103.

69. Classroom materials For materials posted to an online learning

management system, include as much information as is available
about the source (author, title or description, and any publication
information); then give the course, instructor, platform, institu-
tion name, date of posting, and URL. For materials delivered in a
print or PDF course pack, include the author and title of the work;
the words Course pack for with the course number and name; com-
piled by with the instructor’s name; the term; and the institution
name.

Rose, Mike. “Blue-Collar Brilliance.” Introduction to College Writing,

taught by Melanie Li. Blackboard, Merrimack College, 9 Sept.
2020, blackboard.merrimack.edu/ultra/courses/_25745_1/cl
/readings.
162

70. Letter Cite a published letter as a work in an anthology (see

model 11). If the letter is unpublished, follow this form:

Nadir, Abdul. Letter to the author. 12 Feb. 2021. Typescript.

71. Manuscript or other unpublished work List the author’s name; the
title (if any) or a description of the material; the date of creation;
the name of the library or research institution housing the material,
if applicable; and other identifying information.

Woolf, Virginia. “The Searchlight.” 1902-1956. Papers of Virginia Woolf,

Smith College, Northampton, MA, series III, box 4, item 184.

72. Legal source For a legislative act (law), give the government
body, the Public Law number, and the publication information.

United States, Congress. Public Law 116-136. United States Statutes at

Large, vol. 134, 2019, pp. 281-615. U.S. Government Publishing
Office, www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-116publ136/uslm
/PLAW-116publ136.xml.

For a court case, name the court and then name the case. Give the
date of the decision and the publication information.

United States, Supreme Court. Miller v. Alabama. 25 June 2012. Legal

Information Institute, Cornell Law School, www.law.cornell.edu
/supremecourt/text/10-9646.

1Gf Research-based argument, MLA style

ER
SuipEMY Otte A research-based argument by Julia Sakowitz
+ appears on the following pages. Julia followed the
- iy MLA guidelines described in this chapter.

ed on

Julia Sakowitz
SAKOWITZ
JULIA
OF
COURTESY
 Research-based argument, MLA style 163

Sakowitz 1

Name,
Julia Sakowitz instructor,
Professor Yamboliev course,
and date
PWR 1 aligned at
21 May 2019 left
“We're a Lot More Than Gospel Singing”: Title
Tounsm in Harlem centered

As a New York City resident of the new millennium, I grew up Connects

barely aware that Harlem had ever been a no-go zone and couldn't personal
experience
understand why people of the older generation, my parents included, to the
were afraid to venture uptown. I knew nothing about the heroin essay topic,
establishing
and crack epidemics of the 1960s, 70s, and 80s and in general was a narrative
accustomed to a New York City that was safer than it had been in frame

years.
Harlem has changed rapidly over the past several decades.
As problems with crime and drug abuse in the storied New York
neighborhood decreased in the 1980s and 1990s, new government- Provides
background
sponsored and privately funded economic initiatives like the
information
Upper Manhattan Empowerment Zone (UMEZ) pushed for outside on problems
in Harlem
investment and economic development (Hoffman 288; Zukin et al.
and
50). In a recent interview, Carolyn Johnson, owner of “Welcome to responses
to them
Harlem,” a boutique tour company, recalled that “[Harlem] went
from 0 to 100 in a short period of time,” to the point that even
Harlem residents themselves weren’t aware of new businesses in
their neighborhood. Tourism in Harlem clearly played a central
role in this process, both responding to and creating social and
economic change. By 2000, more than 800,000 people were visiting
Harlem each year (Hoffman 288).
It’s clear that Harlem’s surge in tourism is good for the
city. But an equally important and more complex question is Introduces
a key area
whether tourism benefits Harlem residents or sells them short.
of debate
Close examination of current policy and tour business in Harlem

Ve

Annotations indicate effective choices or MLA-style formatting.

164 MLA Style

Sakowitz 2

reveals problems that come with tourism, such as cultural

commodification and commercial gentrification, which are made
worse by an Empowerment Zone program that favors only the most
Presents socioeconomically advantaged residents and outsiders. Although
mae there is no simple solution for tourism in Harlem, small locally
statement owned tour businesses have the potential to more directly and
are widely benefit the community while causing fewer social and
introductory | economic problems.
paki Economic development policy, particularly the UMEZ, has played
a major role in shaping tourism’s growth. Founded in 1994, the
| organization operates programs targeting business investment, loans
to small businesses, grants for arts and culture, and employment and
Includes a business training for residents (“Upper Manhattan”). But promoting
shortened vie : : é
title in tourism is one of its most important aims.
parentheses The UMEZ especially focuses on cultural initiatives as a means
oe ae of drawing tourism, sponsoring a “Catalyst Fund” specifically to
named “build cultural tourism,” funding marketing and publicity for “UMEZ-
rue ’ eligible cultural organizations” (“Upper Manhattan”). This cultural
Discusses marketing approach to Harlem tourism is not unique to the UMEZ.
the UMEZ F Poe: F
organiza- Recent scholarship on tourism in Harlem concludes that marketing
tion and its Black and Latino culture is Harlem’s golden ticket to escape economic
effects in
vio marginalization. Scholar Lily Hoffman identifies Black culture as the
| driving force that increased tourism to Harlem, claiming that for
When the visitors, Harlem is the embodiment of “Black America and its music
cise and entertainment traditions” (288). In Hoffman's eyes, “capitalizing
in a signal on ethnic culture” for tourism not only generates revenue but also
ate. promotes cultural flourishing and instills community pride (297).
number is Other scholars echo these sentiments, emphasizing that “diversity”
needed in 4 F : u
parentheses culture is Harlem’s major and perhaps only asset and that “cultural
tourism” has the additional benefit of promoting tolerance and
de-stigmatization (Fainstein and Powers; Huning and Novy). But
 Research-based argument, MLA style 165

Sakowitz 3

although it seems reasonable to assume that most tourists come to

Harlem expecting to experience black culture, significant cultural
complications still stand.
Cultural tourism comes with problems. The power dynamic
between a tourist with means and mobility, and Harlem residents,
who might lack both, is skewed. One of the most obvious dangers is
that visitors will disrespect Harlem and the people who live there,
participating in “negative sightseeing” or treating locals as if they're
“out on exhibit” (Fainstein and Powers 14). In the popular Lonely
Planet guide to New York City, there are hints of a clash between
tourists and locals over cultural tourism: “Many locals are upset by
visitors [to Harlem churches] who chat during sermons, leave in |
||
the middle of services or show up in skimpy attire,” Lonely Planet
warns. “Plus, for some, there’s the uncomfortable sense that African
American spirituality is something to be consumed like a Broadway
|
|
show” (St Louis and Bonnetto 254). |
|
Another, equally important issue stemming from tourism is |

commercial gentrification, the phenomenon of large chain stores Defines a

key term
and boutiques replacing stores that serve the poor (Zukin et al. (“gentrifica-
48). Such changes have long been viewed as positive. A low-income tion”) and
shows how
neighborhood often lacks necessary retail infrastructure, instead it relates to
featuring businesses like used merchandise outlets, check cashing tourism and
affects the
operations, liquor stores, or job training and family services (Hoffman community
288). Tourism can encourage middle-class economic activity like
supermarkets, commercial banks, and legal and accounting services,
which are as much needed by low-income residents as wealthier ones
(Hoffman 288). But boutique stores and chain stores, seen in figure 1, Refers to
visual in the
can replace services that might still be needed, leaving low-income text of the
residents feeling unwelcome (Zukin et al. 48). Economic gain from essay
new businesses also bypasses most Harlem residents: fewer than half
of new retail entrepreneurs are residents, according to Zukin and others,
166 MLA Style

Provides
figure
number and
caption;
MLA
doesn't
require
visuals in
the list YORK
NEW
CITYSIGHTSEEING
LINE
GRAY
OF
COURTESY
of works
cited if full Fig. 1. A typical tour bus passes Harlem's historic Apollo
publication Theater, which now sits amid chain stores. Uptown Tour. 2016.
information
is givenina City Sightseeing New York, www.citysightseeingnewyork.com
caption /nyc-bus-tours/uptown-treasures-harlem-tour-plus.
html.

and even those entrepreneurs who are residents overwhelmingly come

from the newly arrived middle class (59).
Writer's Commercial gentrification can feed into residential
last name
gentrification as the neighborhood becomes attractive to new
and page
number middle-class residents. These might be any of a variety of races and
appear on
nationalities, including African and African American, but tend to be
every page
better educated, have more money, and come from outside New York
City (Zukin et al. 59). In fact, tourism itself can facilitate residential
Uses a gentrification, sometimes overtly through real estate tours much
semicolon
like the Harlem “brownstone tours” that first occurred in the 1980s
to separate
information (Schulz; Sandford 103). Today, this kind of “neighborhood-shopping”
about two
continues. Non-Harlemite New Yorkers, visitors, and even real estate
sources in
one citation moguls will often visit Harlem with Big Onion Walking Tours to ask
 Research-based argument, MLA style 167

Sakowitz 5

pointed questions about whether Harlem is a friendly and safe place

to live (Kamil).
Both commercial and residential gentrification favor outsiders
and newcomers. While it is possible for tourism to economically
empower Harlem and its residents, in reality the greatest economic
gains bypass low-income residents completely.
In this context, Carolyn Johnson, Harlem resident and founder
of “Welcome to Harlem,” a self-described Black and “women-owned
visitor center and boutique-tour company,” is a unique player (“About
Us”). In the early 2000s, Johnson realized her neighborhood was
changing rapidly and started the website “Welcome to Harlem” in
2004 as an informational tool for the community, so residents could
learn about Harlem’s new businesses and venues. In 2008, Johnson
decided to branch out into tourism. Seeing outsiders coming to
Harlem to give bus and walking tours, she decided to complete a
Includes
short tour guide training program and start leading tours herself
two
(Interview). “Welcome to Harlem” now features six different tours, personal
interviews
including jazz tours, food-tasting tours, and historic tours, as well as
as field
“music programs and workshops” (“About Us”). research
For Johnson, running her own business can be an economic
challenge, but another, equally serious problem is developing a
trustworthy reputation to attract clients. She says she struggled to
get recognition outside the community, noting it was more common
for hotels and tour agencies to recommend large non-Harlem-based
tour companies, which might be able to pay a sizeable commission.
Visibility is a common problem for Harlem-based tour companies.
Almost half of the listed businesses resulting from a Google search
for “Harlem tour” are not Harlem-based businesses, but larger outside
companies, like “New York Visions,” “Free Tours by Foot,” and “Big
Onion Walking Tours.”
In the tour business, which aims to represent a neighborhood
for outsiders, issues of cultural representation are important. For
168 MLA Style

Sakowitz 6

Promotes Harlem-based entrepreneurs, offering tours can be a means of

aad self-representation. Johnson’s own identity as a Harlem resident
a Harlem motivates her to create tours that disprove negative stereotypes.
ee “Most people think that Harlem is just Sylvia’s, the Apollo, and
the commu- —_ gospel on Sunday,” Johnson says. She wants to show that Harlem is
gain a self-contained community, “a lot more than just gospel singing”
(Interview).
This point of “authenticity” is so important that Harlem-
based companies compete with even more exclusive definitions.
The “Welcome to Harlem” website states, “Our tours are led by true
| Harlemites (those who grew up here or live here) which allows for an
Presents an authentic and personal experience.” According to Seth Kamil, owner
hee of “Big Onion Walking Tours,” “authenticity” is not an asset at all.
view Kamil, who founded his business twenty-five years ago as a graduate
student at Columbia University, believes that living in a certain
place is no qualification for leading tours, and that the best tours
are strongly academic, offering historical fact. Kamil employs mainly
graduate students as guides, and his Harlem guides are neither
Black nor necessarily Harlem locals. In a recent interview, Kamil
questioned the motives of tourists seeking an authentic Harlemite
guide and suggested that there is a “subtle racism” that drives
tourists to request a Black or Hispanic guide in Harlem, but not in
other economically challenged neighborhoods like Chinatown. He
stated simply, “We don’t play that game” (Kamil).
But at the same time, much like “Welcome to Harlem” or
Harlem Heritage Tours, Kamil is concerned about representing Harlem
fairly and dispelling stereotypes. In addition to focusing on history,
his tours aim to express the struggles of living in Harlem because
of its continued lack of infrastructure that many middle-class New
Yorkers take for granted. He notes that the biggest problem with
Harlem tours are “perceptions that customers have” and he tries to
avoid disrespecting the community, refusing to take part in “Gospel
 Research-based argument, MLA style 169

Sakowitz 7

Tours,” which he sees as violating Harlem’s places of worship. He

also cares about what Harlem residents think of his tours. In his
opinion, Big Onion Walking Tours has “a unique relationship with
the community,” and he notes that many Black residents will stop to
listen to his white guides, to check that they're being respectful and
accurate (Kamil).
Kamil seemed to view “cultural” tours as, at worst, empty and |
unethical, and, at best, self-commodifying. Could he be partially /
right? Is Harlem-based tour companies’ heavy-handed advertising
|
of “authenticity” based on ethnic status and Harlem residence
demeaning for Harlem residents? |
Coming at this same question of cultural commodification |
from a different perspective is Arlene Davila, a scholar whose focus Introduces
rate 5 ‘ er a third
on Latino issues in East Harlem, or El Barrio, led her to surprising important
conclusions about the UMEZ policies. Commodifying ethnic cultures voice in the
debate
is problematic, Davila claims, because in the eyes of tourists,
policymakers, and even scholars, not all culture is created equal. For
example, Harlem is internationally famous as a “Black Mecca,” yet it
is also more than half Latino and a center for “Nuyorican” identity,
urban Latindad, and Latino dance and music (52). But what happens
when visitors’ needs and residents’ reality just don’t align? Davila
writes:
By limiting East Harlem’s funding eligibility to certain sections Block
; ? : ty eae : format for
and imposing requirements that only institutionalized cultural jqugetan
industries could meet, EZ virtually guaranteed that cultural of more
institutions in Central and West Harlem, which are the most ie
established cultural institutions in Upper Manhattan, would be quotation
5 : : : marks are
most prominently featured in EZ-sponsored tourist promotional nai ge adad
materials and the ones eligible for the largest amounts of
funding. (51) The
5 aueeiarts A parentheti-
When Latino cultural initiatives have applied for UMEZ ealicitatind
funding, the UMEZ board has questioned the appeal of Latino comes after
the period
170 MLA Style

Sakowitz 8

culture, in one instance rejecting a salsa museum’s application

because it doubted the international popularity of salsa and the
museum's ability to create at least five jobs (Davila 59). The results
of such policy for El Barrio are dramatic: Davila estimates that
as little as six percent of the UMEZ cultural funding was given to
Latino initiatives (51).
Transition But Latino Harlemites aren’t the only ones who suffer from the
to final
UMEZ policies. Even though the UMEZ funding of tourism and cultural
point
initiatives is supposed to be an equalizing force that elevates those
with few resources, its economic prerequisites favor those with money
and education (Davila 58). Harlem residents echo these sentiments.
Deborah Faison, a Harlem resident, commented that the technical
}

training the UMEZ provides is “by itself. . . not enough” and that
}

| it’s necessary to be “in a strong position already to participate” in

Includes the program (qtd. in Maurrasse 164). Carolyn Johnson, who receives
“qtd. in”
funding for “Welcome to Harlem” through the UMEZ, believes that
to indicate
a source UMEZ doesn’t do enough for small business and the “people who have
quoted in
been here” (Interview). The ultimate result of the UMEZ’s supposedly
another
source equal-access programs of economic empowerment through culture
is that the “largest beneficiaries under the EZ were developers and
outside visitors” (Davila 61).
Writer If tourism is going to be a means of economic empowerment
proposes
for Harlem, there’s an urgent need to revise UMEZ policy. For
a policy
change example, when allocating funding, the UMEZ should focus less on
and gives
the revenue and jobs a cultural initiative will create and more on
examples
its cultural value to the community. Harlem’s cultural life is as
important as its economic life, especially from the perspective of
tourism, because cultivating genuine culture that comes from and
serves the community keeps Harlem authentically itself, which is
what draws tourists in the first place. Doing otherwise sells the
soul of the neighborhood, turning it into a hollow Disneyland
version of itself. The UMEZ also needs to take civic participation
 Research-based argument, MLA style 171

Sakowitz 9

and empowerment more seriously. Instead of providing sparse

job training and business skills classes, it should take steps to
organize community meetings and start more comprehensive
programs that would create a genuine sense of resident
involvement and power.
Finally, the UMEZ can’t remain socioeconomically blind. Doing
so benefits those who have economic or social advantage, enabling
commercial gentrification rather than uplifting the community.
The organization should develop a policy of need-based preference,
giving special consideration to long-term residents, minorities,
and economically disadvantaged entrepreneurs. Instead of
selecting businesses based on how accomplished they seem
already, the UMEZ should award grants based on their potential
to grow.
With these changes to the UMEZ, Harlem entrepreneurs will be Conclusion
able to receive funding and compete on an even playing field with oi de
outside companies like Big Onion Walking Tours without having to sell argument
their identity. Small business will be able to flourish, and Harlem will 2h ia
remain resilient and diverse, a wonderful place to live and a wonderful
place to visit.
172 MLA Style

——

Sakowitz 10

|
Heading Works Cited
centered
Davila, Arlene. “Empowered Culture? New York City’s Empowerment
|
Print Zone and the Selling of El Barrio.” The Annals of the American
journal
Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 594, no. 1, July
article
2004, pp. 49-64.
Chapter in Fainstein, Susan S., and John C. Powers. “Tourism and New York's
a book with
Ethnic Diversity: An Underutilized Resource?” Tourism, Ethnic
an editor
Diversity and the City, edited by Jan Rath, Routledge, 2007, pp.
143-63.
Article Hoffman, Lily M. “The Marketing of Diversity in the Inner City: Tourism
found ina
and Regulation in Harlem.” International Journal of Urban
database
and Regional Research, vol. 27, no. 2, June 2003, pp. 286-99.
Academic Search Premier, https://doi.org/10.1111/1468
-2427.00448.
Online Huning, Sandra, and Johannes Novy. Tourism as an Engine of
report
Neighborhood Regeneration? Some Remarks towards a Better
Understanding of Urban Tourism beyond the “Beaten Path.” CMS
Working Paper Series, No. 006-2006, Center for Metropolitan
Studies, 2006, citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10
.1.1.544.6506&rep=rep1&type=pdf.
Johnson, Carolyn D. “About Us.” Welcome to Harlem, welcometoharlem
.com/page/aboutus/. Accessed 15 May 2019.
Personal ---. Interview with the author. 9 May 2019.
interview
| Kamil, Seth. Interview with the author. 11 May 2019.
Print book Maurrasse, David. Listening to Harlem: Gentrification, Community, and
Business. Routledge, 2006.
Second and Sandford, Mariellen R. “Tourism in Harlem: Between Negative
subsequent
Sightseeing and Gentrification.” The Journal of American Culture,
lines
of each vol. 10, no. 2, summer 1987, pp. 99-105. Wiley Online Library,
entry are
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1542-734X.1987.1002_99.x.
indented
 Research-based argument, MLA style 173

Sakowitz 11

Schulz, Dana. “House Tours Galore: Where to Get a Look inside the Short work
Area’s Most Fabulous Homes and Gardens.” 6sqft, 5 May 2015, ee:
www. 6sqft.com/house-tours-galore-where-to-get-a-look-inside
-the-areas-most-fabulous-homes-and-gardens/.
St Louis, Regis, and Cristian Bonetto. “Harlem and Upper Manhattan.”
Lonely Planet New York City, Lonely Planet, 2014.
“Upper Manhattan Empowerment Zone: Who We Are.” Upper Manhattan __ Entry for
: ith
Empowerment Zone Development Corporation, umez.org. Accessed cae
12 May 2019. author
: a | 4 : begins with
Zukin, Sharon, et al. “New Retail Capital and Neighborhood Change: title
Boutiques and Gentrification in New York City.” City & |
Community, vol. 8, no. 1, Mar. 2009, pp. 47-64. Wiley Online ae
Library, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6040.2009.01269.x. or more
authors
uses et al.
 17 APAStyle
Chapter 17 discusses the basic formats prescribed by the American
Psychological Association (APA), guidelines that are widely used for
research in the social sciences. For further reference, consult the
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Seventh
Edition (2020).

17a _ Understanding APA citation style

aa
Why does academic work call for very careful citation practices
when writing for the general public may not? The answer is that
readers of academic work expect source citations for several reasons:

¢ Source citations demonstrate that you’ve done your homework on

your topic and that you are a part of the conversation surrounding it.
¢ Source citations show that you understand the need to give credit
when you make use of someone else’s intellectual property. (See
Chapter 14.)
¢ Source citations give explicit directions to guide readers who want
to look for themselves at the works you’re using.

The guidelines for APA style tell you exactly what information to
include in your citation and how to format that information.

Types of sources Refer to the list of examples on pp. 182-83 for

guidelines on citing various types of sources—print books (or parts
of print books), print periodicals (journals, magazines, and newspa-
pers), and digital written-word sources (an online article or book).
A digital version of a source may include updates or corrections
that the print version lacks, so it’s important to provide the correct
information for readers. For sources that consist mainly of mate-
rial other than written words—such as a film, song, or podcast—
consult the “other sources” section of the directory. And if you
can’t find a model exactly like the source you’ve selected, see the
checklist in 17d.

Articles from web and database sources You need a subscription

to look through most databases, so individual researchers almost

174
 Understanding APA citation style 175

always gain access to articles in databases through a library that pays

to subscribe. The easiest way to tell whether a source comes from a
database, then, is that its information is not generally available for
free. Many databases are digital collections of articles that originally
appeared in edited print periodicals, ensuring that an authority has
vouched for the accuracy of the information. Such sources often
have more credibility than free material available on the web.

Parts of citations APA citations appear in two parts of your

text—a brief in-text citation in the body of your written text and a
full citation in the list of references, to which the in-text citation
directs readers. The most straightforward in-text citations include
the author’s name, the publication year, and the page number, but
many variations on this basic format are discussed in 17c.
In the text of her causal analysis, student Tawnya Redding
includes a paraphrase of material from an online journal that she
accessed through the publisher’s website. She cites the authors’
names and the year of publication in a parenthetical reference,
pointing readers to the entry for “Baker, F., & Bor, W. (2008)” in
her references list.

References
Baker, F., & Bor, W. (2008). Can music preference indicate mental
healtlAstatus in young people? Australasian Psychiatry, 16(4),
284-288. https://doi.org/10.1080/10398560701879589
George, D., btickle, K., Rachid, F., & Wopnford, A. (2007). The

alter the mood of at-risk}youth in a negative way. This view of the

correlation between musjc and suicide risk is supported by a meta-
analysis done by Baker and Bor (2008), in which the authors assert
that most studies reject the notion that music is a causal factor
and suggest that music preference is more indicative of emotional
vulnerability. However, it is still unknown whether these genres can

Taiwan. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 20(3), 229-246.

https://doi.org/10.1080/016128499248637
176 APA Style

Content notes APA style allows you to use content notes, either
at the bottom of the page (footnotes) or on a separate page at the
end of the text (endnotes), to expand or supplement your text.
Indicate such notes in the text by superscript numerals (1), using
the footnote function in your word processor. Single-space all foot-
notes. Indent the first line of each note one-half inch, but begin
subsequent lines at the left margin.

SUPERSCRIPT NUMBER IN TEXT

The age of the children involved in the study was an important factor in
the selection of items for the questionnaire.+

FOOTNOTE
1Marjorie Youngston Forman and William Cole of the Child Study
Team provided great assistance in identifying appropriate items for the
questionnaire.

17b Following APA format

Epes
The following formatting guidelines are consistent with APA recom-
mendations for undergraduate student texts. However, check with
your instructor before preparing the final draft of a print text.

Title page Double-space the entire title page. Center the title in
boldface type three or four lines from the top margin. After one
blank double-spaced line, include the following details on separate
lines: your name, the department and school in which the course is
offered, the course number and name, your instructor’s name, and
the assignment due date. Insert the page number “1” in the upper
right margin.

Margins and spacing Leave margins of one inch on all sides of

the page. Do not justify the right margin. Double-space the entire
text (except for footnotes), including any headings, set-off quota-
tions (44a), and the list of references. Indent one-half inch from
the left margin for the first line of a paragraph and all lines of a
set-off quotation.

Page numbers Place the page number in the upper-right corner

of each page, in the same position as on the title page.
 Creating APA in-text citations 177

Long quotations For a quotation of forty or more words, indent

it one-half inch from the left margin, and do not use quotation
marks. Place the page reference in parentheses one space after the
final punctuation.

Headings Headings are frequently used within the text of APA-

style projects. Center first-level headings and put them in boldface
type. Left-align any second-level headings and make them boldface.
Third-level headings should be left-aligned, boldface, and italicized.
Capitalize all major words and any words of four or more letters.

Visuals All visuals should include a label, number, and title above
the visual. Label tables “Table” and label any other visuals (such as
charts, graphs, photographs, and drawings) “Figure” in boldface type.
Both tables and figures should have a title in italics on the line below
the label. Provide any source information in a note below the table
or figure. Begin with the word “Note,” italicized and followed by a
period. Remember to refer to each visual in your text, stating how it
contributes to the point(s) you are making. Tables and figures should
generally appear after the paragraph in which they are called out.

47¢€ Creating APA in-text citations

aS
An in-text citation in APA style always indicates which source on the
references page the writer is referring to, and it explains in what year
the material was published; for quoted material, the in-text citation
also indicates where in the source the quotation can be found.
Note that APA style generally calls for using the past tense or
present perfect tense for signal verbs: “Baker (2019) showed” or
“Baker (2019) has shown.” Use the present tense only to discuss
results (“the experiment demonstrates”) or widely accepted infor-
mation (“researchers agree”).
We have used underlining in some examples only to draw your
attention to important elements. Do not underline anything in
your own citations.

1. Basic format for a quotation Generally, use the author’s last name
in a signal phrase to introduce the cited material, and place the
date, in parentheses, immediately after the author’s name. The
178 APA Style

page number, preceded by “p.,” appears in parentheses after the

quotation.

Gitlin (2001) pointed out that “political critics, convinced that the media
are rigged against them, are often blind to other substantial reasons why
their causes are unpersuasive” (p. 141).

If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author’s

last name, the year, and the page number in parentheses after the
quotation: (Gitlin, 2001, p. 141). For a long, set-off quotation
(more than forty words), place the page reference in parentheses
one space after the final quotation.
For quotations from works without page numbers, include other
information such as a paragraph number, a section heading, or a
figure number to help readers find the quoted passage.
Driver (2007) has noticed “an increasing focus on the role of land” in
policy debates over the past decade (para. 1).

2. Basic format for a paraphrase or summary Include the author’s last

name and the year as in model 1. A page number is not required for
a summary or a paraphrase, but include one if it would help readers
find the material in a long work.
Gitlin (2001) has argued that critics sometimes overestimate the influence
of the media on modern life.

LIST OF EXAMPLES
In-text citations in APA style
ile Basic format for a quotation, 177 . Two or more works by an author ina
2 Basic format for a paraphrase or single year, 180
summary, 178 . Two or more sources in one
_ Two authors, 179 parenthetical reference, 180
. Three or more authors, 179 . Source reported in another source, 180
. Corporate or group author, 179 . Personal communication, 180
. Unknown author, 179 . Electronic source, 180
. Two or more authors with the same . Table or figure reproduced in
last name, 180 the text, 181
 Creating APA in-text citations 179

3. Two authors Use both names in all citations. Use “and” in a signal
phrase, but use an ampersand (éc) in parentheses.

Babcock and Laschever (2003) have suggested that many women do

not negotiate their salaries and pay raises as vigorously as their male
counterparts do.

A recent study has suggested that many women do not negotiate their
salaries and pay raises as vigorously as their male counterparts do
(Babcock & Laschever, 2003).

4. Three or more authors List the first_author’s name followed _by

“et al.” (a Latin abbreviation for “and others”).

Another group of researchers reached somewhat different conclusions by

designing a study that was less dependent on subjective judgment than
were previous studies (Safer et al., 2017).

Based on the results, Safer et al. (2017) determined that the apes took
significant steps toward self-expression.

5. Corporate or group author If the name of the organization or cor-

poration is long, spell it out the first time you use it, followed by an
abbreviation in brackets. In later references, use the abbreviation only.

FIRST CITATION (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

[CDC], 2018)
LATER CITATIONS (CDC, 2018)

If a government or corporate source lists multiple nested depart-

ments or agencies, use the most specific department or agency as
the author.

6. Unknown author Use the title or its first few words in a signal
phrase or in parentheses. A book’s title is italicized, as in the follow-
ing example; an article’s title is placed in quotation marks.

The employment profiles for this time period substantiated this trend
(Federal Employment, 2001).
180 APA Style

7. Two or more authors with the same last name Include the authors’
initials in each citation.

S. Bartolomeo (2000) conducted the groundbreaking study on teenage

childbearing.

8. Two or more works by an author in a single year Assign lowercase

letters (“a,” “b,” and so on) alphabetically by title, and include the
letters after the year.

Gordon (2017b) examined this trend in more detail.

9. Two or more sources in one parenthetical reference List any sources

by different authors in alphabetical order by the authors’ last names,
separated by semicolons: (Cardone, 2020; Lai, 2014). List works by
the same author in chronological order, separated by commas: (Lai,
2014, 2017).

10. Source reported in another source Use the phrase “as cited in”
to indicate that you are reporting information from a secondary
source. Name the original source in your text, but list the secondary
source in your list of references.

One reviewer commended the author's “sure understanding of the thoughts

of young people” (Brailsford, 1990, as cited in Chow, 2019, para. 9).

11. Personal communication Cite any personal letters, email messages,

private electronic postings, telephone conversations, or interviews as
shown. Do not include personal communications in the reference
list.

R. Nufiez (personal communication, November 4, 2020) supported his

claims about service animals with new evidence.

12. Electronic source Cite a web or electronic source as you would a

print source, using the author’s name and date.

Link and Phelan (2005) argued for broader interventions in public health
that would be accessible to anyone, regardless of individual wealth.
 Creating APA in-text citations 181

The APA recommends the following for electronic sources with-

out names, dates, or page numbers:

AUTHOR UNKNOWN
Use a shortened form of the title in a signal phrase or in parentheses
(see model 6). If an organization is the author, see model 5.

DATE UNKNOWN
Use the abbreviation “n.d.” (for “no date”) in place of the year:
(Hopkins, n.d.).

NO PAGE NUMBERS
Use the page numbers for an electronic work in a format, such as
PDF, that has stable pagination. If the work does not have stable
page numbers, include other information to help your readers find
the cited material. For example, you may include a section heading,
a paragraph number, a figure or table number, or a time stamp.

Jacobs and Johnson (2007) have argued that “the South African media is
still highly concentrated and not very diverse in terms of race and class”
(South African Media after Apartheid section).

13. Table or figure reproduced in the text Number figures (graphs,

charts, illustrations, and photographs) and tables separately.
Place a label (“Table 1”) and an informative heading (“Hartman’s
Key Personality Traits”) above the table or figure; below, provide
information about its source. Begin with the word “Note,” italicized
and followed by a period.

Table 1
Hartman's Key Personality Traits

Trait pas teen ee Color

peo Red Blue White Yellow
Motive Power Intimacy Peace Fun
Strengths Loyal to tasks Loyalto people Tolerant _—_—Positive
Limitations Arrogant Self-righteous Timid Uncommitted
Note. Adapted from The Hartman Personality Profile, by N. Hayden
(http://students.cs.byu.edu/~nhayden/Code/index.php).
 APA Style

If you do not cite the source of the table or figure elsewhere

in your text, you do not need to include the source in your list of
references.

17d creating an APA list of references

Ear
NU a)

The alphabetical list of the sources cited in your document is called

“References.” If your instructor asks that you list everything you
have read—not just the sources you cite—call the list “Bibliography.”

LIST OF EXAMPLES
References in APA style
GUIDELINES FOR AUTHOR LISTINGS 16. Article in a magazine, 191
. One author, 185 7), Article in a newspaper, 191
. Multiple authors, 185 18. Editorial or letter to the editor, 191
. Corporate or group author, 185 19. Unsigned article, 191
. Unknown author, 185 20. Review, 191
. Two or more works by the same Di. Published interview, 191
author, 185
DIGITAL WRITTEN-WORD SOURCES
PRINT BOOKS 22. Article from an online periodical, 192
. Basic format for a book, 186 23. Article from a database, 193
SOURCE MAP, 187 SOURCE MAP, 194
. Editor, 186 24. Abstract for an online article, 195
. Selection in a book with an editor, 188 = 5 Comment onan online article, 195
. Translation, 188 26 . Report or document from a
. Edition other than the first, 188 website, 195
. Multivolume work with an editor, 188 SOURCE MAP, 196
. Article in a reference work, 188 . Online book, 197
. Republished book, 189 . Email or private message, 197
. Book with a title within the title, 189 . Posting on social media, 197
. Blog post, 197
PRINT PERIODICALS
. Online reference work or wiki
15. Article in a journal, 191 entry, 197
SOURCE MAP, 190
 Creating an APA list of references 183

LIST OF EXAMPLES
References in APA style, continued
OTHER SOURCES (INCLUDING 39. Presentation slides, 200
ONLINE VERSIONS) Film, 200

32. Government publication, 198 . Online video or audio, 200

33. Data set or graphic representation of
. Television episode, 200
data (chart, graph), 198
. Television series, 201
34. Dissertation, 198
. Podcast episode,
201
35. Technical or research report, 199
45. Podcast series, 201
36. Conference proceedings, 199
. Recording, 201
37. Paper presented at a meeting or
symposium, 199 . Photograph, 201
38. Poster session, 199 . Advertisement, 201

All the entries in this section of the book use hanging indent
format, in which the first line aligns on the left and the subsequent
lines indent one-half inch. This is the customary APA format.

Guidelines for author listings

List authors’ last names first, and use only initials for first and mid-
dle names. The in-text citations in your text point readers toward
particular sources in your list of references (see 17c).

NAME CITED IN SIGNAL PHRASE IN TEXT

Lapowsky (2021) has noted...

NAME IN PARENTHETICAL CITATION IN TEXT

.. . (Lapowsky, 2021).

BEGINNING OF ENTRY IN LIST OF REFERENCES

Lapowsky, I. (2021).
184 APA Style

ZY Checklist
Formatting a List of References
Y Start your list on a new page after the text of your document but
before appendices or notes. Continue consecutive page numbers.
Y Center the heading “References” in boldface one inch from
the top of the page.
V Begin each entry at the left margin, but indent subsequent
lines one-half inch. Double-space the entire list.
Y List sources alphabetically by author's last name. If no author
is given, alphabetize the source by the first word of the title
other than “A,” “An,” or “The.” If the list includes two or more
works by the same author, list them in chronological order.
¥ Italicize titles and subtitles of books and periodicals. Do not
italicize titles of articles or websites, and do not enclose them
in quotation marks.
¥ For titles of books and articles, capitalize only the first word
of the title and the subtitle and any proper nouns or proper
adjectives.
V For titles of periodicals and websites, capitalize all major words.

YW Checklist
Combining Parts of Models
What should you do if your source doesn’t match the model
exactly? Suppose, for instance, that your source is a translation of
a republished book with an editor.
¥ Identify a basic model to follow. If you decide that your source
looks most like a republished book, for example, start with a
citation that looks like model 13.
¥ Look for models that show additional elements in your source.
For this example, you would need elements of model 9 (for
the translation) and model 7 (for the editor).
VY Add new elements from other models to your basic model in
the order that makes the most sense to you.
¥ If you still aren’t sure how to arrange the pieces to create a
combination model, ask your instructor.
 Creating an APA list of references 185

Models 1-5 below explain how to arrange author names. The

information that follows the name of the author depends on the
type of work you are citing—a book (models 6-14), a print periodi-
cal (models 15-21), a digital written-word source (models 22-31),
or another kind of source (models 32-47).

1. One author Give the last name, a comma, the initial(s), and the
date in parentheses.

Zimbardo, P. G. (2019).

2. Multiple authors List up to twenty authors, last name first, with

commas separating authors’ names and an ampersand (&) before
the last author’s name.

Nwadike, M. E., & Murphy, J. A. (2020).

Note: For a work with more than twenty authors, list the first nine-
teen, then an ellipsis (. . .), and then the final author’s name.

3. Corporate or group author

Resources for Rehabilitation. (2016).

4. Unknown author Begin with the work’s title. Italicize the titles of
works that are a stand-alone item, such as a book, a movie, a one-
time TV special (such as the 2020 Grammy Awards), or a podcast
series. Do not italicize titles of works that are part of a larger whole,
such as an article in a journal, a chapter in a book, or an episode of
a TV or podcast series. Capitalize only the first word of the title and
subtitle (if any) and proper nouns and proper adjectives.

Safe youth, safe schools. (2009).

5. Two or more works by the same author List works by the same
author in chronological order. Repeat the author’s name in each
entry.

Goodall, J. (2009).
Goodall, J. (2013).
186 APA Style

If the works appeared in the same year, list them alphabetically by

title, and assign lowercase letters (“a,” “b,” etc.) after the dates.

Shermer, M. (2002a). On estimating the lifetime of civilizations. Scientific

American, 287(2), 33.

Shermer, M. (2002b). Readers who question evolution. Scientific American,

ZO7(h) oie

If the works appeared in the same year but use a more specific date
that includes the month or month and day, list the works in chron-
ological order.

Print books
6. Basic format for a book The source map on p. 187 shows where
to find information in a typical book. Take information from the
book’s title page and copyright page, not from the book’s cover or a
library catalog.

@ Author. List all authors’ last names first, and use only initials for
first and middle names. For more about citing authors, see models
1-5.
@2 Publication year. Enclose the year of publication in parentheses.
3) Title. Italicize the title and any subtitle. Capitalize only the first
word of the title and the subtitle and any proper nouns or proper
adjectives.
4 Publisher. List the publisher’s name, dropping any corporate
abbreviations such as “Inc.” or “Co.”

Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking fast and slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

7. Editor For a book with an editor but no author, list the source
under the editor’s name, followed by the abbreviation “Ed.” in
parentheses. A second model appears on p. 188.
Schwartz, R. G. (Ed.). (2009). Handbook of child language disorders.
Psychology Press.
 gy Publication Year
2004

GODZILLA ON MY MIND
Copyright © William Tsutsui, 2004,
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or
reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission
except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles
or reviews,

First published 2004 by

PALGRAVE MACMILLAN™
175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 and
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, England RG21 6XS.
Companies and representatives throughout the world.

PALGRAVE MACMILLAN isthe global academic im

Kin of Monsters
Printed in the

WILLIAM TSUTSUI

palgreve
macmillan

6-05 lege aoe

Citation

Tsutsui, W. (2004). Godzilla on my mind: Fifty years of the king of

ae
a aes |
monsters. Palgrave Macmillan.
188 APA Style

To cite a book with an author and an editor, place the editor’s name,
with a comma and the abbreviation “Ed.,” in parentheses after the
title.

Austin, J. (1995). The province of jurisprudence determined (W. E. Rumble,

Ed.). Cambridge University Press.

8. Selection in a book with an editor

Pettigrew, D. (2018). The suppression of cultural memory and identity in

Bosnia and Herzegovina. In J. Lindert & A. T. Marsoobian (Eds.),
Multidisciplinary perspectives on genocide and memory
(pp. 187-198). Springer.

9. Translation

Calasso, R. (2019). The unnamable present (R. Dixon, Trans.). Farrar, Straus
and Giroux. (Original work published 2017)

10. Edition other than the first

Berger, K. S. (2018). The developing person through childhood and

adolescence (11th ed.). Worth.

11. Multivolume work with an editor

Barnes, J. (Ed.). (1995). Complete works of Aristotle (Vols. 1-2). Princeton

University Press.

Note: If you are citing just one volume, list the number of the vol-
ume you used in parentheses: Complete works of Aristotle (Vol. 1). If
the volume has its own title, list the series title followed by a colon
and the volume number in italics. Then list the volume title.

12. Article in a reference work

Dean, C. (1994). Jaws and teeth. In S. Jones, R. Martin, & D. Pilbeam

(Eds.), The Cambridge encyclopedia of human evolution (pp. 56-59).
Cambridge University Press.

If no author is listed, begin with the title of the entry.

 Creating an APA list of references

13. Republished book

Fremlin, C. (2017). The hours before dawn. Dover Publications. (Original

work published 1958)

14. Book with a title within the title Do not italicize or enclose in
quotation marks a title within a book title.

Klarman, M. J. (2007). Brown v. Board of Education and the civil nghts

movement. Oxford University Press.

Print periodicals
The source map on p. 190 shows where to find information in a
sample periodical.
@ Author. List all authors’ last names first, and use only initials for
first and middle names. For more about citing authors, see models
1-5.
Publication date. Enclose the date in parentheses. For journals,
use only the year. For magazines and newspapers, use the year, a
comma, the month (spelled out), and the day, if given.
Article title. Do not italicize or enclose article titles in quotation
marks. Capitalize only the first word of the article title and subtitle
and any proper nouns or proper adjectives.
Periodical title. |talicize the periodical title (and subtitle, if any),
and capitalize all major words. Follow the periodical title with a
comma.
Volume and issue numbers. Give the volume number (italicized)
and, without a space in between, the issue number (if given) in
parentheses. Follow with a comma.
Page numbers. Give the inclusive page numbers of the article.
End the citation with a period.
 ThA MERICA

2) Volume and Issue Numbers

Vol. 75, No. 2

® Publication Date
Spring 2006
‘B) Article Title

Leaving Race Behind

Our growing Hispanic population creates a golden opportunity

ome years ago the United States government asked me what my race
was, I was reluctant to respond because my 50 years of practicing
sociology—and some powerful personal experiences—have under-
scored for me what we all know to one degree or another, that racial divisions
bedevil America, just as they do many other societies across the world, Not
wanting to encourage these divisions, I refused to check off one of the spe-
cific racial options on the U.S. Census form and instead marked a box labeled
“Other.” J later found out that the federal government did not accept such
an attempt to de-emphasize race, by me or by some 6.75 million other
Americans who tried it. Instead the government assigned me to a racial cat-
Fora subscription to THe Asrtsu¢ egory, one it chose for me. Learning this made me conjure up what I admit
SAB nwo years, $69three years; f
international subscriptions, adel is a far-fetched association. I was in this place once before. When I was a Jew-
Newsstand Seewices. For more ini
arlvertising please conwet: Lin ish child in Nazi Germany in the early 1930s, many Jews who saw themselves
Tite Aumacan SONAR, 4 quant
Phi Beta Kappa Society, 1606 as good Germans wanted to “pass” as Aryans. But the Nazi regime would have
scholantepbkorg. Maamscripis m none of it. Never mind, they told these Jews, we determine who is Jewish and
AMEICAN SCHOLAR ARIES 110.
Periodical postage paid at Washi who is not. A similar practice prevailed in the Old South, where if you had
P.O. Box S54, Mu. Morris, IL G10!
‘udditlonal vevernies, the Phi fet one drop of African blood you were a Negro, disregarding all other facts and
doteced should send their name
considerations, including how you saw yourself.
You might suppose that in the years since my little Census-form protest

— Amitai Etzioni is University Professor at George Washington University and the author
of The Monochrome Society.

) Page Numbers
ETZIONI
AMITAI
BY
AND
SOCIETY
KAPPA
BETA
2006
PHI
THE
COPYRIG
2006.
BY
SPRING
2,
NO.
75,
VOLUME
SCHOLAR
AMERIC
THE
FROM

Citation

Etzioni, A. (2006). Leaving race behind: Our growing Hispanic population

=a ae poe ee Pach rapt i
creates a golden opportunity. The American Scholar, 75(2), 20-30.
 Creating an APA list of references 191

15. Article in a journal Include the issue number (in parentheses and
not italicized) after the volume number (italicized).

Ganegoda, D. B., & Bordia, P. (2019). I can be happy for you, but not all
the time: A contingency model of envy and positive empathy in the
workplace. Journal of Applied Psychology, 104(6), 776-795.

16. Article in a magazine Include the month (and day, if given).

Vlahos, J. (2019, March). Alexa, I want answers. Wired, 58-65.

If the magazine uses volume and issue numbers, include them.

Koch, C. (2019, October). Is death reversible? Scientific American, 321(4),

34-37.

17. Article in a newspaper

Finucane, M. (2019, September 25). Americans still eating too many low-
quality carbs. The Boston Globe, B2.

18. Editorial or letter to the editor Add an identifying label.

Doran, K. (2019, October 12). Homeless who look like grandma or grandpa
[Letter to the editor]. The New York Times, A22.

19. Unsigned article

Annual meeting announcement. (2003, March). Cognitive Psychology,

46(2), 227.

20. Review Identify the work reviewed.

Hall, W. (2019). [Review of the book How to change your mind: The
new science of psychedelics, by M. Pollan]. Addiction, 114(10),
1892-1893.

21. Published interview For an interview published in print, begin

with the interviewer. If the interviewee is not named in the title of
the work, as in this example, include the interviewee’s name in a
signal phrase.

Tracy, A. (2019, December). The super Speaker. Vanity Fair, (712), 96-103.
192 APA Style

YP Checklist
Citing Digital Sources
When citing sources accessed online or from an electronic data-
base, include as many of the following elements as you can find:
¥ Author. Give the author's name, if available.
v Publication date. Include the date of electronic publication,
if available. When no publication date is available, use “n.d.”
(“no date”).
Title. If the source is not from a larger work, italicize the title.
¥ Print publication information. For articles from online jour-
nals, magazines, or reference databases, give the publication
title and other publishing information as you would for a
print periodical (see models 15-21).
¥ Retrieval information. If a DOI! (digital object identifier) is
available, include it after the publication information with
no period at the end. If there is no DOI, include a URL for
the article except if the article is from a database (see model
23). If a DOI or URL is long, you can include a shortened form
by using a site like shortdoi.org or bitly.com. If the work is
intended to be updated frequently, include the retrieval date.

YZ Checklist
Citing Sources without Models in APA Style
You may need to cite a source for which you cannot find a model
in APA style. If so, collect as much information as you can find
about the author, title, date, and so on, with the goal of helping
readers find the source for themselves. Then look at the models
in this chapter to see which one most closely matches the type of
source you are using.
Some digital sources can be especially tricky. If that’s the case,
ask your instructor's advice.

Digital written-word sources

22. Article from an online periodical Give the author, date, title,
and publication information as you would for a print document.
 Creating an APA list of references

Include both the volume and issue numbers for all journal articles.
If the article has a digital object identifier (DOI), include it. If there
is no DOI, include a stable, direct-link URL, if available. If the URL
is lengthy, you can include a shortened form.

Daly, J. (2019, August 2). Duquesne’s med school plan part of national
trend to train more doctors. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. https://bit.
ly/2Vzrm2l

Bruns, A. (2017). Consequences of partner incarceration for women’s

employment. Journal of Marriage and Family, 79(5), 1331-1352.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12412

23. Article from a database The source map on p. 194 shows where to
find information for a typical article from a database.

@ Author. Include the author’s name as you would for a print

source. List all authors’ last names first, and use initials for first and
middle names. For more about citing authors, see models 1-5.
& Publication date. Enclose the date in parentheses. For journals,
use only the year. For magazines and newspapers, use the year, a
comma, the month, and the day if given.
Article title. Capitalize only the first word of the article title and
the subtitle and any proper nouns or proper adjectives.
Periodical title. Italicize the periodical title.
Volume and issue number. For journals and magazines, give the
volume number (italicized) and the issue number (in parentheses).
Page numbers. Give inclusive page numbers.
Retrieval information. If the article has a DOI (digital object
identifier), include it after the publication information; do not
include the name of the database. If there is no DOI, do not
include a URL. Do not add a period after the DOI.

Hazleden, R. (2003, December). Love yourself: The relationship of the self

aan eee
with itself in popular self-help texts. Journal of Sociology,

39(4), 413-428. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004869003394006

‘3 Article Title ‘@ Periodical Title 6 Page Numbers

Communication Research
39(1) 79-102
A Losing Battle: Effects ©The Author(s) 2012
Reprints and permission:
of Prolonged Exposure sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/009365021 1400596
to Thin-Ideal Images hetp://crx.sagepub.com

@SAGE
on Dieting and Body
Satisfaction 1] Volume and Issue Numbers @ Retrieval
Information

Silvia Knobloch-Westerwick' and Josselyn Crane! a Publication

Date
@ Authors
Abstract
The present study examined prolonged exposure effects of thin-ideal media messages.
College-aged females participated in seven online sessions over |0 days including a baseline
measures session, five daily measures, and a posttest. Two experimental groups viewed
magazine pages with thin-ideal imagery. One of those groups was induced to engage in
social comparisons with the thin-ideal models. The control group viewed messages with
body-neutral images of women. Prolonged exposure to thin-ideal messages led to greater
body satisfaction. This finding was attributed to the fact that the experimental groups
reported more dieting behaviors. A mediation analysis showed that the impact of thin-
ideal message exposure on body satisfaction was mediated by dieting.

Keywords
body dissatisfaction, body image, dieting, prolonged exposure, social comparison

Citation
ee
Ay8
Knobloch-Westerwick, S., & Crane, J. (2012). A losing battle: Effects

of prolonged exposure to thin-ideal images on dieting and

at He -——_—_-o—___- 6. 6,
body satisfaction. Communication Research, 39(1), 79-102.
re
https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650211400596
 Creating an APA list of references

24. Abstract for an online article Include a label.

Gudjonsson, G. H., & Young, S. (2010). Does confabulation in memory

predict suggestibility beyond IQ and memory? [Abstract]. Personality
& Individual Differences, 49(1), 65-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
paid.2010.03.014

25. Comment on an online article Give the writer’s real name (if
known) or screen name. If the comment has no title, use up to the
first twenty words as the title. Then, in square brackets, include the
words “Comment on the article” and the article title in quotation
marks. Provide a URL to the comment (if available) or to the article.

lollyl2. (2019, September 25). My husband works in IT in a major city down

South. He is a permanent employee now, but for years [Comment on the
article “The Google workers who voted to unionize in Pittsburgh are part
of tech’s huge contractor workforce”]. Slate. https://fyre.it/ORT8HmeL.4

26. Report or document from a website The source map on p. 196

shows where to find information for a report from a website.
Include all of the following information that you can find.

@ Author. If one is given, include the author's name (see models

1-5). List last names first, and use only initials for first names. The
site’s sponsor may be the author. If no author is identified, begin
the citation with the title of the document.
@ Publication date. Enclose the date of publication in parentheses.
Use “n.d.” (“no date”) when no publication date is available.
& Title of work. Italicize the title. Capitalize only the first word of
the title and subtitle and any proper nouns or proper adjectives.
@ Retrieval information. Include the name of the website (with no
italics), if different from the author. End with the URL, and do not
add a period at the end of the URL.

Tahseen, M., Ahmed, S., & Ahmed, S. (2018). Bullying of Muslim youth:
a
SS}
A review of research and recommendations. The Family and Youth

Institute. http://www.thefyi.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/FYI-
SNe
TE ET a
Bullying-Report.
pdf
 4 Retrieval
@ Publication Date Information
March 14, 2013
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Citation
nt
Parker, K., & Wang, W. (2013, March 14). Modern parenthood: Roles of
an
moms and dads converge as they balance work and family.

Pew Research Center. http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/03/14/

modern-parenthood-roles-of-moms-and-dads-converge-as-they-
aS
balance-work-and-family/
 Creating an APA list of references

27. Online book Give the original print publication date, if different,
in parentheses at the end of the entry.

Russell, B. (2008). The analysis of mind. Project Gutenberg. https://

www.gutenberg.org/files/2529/2529-h/2529-h.htm (Original work
published 1921)

28. Email or private message Do not include entries for email mes-
sages or any postings that are private and cannot be retrieved by your
readers. Instead, cite these sources in your text as forms of personal
communication (see item 11 in 17c).

29. Posting on social media List an online posting in the refer-

ences list only if it is retrievable by readers. Provide the author’s
name, if given, followed by the screen name in brackets. If only
the screen name is known, provide it without brackets. Include the
date of posting and up to the first twenty words of the post. List
any attachments, such as images, videos, or links, and include a
descriptive label, such as “[Tweet]” or “[Status update],” in separate
brackets. Provide the website or app name and the URL for the post.

National Science Foundation [@NSF]. (2019, October 13). Understanding

how forest structure drives carbon sequestration is important for
ecologists, climate modelers and forest managers, who are working on
{Thumbnail with link attached] [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/
NSF/status/1183388649263652864

30. Blog post Include the title of the blog post and the name of the blog.

Fister, B. (2019, February 14). Information literacy’s third wave. Library

Babel Fish. https://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/library-babel-fish/
information-literacy%E2%80%99s-third-wave

31. Online reference work or wiki entry Use the date of posting, or
“n.d.” (“no date”) if there is none. Include the retrieval date and
URL. If the wiki has archived versions, like Wikipedia, instead use
the date of posting and URL of the archived version you read.

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Adscititious. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary.

Retrieved November 5, 2019, from https://www.merriam-webster.
com/dictionary/adscititious
198 APA Style

Behaviorism. (2019, October 11). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.

org/w/index. php?title=Behaviorism&oldid=915544724

Other sources (including online versions)

32. Government publication

Berchick, E. R., Barnett, J. C., & Upton, R. D. (2019, September 10).

Health insurance coverage in the United States: 2018 (Report No.
P60-267). U.S. Census Bureau. https://www.census.gov/library/
publications/2019/demo/p60-267.html

If no author is listed, begin with the department that produced the

document. Any broader organization the department belongs to can
be included as the publisher.
National Park Service. (2019, April 11). Travel where women made
history: Ordinary and extraordinary places of American women.
U.S. Department of the Interior. https://www.nps.gov/subjects/
travelwomenshistory/index.htm

33. Data set or graphic representation of data (chart, graph)

Reid, L. (2019). Smarter homes: Experiences of living in low carbon homes

2013-2018 [Data set]. UK Data Service. https://doi.org/10.5255/
UKDA-SN-853485

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020, May 9). New cases by
day [Chart]. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. https://
www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/cases-updates/cases-in-us.html

34. Dissertation Include the granting university in brackets after the

title. If you retrieved the dissertation from a database, give the pub-
lication number and database name. If you retrieved it from the
granting university's website, provide the URL.
Bacaksizlar, N. G. (2019). Understanding social movements through
simulations of anger contagion in social media (Publication No.
13805848) [Doctoral dissertation, University of North Carolina at
Charlotte]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses.
 Creating an APA list of references 199

Degli-Esposti, M. (2019). Child maltreatment and antisocial behaviour in

the United Kingdom: Changing risks over time [Doctoral dissertation,
University of Oxford]. Oxford University Research Archive. https://
ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:6d5a8e55-bd19-41a1-8ef5-ef485642af89

35. Technical or research report Give the report number, if available,

in parentheses after the title.
McCool, R., Fikes, R., & McGuinness, D. (2003). Semantic web tools for
enhanced authoring (Report No. KSL-03-07). Knowledge Systems
Laboratory, Stanford University. www.ksl.stanford.edu/KSL_Abstracts/
KSL-03-07.htmL

36. Conference proceedings

Robertson, S. P., Vatrapu, R. K., & Medina, R. (2009). YouTube and

Facebook: Online video “friends” social networking. In Conference
proceedings: YouTube and the 2008 election cycle (pp. 159-176).
ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. http://scholarworks.umass.edu/
jitpc2009

37. Paper presented at a meeting or symposium Include the location

and the dates of the entire meeting or symposium, even if the paper
presentation occurred on a specific day.
Vasylets, 0. (2019, April 10-13). Memory accuracy in bilinguals depends
on the valence of the emotional event [Paper presentation]. XIV
International Symposium of Psycholinguistics, Tarragona, Spain.

38. Poster session

Wood, M. (2019, January 3-6). The effects of an adult development course

on students’ perceptions of aging [Poster session]. Forty-First Annual
National Institute on the Teaching of Psychology, St. Pete Beach,
FL, United States. https://nitop.org/resources/Documents/2019%
20Poster%20Session%20II.
pdf
200 APA Style

39. Presentation slides

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019, April 16). Building local
response capacity to protect families from emerging health threats
[Presentation slides]. CDC Stacks. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/77687

40. Film Include the director’s name and the original release year.
You do not need to specify the format unless it is a special version
such as an extended cut. Include the label “[Film]” and the produc-
tion company (or companies) after the title.
Peele, J. (Director). (2017). Get out [Film]. Universal Pictures.

Hitchcock, A. (Director). (1959). The essentials collection: North by

northwest [Film; five-disc special ed. on DVD]. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer;
Universal Pictures Home Entertainment.

41. Online video or audio Think of the author of an online video or

audio file as the person or organization that posted it. For a TED
Talk, for example, the presenter is the author if the video was
accessed on the TED website. However, if the TED Talk was accessed
on YouTube, then TED becomes the author because the TED orga-
nization posted the video.

Wray, B. (2019, May). How climate change affects your mental health
[Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/britt_wray_
how_climate_change_affects_your_mental_health

TED. (2019, September 20). Britt Wray: How climate change affects
your mental health [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/
watch ?v=ILDkCEvsYw

When deciding whether to italicize the title of the video or audio

file, consider whether it is part of a series (regular font) or a stand-
alone item (italics).

42. Television episode

Waller-Bridge, P. (Writer), & Bradbeer, H. (Director). (2019, March 18).

The provocative request (Season 2, Episode 3) [TV series episode].
In P. Waller-Bridge, H. Williams, & J. Williams (Executive Producers),
Fleabag. Two Brothers Pictures; BBC.
 Research-based essay, APA style 201

43. Television series

Waller-Bridge, P., Williams, H., & Williams, J. (Executive Producers).

(2016-2019). Fleabag [TV series]. Two Brothers Pictures; BBC.

44. Podcast episode

West, S. (Host). (2018, July 27). Logical positivism (No. 120) [Audio
podcast episode]. In Philosophize this! https://philosophizethis.org/
logical-positivists/

45. Podcast series

Abumrad, J., & Krulwich, R. (Hosts). (2002-present). Radiolab [Audio

podcast]. WNYC Studios. https://www.wnycstudios.org/podcasts/
radiolab/podcasts

46. Recording

Carlile, B. (2018). The mother [Song]. On By the way, I forgive you. Low
Country Sound; Elektra.

47. Photograph
McHardy, Amanda. (2018). Art of the self portrait [Photograph]. https://
amandamchardyphotos.wordpress.com/portfolio/#jp-carousel-148

48. Advertisement

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Mask up America

[Advertisement]. Ad Council. https://www.adcouncil.org/asset/mask
-up-america-favorite-things/203568618.

17e@ Research-based essay, APA style

STUDENT WRITER
On the following pages is a paper by Martha Bell
that conforms to the APA guidelines described in
this chapter.

Martha Bell
202 APA Style

STUDENT fm
WRITING

Page
numberin
upper right-
hand corner
of every The Mystery of Post-Lyme Disease Syndrome
page

Martha Bell
Title
(boldface), Department of Language and Literature,
writer's Eastern Mennonite University
name,
department WRIT 130C: College Writing
and school,
Professor Eads
course
number October 28, 2016
and title,
professor,
and date
centered
and double-
spaced

Ls
Annotations indicate effective choices or APA-style formatting.
 Research-based essay, APA style 203

The Mystery of Post-Lyme Disease Syndrome Full title

boldface
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates
and
a total of 300,000 cases of Lyme disease annually. Many medical centered
|
professionals believe Lyme disease can be cured in a matter of weeks
|
with a simple antibiotic treatment. In some cases, however, patients |
|
develop post-Lyme disease syndrome, sometimes called “chronic
|
Lyme disease,” exhibiting persistent symptoms of Lyme after initial
treatment is completed. The scientific community, divided over the Introduction
provides
causes of post-Lyme disease syndrome, cannot agree on the best
background
treatment for the syndrome. Although Lyme disease is preventable, information
people are still vulnerable to infection; consequently, there is a need
for more research and collaboration with a focus on developing the
technology to perform replicable studies, which may subsequently |
lead to an effective treatment algorithm for post-Lyme disease |
|
syndrome. |
Prevention Boldface
centered
Ixodes ticks, also known as blacklegged and deer ticks, are
headings
infected with the bacterium Borrelia burgdorfen, responsible for Lyme help
organize
disease (Hawker et al., 2012). Since being bitten by an infected tick
review
is the only known way of contracting Lyme disease, evading Ixodes |
ticks is an effective measure. According to M’ikanatha et al. (2013), Reference
to work
“Lyme disease is acquired peridomestically and the risk is highest in
with more
residential settings abutting areas with forests, meadows, and high than two
authors
prevalence of deer” (p. 168). While adult ticks are more active in the
uses “et al.”
cooler months, developing Ixodes ticks, called nymphs, feed the most
during the spring and summer months (Centers for Disease Control and First
reference
Prevention [CDC], 2016d). Therefore, avoiding areas such as meadows to organiza-
and grasslands in the spring and summer seasons aids in preventing tion gives
abbre-
Lyme disease. viation in
Using permethrin repellent on clothes and 20 to 30 percent brackets
for later
DEET insect repellent on the skin also keeps ticks away (Brody, 2013). references
Other measures include wearing light-colored clothing to make ticks
204 APA Style

|
|
||
i
more visible, wearing long sleeves and long pants, tucking shirts into
|
| pants and pants into socks, and taping closed open areas of clothing
||
}
when spending time outdoors in areas where ticks are prevalent
|
i
(Hawker et al., 2012). Additionally, individuals should keep yards and
|
| houses clean to avert mammals, such as deer and rodents, that carry
Ixodes ticks, and should check pets for ticks.
Transition Though all of these measures greatly reduce the chance
pne of receiving a tick bite, they are not foolproof. The bacterium |
readers B. burgdorferi takes approximately 36 to 48 hours to become
Wel infectious after the tick has bitten an individual (Hawker et al., |
next 2012). A bull’s-eye rash called erythema migrans is the only unique
symptom of Lyme disease. It appears 3 to 32 days after infection
(Hawker et al., 2012). According to one study, only 70 to 80 percent
of Lyme disease victims develop erythema migrans; therefore, other |
symptoms must be assessed (Steere & Sikand, 2003, p. 2472). Other |
characteristics of Lyme disease include fevers, headaches, stiff neck, |
swollen lymph nodes, body aches, fatigue, facial palsy, polyarthritis, |
aseptic meningitis, peripheral root lesions, radiculopathy, and |
Multiple myocarditis (CDC, 2016c; Hawker et al., 2012).
pecs e On average, it takes a few weeks for infected individuals to |
listed produce antibodies against B. burgdorferi (CDC, 2016a). Consequently,
pain most cases of Lyme disease have better outcomes and recovery |
separated rates when antibiotics are administered quickly (CDC, 2016e).
par Administered in the beginning stages of Lyme disease, antibiotics |
help speed recovery and prevent more serious symptoms, such as
heart and nervous system problems, from developing (Lantos, 2011,
Introduction section).
Erythema migrans is not always present, and other symptoms
of Lyme disease are similar to those of other illnesses. Therefore,
Lyme disease may be misdiagnosed and untreated. Stricker (2007)
explained that “in the absence of typical features of Lyme disease,
patients may go on to develop a syndrome with multiple nonspecific
 Research-based essay, APA style 205

| 4

symptoms that affect various organ systems, including the joints, Paren-
muscles, nerves, brain, and heart” (p. 149). Conversely, even when thetical
citation for
patients receive proper antibiotic treatment for two to four weeks, quotation
they can continue to experience symptoms. oT
| Post-Lyme Disease Syndrome number
The majority of Lyme disease patients are cured after multiple
weeks of antibiotics; however, 10 to 15 percent of patients acquire H
relapsing nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue, arthritis, and
short-term memory problems that can persist for months or even
years (Brody, 2013). When there is no other possible origin of the
nonspecific symptoms, and the individual has had proper treatment
for Lyme disease, the patient is classified as having post-Lyme disease
syndrome (Lantos, 2011). Marques (2008) explained, “The appearance
of post-Lyme disease symptoms seems to correlate with disseminated
diseases, a greater severity of illness at presentation, and delayed
antibiotic therapy, but not with the duration of the initial antibiotic
therapy” (p. 343). The medical community is unsure of how to treat
the nonspecific symptoms or what causes them (Lantos, 2011,
“A Clinical Approach” section).
Possible Sources of Post-Lyme Disease Syndrome
Scientists are unable to identify the exact source of post-
Lyme disease syndrome for several reasons. Identifying patients is
difficult because of the general nature of the symptoms. Several
surveys demonstrate that a relatively high percentage of the overall
population reports nonspecific symptoms, such as fatigue, chronic pain,
or cognitive dysfunction after a tick bite (Lantos, 2011, Post-Lyme
Disease Syndromes section). In addition, researchers struggle to find
participants for their studies (Marques, 2008, p. 342). Study participants
must have previous documentation of contracting Lyme disease, which
significantly diminishes the testing population (Lantos, 2011).
Scientists and physicians suspect the source of post-Lyme
disease syndrome to be multifactorial. Plausible causes of reoccurring
 APA Style

nonspecific symptoms include “persistent infection of B. burgdorferi,

other tick-borne infections, part of the expected resolution
of symptoms after treatment, postinfective fatigue syndrome,
autoimmune mechanisms, and intercurrent conditions” (Marques,
2008, p. 343). Nevertheless, only a few ideas have been thoroughly
explored thus far by the scientific community. The majority of
scientists believe remaining damage to tissue and the immune system
from the infection causes post-Lyme disease syndrome; however, some
believe persistent infection of the bacteria is the source (CDC, 2016b).
Despite complications, a majority of the medical community
considers persistent symptoms to be a result of residual damage
to the tissues and the immune system that occurred during the
infection. These “autoimmune” reactions, which the body uses
against foreign elements, occur in infections similar to Lyme disease
such as campylobacter, chlamydia, and strep throat (CDC, 2016b).
Patients report their nonspecific symptoms improving over time after
the typical antibiotic treatment (Marques, 2008, p. 342). Physicians
who followed their patients with post-Lyme disease syndrome for
extended times also see nonspecific symptoms resolve without
further antibiotic treatment (Marques, 2008, p. 347). Consequently,
post-Lyme disease syndrome may be a natural evolution of the body
healing after an intense infection.
A smaller portion of the medical community considers persistent
infection of the microorganism B. burgdorferi as the cause of post-
Lyme disease syndrome. Recently published studies performed on
animals show signs of ongoing infection of the bacterium. One
scientific study infected mice with B. burgdorferi and gave them
intense treatment of antibiotics that should have wiped out the
bacterium (Bockenstedt et al., 2012). Bockenstedt et al. (2012)
observed the mice over a period of time and found “that infectious
spirochetes are rapidly eliminated after institution of antibiotics, but
inflammatory B. burgdorferi antigens persist adjacent to cartilage and
 Research-based essay, APA style 207

in the enthuses” (p. 2652). This is one of the first studies to show
continuous effects of the harmful microorganism in post-Lyme disease
syndrome (Embers et al., 2012, Discussion section). Another scientific
study was conducted on nonhuman primates, rhesus macaques. Once
again the scientists infected the animals with B. burgdorferi and then
|
four to six months later administered an antibiotic treatment to half |
of the monkeys (Embers et al., 2012). Their results also confirmed
|
that B. burgdorferi could withstand antibiotic treatment in rhesus |
|
macaques and proceed to cause post-Lyme disease syndrome (Embers
et al., 2012, Discussion section). Nonetheless, these results showing |
|
perpetual infection as the cause of post-Lyme disease syndrome have
yet to be replicated in humans. |
!
In contrast, many studies over the years contradict the theory of Presents
opposing
ongoing infection, though these studies have not been confirmed true
studies and
in humans. Lantos (2011) clarified that “no adequately controlled, points of
view
hypothesis-driven study using a repeatable method has demonstrated
that viable B. burgdorfen is found in patients with persistent post-
Lyme symptoms any more frequently than in those with favorable
outcomes” (Biological Plausibility section). Most scientific studies
trying to prove persistent infection of B. burgdorferi’ have not been
replicated because their procedures and techniques are at fault. The
problem derives from the technology that detects the microorganism
(Lantos, 2011, Biological Plausibility section).
PCR and B. burgdorferi culture are commonly used to find
evidence of the bacteria in the body; however, both have “low
sensitivity in most body fluids from patients with Lyme disease”
(Marques, 2008, p. 353). Even though other methods, such as finding
antibodies in immune complexes, changes in C6 antibody levels, and
PCR in urine samples, have been tried, none prove helpful (Marques,
2008, p. 353). Therefore, the persistent infection of B. burgdorferi has
not yet successfully been proven as the cause of post-Lyme disease
syndrome.
208 APA Style

Post-Lyme Disease Syndrome Treatment

Since the cause of post-Lyme disease syndrome is controversial,
treatment for the infection varies from patient to patient and
physician to physician. Treatment is still in the experimental stages,
meaning no set treatment algorithm currently exists. Numerous
patients rely on long-term antibiotic medication, despite the
overwhelming defying scientific evidence against this treatment
(CDC, 2016b). The research studies that focus on prolonged antibiotic
treatment observe no dramatic difference in benefits or recoveries of
those who had the treatment and those who did not (Marques, 2008,
p. 353). On the contrary, many long-term antibiotic research studies
found that post-Lyme disease syndrome patients develop harmful side
effects. These adverse health effects include “catheter-associated
venous thromboembolism, catheter-associated septicemia, allergic
reactions and ceftriaxone-induced gallbladder toxicity” (Lantos, 2011,
Shortened “Extended Antibiotics” section). Therefore, most of the scientific
section
community considers long-term antibiotic treatment for chronic Lyme
heading in
quotation disease a harmful, risky, and unbeneficial plan.
marks
Most of the scientific community advises against the use
of long-term antibiotics because of potential adverse effects.
Nevertheless, a small minority of physicians have observed
improvements with long-term antibiotics. Because numerous studies
show a lack of benefit to long-term antibiotics, these hopeful
patients may be experiencing a placebo effect, which occurs when
patients improve because they believe they are receiving an effective
treatment (Marques, 2008, p. 356).
Solving the Mystery
Individuals can take various simple preventive measures to
avoid contracting Lyme disease. If the infection is contracted, those
who seek prompt treatment increase the chance of full recovery and
decrease the chance of developing post-Lyme disease syndrome.
However, these steps do not guarantee complete avoidance of post-
 Research-based essay, APA style 209

STUDENT
WRITING

Lyme disease syndrome. Finding the source of post-Lyme disease

syndrome will lead to a specific treatment plan that effectively
heals patients. Many scientists deem the source of post-Lyme Conclusion
indicates
disease syndrome to be a natural autoimmune reaction; conversely,
need for
a few other scientists consider persistent infection as the cause. further
research
Both theories, however, need better technology to prove their
accuracy. Since scientists disagree about the source of post-Lyme
disease syndrome, a variety of experimental treatments have arisen.
Replicable studies are needed so that an effective treatment for
post-Lyme disease syndrome can be found.

\.4ig\a40 e\inbisaii belociowea©

AIZELW.ecag. nivel TEL.OLF

bad 8 6 pvedanowy i eatintaht ad gue wl gge8 .f ees

wove, Adheniet onaLanta noth side xour )
210 APA Style

References
References
begin ona
new page; Bockenstedt, L., Gonzalez, D., Haberman, A., & Belperron, A. (2012).
heading is
centered
Spirochete antigens persist near cartilage after murine Lyme
and borreliosis therapy. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 122(7),
boldface
2652-2660. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI58813
Article from Brody, J. (2013, July 8). When Lyme disease lasts and lasts. The New
an online
York Times. https://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/07/08/when-
newspaper
} lyme-disease-lasts-and-lasts
|
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016a). Diagnosis and
}
|
||
|
testing. https://www.cdc.gov/lyme/diagnosistesting/index.html
Two or Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016b). Post-treatment Lyme
more works
disease syndrome. https://www.cdc.gov/lyme/postlds/index.html
by the same
author Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016c). Signs and
in the
symptoms of untreated Lyme disease. https://www.cdc.gov/
same year
arranged lyme/signs_symptoms/index.html
alpha-
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016d). Transmission.
betically by
title; letters https://www.cdc.gov/lyme/transmission/index.html
added after
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016e). Treatment.
year
https://www.cdc.gov/lyme/treatment/index.
html
|
All authors Embers, M. E., Barthold, S. W., Borda, J. T., Bowers, L., Doyle, L.,
up to
Hodzic, E., Jacobs, M. B., Hasenkampf, N. R., Martin, D. S.,
twenty
listed Narasimhan, S., Phillippi-Falkenstein, K. M., Purcell, J. E.,
Ratterree, M. S., & Philipp, M. T. (2012). Persistence of Borrelia
burgdorferi in rhesus macaques following antibiotic treatment
of disseminated infection. PLoS ONE, 7(1). https://doi.org/
10.1371/journal.pone.0029914
Print book Hawker, J., Begg, N., Blair, L., Reintjes, R., Weinberg, J., & Ekdahl,
K. (2012). Communicable disease control and health protection
handbook (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
Journal Lantos, P. (2011). Chronic Lyme disease: The controversies and the
article with
DOI
science. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy, 9(7), 787-797.
https://doi.org/10.1586/eri.11.63
 Research-based essay, APA style 211

10

Marques, A. (2008). Chronic Lyme disease: A review. Infectious

Disease Clinics of North America, 22(2), 341-360. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.idc.2007.12.011
Mikanatha, N. M., Lynfield, R., Van Beneden, C. A., & de Valk, H.
(2013). Infectious disease surveillance (2nd ed.). John Wiley &
Sons.
Steere, A., & Sikand, V. (2003). The presenting manifestations of Lyme Letter to
the editor
disease and the outcomes of treatment [Letter to the editor].
The New England Journal of Medicine, 348(24), 2472-2474.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEIM200306123482423
Stricker, R. (2007). Counterpoint: Long-term antibiotic therapy
improves persistent symptoms associated with Lyme disease.
Clinical Infectious Diseases, 45(2), 147-157. https://
doi.org/10.1086/518853
|}
|
|
|
i
|
 18 _ Chicago Style
The style guide of the University of Chicago Press has long been used
in history as well as in other areas of the arts and humanities. The
Seventeenth Edition of The Chicago Manual of Style (2017) provides
a complete guide to Chicago style, including two systems for citing
sources. This chapter presents the notes and bibliography system.

18a_ Understanding Chicago citation style

Why does academic work call for very careful citation practices
when writing for the general public may not? The answer is that
readers of academic work expect source citations for several reasons:

¢ Source citations demonstrate that you’ve done your homework on

your topic and that you are a part of the conversation surrounding it.
¢ Source citations show that you understand the need to give credit
when you make use of someone else’s intellectual property. (See
Chapter 14.)
¢ Source citations give explicit directions to guide readers who want
to look for themselves at the works you’re using.

Guidelines from The Chicago Manual of Style will tell you exactly
what information to include in your citation and how to format
that information.
DUST
Rose

Types of sources Refer to the list of examples in Chicago style on

pp. 216-17. You will need to be careful to tell your readers whether
RSS
RIO
SRNL you read a print version or a digital version of a source. Digital mag-
azine and newspaper articles may include updates or corrections
that the print version lacks; digital books may not number pages or
Se
screens the same way the print book does. If you are citing a source
with media elements—such as a film, song, or artwork—consult the
“Other sources” section of the examples. And if you can’t find a
model exactly like the source you’ve selected, see the box on p. 217.

Articles from web and database sources You need a subscription

to look through most databases, so individual researchers almost
always gain access to articles in databases through a school or public

212
 Following Chicago format 213

library that pays to subscribe. The easiest way to tell whether a source
comes from a database, then, is that its information is not gener-
ally available free to anyone with an Internet connection. Many
databases are digital collections of articles that originally appeared
in edited print periodicals, ensuring that an authority has vouched
for the accuracy of the information. Such sources may have more
credibility than free material available on the web.

Parts of citations Citations in Chicago style will appear in three

places in your text—a note number in the text marks the material
from the source, a footnote or an endnote includes information to
identify the source (or information about supplemental material),
and the bibliography provides the full citation.

Chicago is a city for the working man. Nowhere is this

more evident than in its architecture. David Garrard Lowe,
author of Lost Chicago, notes that early Chicagoans “sought
reality, not fantasy, and the reality of America as seen from
the heartland did not include the pavilion pf princes or the
castles of kings.”& The inclination toward unadorned, sturdy
buildings began jn the late nineteenth century.

Haven: Yale

eme

Lowe, David Garrard. Lost Chicago. New York: Watson-Guptill

Publications, 2000.

18b Following Chicago format

ESHISD

Title page About halfway down the title page, center the full title
of your project and your name. Unless otherwise instructed, at the
214 Chicago Style

bottom of the page also list the course name, the instructor’s name,
and the date submitted. Do not type a number on this page.

Margins and spacing Leave one-inch margins at the top, bot-

tom, and sides of your pages. Double-space the entire text, including
block quotations and between entries in the notes and bibliography.

Page numbers Number all pages (except the title page) in the
upper right-hand corner. Also use a short title or your name before
page numbers. Check to see if your instructor has a preference on
whether to count the title page as part of the text (if so, the first text
page will be page 2) or as part of the front matter (if so, the first
text page will be page 1).

Long quotations For a long quotation, indent one-half inch (or

five spaces) from the left margin and do not use quotation marks.
Chicago defines a long quotation as one hundred words or eight
lines, though you may set off shorter quotations for emphasis (44a).

Headings Chicago style allows, but does not require, headings.

Many students and instructors find them helpful.

Visuals Visuals (photographs, charts, and tables) should be placed

as near as possible to the relevant text. (See 14c for guidelines on
incorporating visuals into your text.) Tables should be labeled Table,
numbered, and captioned. All other visuals should be labeled Fig-
ure (abbreviated Fig.), numbered, and captioned. Remember to refer
to each visual in your text, pointing out how it contributes to the
point(s) you are making.

Notes Notes can be footnotes (each one appearing at the bottom

of the page on which its citation appears) or endnotes (in a list on a
separate page at the end of the text). (Check your instructor’s prefer-
ence.) Indent the first line of each note one-half inch and begin with
a number, a period, and one space before the first word. All remain-
ing lines of the entry are aligned with the left margin. Single-space
footnotes and endnotes, with a double space between each entry.
Use superscript numbers (1) to mark citations in the text. Place the
superscript
number for each note just after the relevant quotation,
sentence, clause, or phrase. Type the number after any punctuation
 Following Chicago format 215

mark except the dash, and do not leave a space before the superscript.
Number citations sequentially throughout the text. When you use
signal phrases to introduce source material, note that Chicago style
requires you to use the present tense (citing Bebout’s studies, Meier
argues...).

IN THE TEXT
Thompson points out that African American and Puerto Rican prisoners at
Attica were more likely than white prisoners to have their mail censored
and family visits restricted.22

IN THE FIRST NOTE REFERRING TO THE SOURCE

19. Heather Ann Thompson, Blood in the Water: The Attica Prison
Uprising of 1971 and Its Legacy (New York: Pantheon Books, 2016), 13.

After giving complete information the first time you cite a work,
shorten additional references to that work: list only the author’s
last name, a shortened version of the title, and the page number. If
the second reference to the work immediately follows the first refer-
ence, list only the author’s name and the page number.

IN FIRST AND SUBSEQUENT NOTES

19. Heather Ann Thompson, Blood in the Water: The Attica Prison
Uprising of 1971 and Its Legacy (New York: Pantheon Books, 2016), 13.
20. Thompson, 82.

21. Julia Sweig, Inside the Cuban Revolution (Cambridge, MA:

Harvard University Press, 2002), 21.

22. Thompson, Blood in the Water, 304.

Bibliography Begin the list of sources on a separate page after the

main text and any endnotes. Continue numbering the pages consec-
utively. Center the title Bibliography (without underlining, italics, or
quotation marks) one inch below the top of the page. Double-space,
and then begin each entry at the left margin. Indent the second and
subsequent lines of each entry one-half inch, or five spaces.
List sources alphabetically by authors’ last names or by the first
major word in the title if the author is unknown. See 18d for an
example of a Chicago-style bibliography.
216 Chicago Style

In the bibliographic entry, include the same information as in

the first note for that source, but omit the page reference. Give the
first author’s last name first, followed by a comma and the first
name; separate the main elements of the entry with periods rather
than commas; and do not enclose the publication information for
books in parentheses.

IN THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

Thompson, Heather Ann. Blood in the Water: The Attica Prison Upnising of
1971 and Its Legacy. New York: Pantheon Books, 2016.

LIST OF EXAMPLES |) _
Notes and bibliographic entries in Chicago style
PRINT AND DIGITAL BOOKS 18. Journal article from a database, 222
. One author, 218 SOURCE MAP, 224
. Multiple authors, 218 19. Article in a print magazine, 223
. Organization as author, 218 20. Article in an online magazine, 223
. Unknown author, 219 21. Magazine article from a database, 223
. Online book, 219 22. Article in a newspaper, 225
. Electronic book (e-book), 219 23. Article in an online newspaper, 225
. Book with an editor, 219 24. Newspaper article from a
. Selection in an anthology or chapter in database, 225
a book with an editor, 220 25. Book review, 225
. Introduction, preface, foreword, or
afterword, 220 ONLINE SOURCES
. Translation, 220 26. Work from a website, 226
. Edition other than the first, 220 SOURCE MAP, 228
. Multivolume work, 220 27. Entire website, 227
. Work with a title within the title, 221 28. Online reference work, 227
. Sacred text, 221 29. Blog post, 227
15. Source quoted in another source, 221 30. Email, social media messages, and
other personal communications, 229
PRINT AND DIGITAL PERIODICALS 31. Social media post, 229
16. Article in a print journal, 221 32. Podcast, 229
17. Article in an online journal, 222 33. Online audio or video, 229 ©
 Creating Chicago notes and bibliographic entries 217

LIST OF EXAMPLES : Be
Notes and bibliographic entries in Chicago style, continued
OTHER SOURCES 37. Work of art, 230
34. Published or broadcast interview, 230 38. Pamphlet, report, or
35. DVD or Blu-ray, 230 brochure, 231
36. Sound recording, 230 39. Government document, 231

18c Creating Chicago notes and bibliographic

G==e entries

The following examples demonstrate how to format both notes and

bibliographic entries according to Chicago style. The note, which is
numbered, appears first; the bibliographic entry, which is not num-
bered, appears below the note. We have used underlining in some
examples only to draw your attention to important elements. Do
not underline anything in your own citations.
218 Chicago Style

Print and digital books

The note for a book typically includes five elements: author’s name,
title and subtitle, city of publication and publisher, year, and page
number(s) or electronic locator information for the information in
the note. The bibliographic entry usually includes all these elements
but the page number (and does include a URL or other locator if the
book is digitally published), but it is styled differently: commas sepa-
rate major elements of a note, but a bibliographic entry uses periods.

1. One author
1. Ibram X. Kendi, How to Be an Antiracist (New York: One World,
2019), 73.
Kendi, Ibram X. How to Be an Antiracist. New York: One World, 2019.

2. Multiple authors
2. Mark Littman and Fred Espenak, Jotality: The Great American
Eclipses of 2017 and 2024 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 35.

Littman, Mark, and Fred Espenak. Jotality: The Great American Eclipses of
2017 and 2024. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.

With four or more authors, you may give the first-listed author fol-
lowed by et al. in the note. In the bibliography, list all the authors’
names.
2. Stephen J. Blank et al., Conflict, Culture, and History: Regional
Dimensions (Miami: University Press of the Pacific, 2002), 276.

Blank, Stephen J., Lawrence E. Grinter, Karl P. Magyar, Lewis B. Ware,

and Bynum E. Weathers. Conflict, Culture, and History: Regional
Dimensions. Miami: University Press of the Pacific, 2002.

3. Organization as author
3. World Intellectual Property Organization, Intellectual Property
Profile of the Least Developed Countries (Geneva: World Intellectual
Property Organization, 2002), 43.

World Intellectual Property Organization. Intellectual Property Profile of

the Least Developed Countries. Geneva: World Intellectual Property
Organization, 2002.
 Creating Chicago notes and bibliographic entries

4. Unknown author
4. Broad Stnpes and Bright Stars (Kansas City, MO: Andrews McMeel,
2002), 10.

Broad Stnpes and Bnght Stars. Kansas City, MO: Andrews McMeel, 2002.

5. Online book
5. Dorothy Richardson, Long Day: The Story of aNew York Working
Girl, as Told by Herself (New York: Century, 1906; UMDL Texts, 2010),
159, http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa;idno
=AFS7156.0001.001.

Richardson, Dorothy. Long Day: The Story of a New York Working Girl,
as Told by Herself. New York: Century, 1906. UMDL Texts, 2010.
http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa;idno
=AFS7156.0001.001.

6. Electronic book (e-book)

6. Atul Gawande, Being Mortal: Medicine and What Matters in the End
(New York: Metropolitan, 2014), chap. 3, Nook.

Gawande, Atul. Being Mortal: Medicine and What Matters in the End. New
York: Metropolitan, 2014. Nook.

7. Book with an editor

7. Leopold von Ranke, The Theory and Practice of History, ed. Georg G.
Iggers (New York: Routledge, 2010), 135.

von Ranke, Leopold. The Theory and Practice of History. Edited by Georg G.
Iggers. New York: Routledge, 2010.

If an edited book has no author, put the editor’s name first.

7. James H. Fetzer, ed., The Great Zapruder Film Hoax: Deceit and
Deception in the Death of JFK (Chicago: Open Court, 2003), 56.

Fetzer, James H., ed. The Great Zapruder Film Hoax: Deceit and Deception in
the Death of JFK. Chicago: Open Court, 2003.
 Chicago Style

8. Selection in an anthology or chapter in a book with an editor

8. Denise Little, “Born in Blood,” in Alternate Gettysburgs, ed. Brian
Thomsen and Martin H. Greenberg (New York: Berkley Publishing Group,
2002), 245.
Give the inclusive page numbers of the selection or chapter in the
bibliographic entry.

Little, Denise. “Born in Blood.” In Alternate Gettysburgs. Edited by Brian

Thomsen and Martin H. Greenberg, 242-55. New York: Berkley
Publishing Group, 2002.

9. Introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword

9. Ta-Nehisi Coates, foreword to The Ongin of Others, by Toni
Morrison (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017), xi.

Give the inclusive page numbers of the section cited in the biblio-
graphic entry.

Coates, Ta-Nehisi. Foreword to The Ongin of Others, by Toni Morrison,

vii-xvii. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017.

10. Translation
10. Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, trans. Robert Graves (London:
Penguin Classics, 1989), 202.

Suetonius. The Twelve Caesars. Translated by Robert Graves. London:

Penguin Classics, 1989.

11. Edition other than the first

11. Dee Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of
the American West, 4th ed. (New York: Owl Books, 2007), 12.

Brown, Dee. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the

American West, 4th ed. New York: Owl Books, 2007.

12. Multivolume work

12. John Watson, Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the
Olden Time, vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Ross & Perry, 2003), 514.

Watson, John. Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time.

Vol. 2. Washington, DC: Ross & Perry, 2003.
 Creating Chicago notes and bibliographic entries

13. Work with a title within the title Use quotation marks around any
title within a book title.

13. John A. Alford, A Companion to “Piers Plowman” (Berkeley:

University of California Press, 1988), 195.

Alford, John A. A Companion to “Piers Plowman.” Berkeley: University of

California Press, 1988.

14. Sacred text Do not include sacred texts in the bibliography.

14. Luke 18:24-25 (New International Version).

14. Quran 7:40-41.

15. Source quoted in another source Identify both the original and
the secondary source.

15. Frank D. Millet, “The Filipino Leaders,” Harper’s Weekly,

March 11, 1899, quoted in Richard Slotkin, Gunfighter Nation: The Myth
of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (New York: HarperCollins,
1992), 110.

Millet, Frank D. “The Filipino Leaders.” Harper's Weekly, March 11, 1899.
Quoted in Richard Slotkin, Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier
in Twentieth-Century America (New York: HarperCollins, 1992), 110.

Print and digital periodicals

The note for an article in a periodical typically includes the author’s
name, the article title, and the periodical title. The format for other
information, including the volume and issue numbers (if any) and
the date of publication, as well as the page number(s) to which the
note refers, varies according to the type of periodical and whether
you consulted it in print, on the web, or in a database. In a biblio-
graphic entry for a journal or magazine article from a database or a
print periodical, also give the inclusive page numbers.

16. Article in a print journal

16. Catherine Bishop and Angela Woollacott, “Business and Politics
as Women’s Work: The Australian Colonies and the Mid-Nineteenth-Century
Women’s Movement,” Journal of Women’s History 28, no. 1 (2016): 87.
222 Chicago Style

Bishop, Catherine, and Angela Woollacott. “Business and Politics as

Women’s Work: The Australian Colonies and the Mid-Nineteenth-
Century Women’s Movement.” Journal of Women’s History 28, no. 1
(2016): 84-106.

17. Article in an online journal Give the DOI, preceded by https://doi

.org/. If there is no DOI, include the article URL. If page numbers
are provided, include them as well.
17. Jeffrey J. Schott, “America, Europe, and the New Trade Order,”
Business and Politics 11, no. 3 (2009), https://doi.org/10.2202/1469
-3569.1263.

Schott, Jeffrey J. “America, Europe, and the New Trade Order.” Business
and Politics 11, no. 3 (2009). https://doi.org/10.2202/1469
-3569.1263.

18. Journal article from a database The source map on p. 224 shows
where to find information for a typical article.

@ Author. In a note, list the author(s) first name first. In the

bibliographic entry, list the first author last name first, comma, first
name; list other authors first name first.
) Article title. Enclose the title and subtitle (if any) in quotation
marks, and capitalize major words. In the notes section, put a
comma before and after the title. In the bibliography, put a period
before and after.
Periodical title. |talicize the title and subtitle, and capitalize all
major words. For a magazine or newspaper, follow with a comma.
Volume and issue numbers (for journals) and date. For
journals, follow the title with the volume number, a comma, the
abbreviation no., and the issue number; enclose the publication
year in parentheses and follow with a colon. (For other periodicals,
give the month and year or month, day, and year, not in
parentheses, followed by a colon.)
Page numbers. In a note, give the page where the information is
found. In the bibliographic entry, give the page range.
Retrieval information. Provide the article’s DOI, if one is given,
the name of the database, or a stable URL for the article. Because
you provide stable retrieval information, you do not need to
identify the electronic format of the work (i.e., PDF). End with a
period.
 Creating Chicago notes and bibliographic entries 223

: ;
18. Elizabeth Tucker, “Changing Concepts of Childhood: Children’s
SS =
Folklore Scholarship since the Late Nineteenth Century,” Journal of
ST cleaiadnaMa ager -—-o— 4 Lege
oly ge
Amencan Folklore 125, no. 498 (2012): 399, https://doi.org/10.5406
psa sewn amar
/jamerfolk.125.498.0389.
PE
Fas
Tucker Elizabeth. “Changing Concepts of Childhood: Children’s Folklore
col 2 ee one | -@
Scholarship since the Late Nineteenth Century.” Journal of American
aoe haa el -@— i
Folklore 125, no. 498 (2012): 389-410. https://doi.org/10.5406
Ss
/jamerfolk.125.498.0389.

19. Article in a print magazine

19. Terry McDermott, “The Mastermind: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and
the Making of 9/11,” New Yorker, September 13, 2010, 42.

McDermott, Terry. “The Mastermind: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and the

Making of 9/11.” New Yorker, September 13, 2010, 38-51.

20. Article in an online magazine

20. Tracy Clark-Flory, “Educating Women Saves Kids’ Lives,” Salon,
September 17, 2010, http://www.salon.com/life/broadsheet/2010/09/17
/education_women/index.html.

Clark-Flory, Tracy. “Educating Women Saves Kids’ Lives.” Salon, September

17, 2010. http://www.salon.com/life/broadsheet/2010/09/17
/education_women/index.html.

21. Magazine article from a database

21. Sami Yousafzai and Ron Moreau, “Twisting Arms in Afghanistan,”
Newsweek, November 9, 2009, 8, Academic Search Premier.

Yousafzai, Sami, and Ron Moreau. “Twisting Arms in Afghanistan.”

Newsweek, November 9, 2009. 8. Academic Search Premier.
 6 Retrieval Information
OmniFile Full Text Select
New Search Publications Thesaun’s Signin @@ Folder Preferences

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Authors: Coen, Deborah R.*
Coen, Deborah R. Source: Journal of the History of Ideas; Apr2016, Vol. 77 Issue 2, p305-321, 17p
Find Similar Results Document Type: Essay
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Subjects: Povinelli, Elizatith; Climate change; Idea (Philo!
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@ Periodical Title
Abstract; An essay is presented on the climate crisis as a
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Citation
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tie os. [ergs ces So gh yee

1. Deborah R. Coen, “Big Is a Thing of the Past: Climate Change and
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 Creating Chicago notes and bibliographic entries 225

22. Article ina newspaper Do not include page numbers for a news-
paper article, but you may include the section, if any.

22. Caroline E. Mayer, “Wireless Industry to Adopt Voluntary

Standards,” Washington Post, September 9, 2003, sec. E.

Chicago recommends that newspaper articles appear in the notes

section only, not in the bibliography. Check your instructor’s pref-
erence. A bibliography entry would look like this:

Mayer, Caroline E. “Wireless Industry to Adopt Voluntary Standards.”

Washington Post, September 9, 2003, sec. E.

23. Article in an online newspaper

23. Somini Sengupta, “How a Seed Bank, Almost Lost in Syria’s War,
Could Help Feed a Warming Planet,” New York Times, October 13, 2017,
https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/13/climate/syria-seed-bank.html.

Sengupta, Somini. “How a Seed Bank, Almost Lost in Syria’s War, Could
Help Feed a Warming Planet.” New York Times, October 13, 2017.
https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/13/climate/syria-seed-bank
-html.

24. Newspaper article from a database

24. Demetria Irwin, “A Hatchet, Not a Scalpel, for NYC Budget Cuts,”
New York Amsterdam News, November 13, 2008, Academic Search Premier.

Irwin, Demetria. “A Hatchet, Not a Scalpel, for NYC Budget Cuts.” New York
Amsterdam News, November 13, 2008. Academic Search Premier.

25. Bookreview After the information about the book under review,
give publication information for the appropriate kind of source (see
models 16-24).

25. Roderick MacFarquhar, “China’s Astounding Religious Revival,”

review of The Souls of China: The Return of Religion after Mao, by Ian
Johnson, New York Review of Books, June 8, 2017, http://www.nybooks
.com/articles/2017/06/08/chinas-astounding-religious-revival/.

MacFarquhar, Roderick. “China’s Astounding Religious Revival.” Review of

The Souls of China: The Return of Religion after Mao, by Ian Johnson.
New York Review of Books, June 8, 2017. http://www.nybooks.com
/articles/2017/06/08/chinas-astounding-religious-revival/.
226 Chicago Style

Online sources
Notes and bibliographic entries for online sources typically include
the author; the title of the work; the name of the site; the sponsor
of the site, if different from the name of the site or name of the
author; the date of publication or most recent update; and a URL.
If the online source does not indicate when it was published or last
modified, include your date of access.

26. Work from a website See the source map on p. 228.

Author. In a note, list the author(s) first name first. In a

bibliographic entry, list the first author last name first, comma, first
name; list additional authors first name first. Note that the sponsor
may serve as the author.
Document title. Enclose the title in quotation marks, and
capitalize all major words. In a note, put a comma before and after
the title. In the bibliography, put a period before and after the
title.
Title of website. Capitalize all major words. If the site’s title is
analogous to a book or periodical title, italicize it. In the notes
section, put a comma after the title. In the bibliography, put a
period after the title.
Sponsor of site. If the sponsor is the same as the author or site
title, you may omit it. End with a comma (in the note) or a period
(in the bibliographic entry).
Date of publication or last modification. If a time stamp is
given, include it. If no date is available, include your date of access
(with the word accessed). End with a comma (in the note) or a
period (in the bibliographic entry).
Retrieval information. Give the URL for the work and end with
a period.

26. Rose Cohen, “My First Job,” Remembering the 1911 Triangle
ee es —@ pa eos
Factory Fire, Cornell University ILR School, accessed October 13, 2020,
——————————
http://trianglefire.ilr.cornell.edu/primary/testimonials/ootss_RoseCohen
ey
.html?sto_sec=sweatshops.
 Creating Chicago notes and bibliographic entries PEM |

| Teer Tl |
Cohen, Rose. “My First Job.” Remembering the 1911 Triangle Factory Fire.
r 1]
Cornell University ILR School. Accessed October 13, 2020.
2
http://tnanglefire.ilr.cornell.edu/primary/testimonials/ootss
Sass
_RoseCohen.html?sto_sec=sweatshops.

27. Entire website For clarity, you may add the word website in
parentheses after the title.

27. Rutgers School of Arts and Sciences, Rutgers Oral History Archive
(website), 2017, http://oralhistory.rutgers.edu/.

Rutgers School of Arts and Sciences. Rutgers Oral History Archive

(website). 2017. http://oralhistory.rutgers.edu/.

28. Online reference work In a note, use s.v., the abbreviation for
the Latin sub verbo (“under the word”) to help your reader find
the entry. Include the date the entry was posted, last modified, or
accessed. Do not list reference works such as encyclopedias or dic-
tionaries in your bibliography.

28. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. “Monroe Doctrine,” accessed October

12, 2017, https://www.britannica.com/event/Monroe-Doctrine.

29. Blog post Treat a blog post as a short work from a website (see
model 26).

29. Jai Arjun Singh, “On the Road in the USSR,” Jabberwock (blog),
November 29, 2007, http://jaiarjun.blogspot.com/2007/11/on-road-in
-ussr.html.

Chicago recommends that blog posts appear in the notes section

only, not in the bibliography. Check your instructor’s preference.
A bibliography reference would look like this:

Singh, Jai Arjun. “On the Road in the USSR.” Jabberwock (blog), November
29, 2007. http://jaiarjun.blogspot.com/.
 Title of Website

Preserving American Freedom

WY, Historical Soe
== yPenn

The Evolution of American Liberties in Fifty Documents

& Sponsor of Site
DIGITAL HISTORY PROJECTS

#& Documents Reference Timeline For Educators ils indasons)

Historical Society of
Pennsylvania

5 Date of Publication
Accessed February 6, 2021
Liberty in Early America B About this Project 7
Next » is Proj
Jewish Petition to Dutch West India Company, Jazuary LdAbout this Pr yes
3655
Liberty, Diversity, and Slavery: The Beginnings of
eed
AL
cNiaadh
American Freedom foughtforther freedorns trom
tha 1600s to the present and
By Evan Hoefeli, Columbia University how thesa freedoms have shaped
America's history.
Read more
The Unit{ States of America has a rep
beacon of freedom and diversity from the c
of its histd
B Sections
Evan Haefeli
(2) Title of Work |”

Citation

ENDNOTE
=
1. Evan Haefeli, “Liberty, Diversity, and Slavery: The Beginnings of
ee hdeh ee
American Freedom,” Preserving American Freedom: The Evolution of
ee
American Liberties in Fifty Documents, Historical Society of Pennsylvania,
—
accessed February 6, 2021, https://digitalhistory.hsp.org/pafrm/essay
——————————————— es
/liberty-diversity-and-slavery-beginnings-american-freedom.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC ENTRY

Haefeli, Evan. “Liberty, Diversity, and Slavery: The Beginnings of American

eee Seti
Freedom.” Preserving American Freedom: The Evolution of American
ee
Liberties in Fifty Documents. Historical Society of Pennsylvania.

Accessed February 6, 2021. https://digitalhistory.hsp.org/pafrm

ee
/essay/liberty-diversity-and-slavery-beginnings-american-freedom.
 Creating Chicago notes and bibliographic entries 229

30. Email, social media messages, and other personal communications

Cite email messages, social media messages, personal interviews,
and other personal communications, such as letters and tele-
phone calls, in the text or in a note only; do not cite them in the
bibliography.

30. Kareem Adas, Facebook private message to author, February 11,

2020.

31. Social media post In place of a title, include the text of the post,
up to the first 160 characters.

31. NASA (@nasa), “This galaxy is a whirl of color,” Instagram

photo, September 23, 2017, https://www.instagram.com/p
/BZY8adnnZQJ/.

NASA. “This galaxy is a whirl of color.” Instagram photo, September 23,

2017. https://www.instagram.com/p/BZY8adnnZQJ/.

32. Podcast Treat a podcast as a short work from a website (see

model 26). Include the type of podcast or file format (if download-
able), the time stamp, and the URL.

32. Toyin Falola, “Creativity and Decolonization: Nigerian Cultures

and African Epistemologies,” Episode 96, November 17, 2015, in Afnca
Past and Present, African Online Digital Library, podcast, MP3 audio,
43:44, http://afripod.aodl.org/2015/11/afripod-96/.

Falola, Toyin. “Creativity and Decolonization: Nigerian Cultures and African

Epistemologies.” Episode 96, November 17, 2015. Africa Past and
Present. African Online Digital Library. Podcast, MP3 audio, 43:44.
http://afripod.aodl.org/2015/11/afripod-96/. ie.

33. Online audio or video Treat an online audio or video source as a

short work from a website (see model 26). If the source is down-
loadable, give the medium or file format and a time stamp before
the URL.

33. Alyssa Katz, “Did the Mortgage Crisis Kill the American Dream?”
YouTube video, 4:32, posted by NYCRadio, June 24, 2009, http://www
-youtube.com/watch?v=uivtwjwd_Qw.
230 Chicago Style

Katz, Alyssa. “Did the Mortgage Crisis Kill the American Dream?” YouTube
video, 4:32. Posted by NYCRadio. June 24, 2009. http://www
-youtube.com/watch?v=uivtwjwd_Qw.

Other sources
34. Published or broadcast interview

34. David 0. Russell, interview by Terry Gross, Fresh Air, WNYC,

February 20, 2014.

Russell, David 0. Interview by Terry Gross. Fresh Air. WNYC, February 20,
2014.

Interviews you conduct are considered personal communications

(see model 30).

35. DVD or Blu-ray Include both the date of the original release and
the date of release for the format you are citing.

35. American History X, directed by Tony Kaye (1998; Los Angeles:

New Line Studios, 2002), DVD.

Kaye, Tony, dir. American History X. 1998; Los Angeles: New Line Studios,
2002. DVD.

36. Sound recording

36. “Work,” MP3 audio, track 4 on Rihanna, Anti, Roc Nation, 2016.

Rihanna. “Work.” Anti. Roc Nation, 2016, MP3 audio.

37. Work of art Works of art usually can be mentioned in the

text rather than cited in a note or bibliography entry. Check your
instructor’s preference.
37. Hope Gangloff, Vera, 2015, acrylic on canvas, Kemper Museum of
Contemporary Art, Kansas City, MO.

Gangloff, Hope. Vera. 2015. Acrylic on canvas. Kemper Museum of

Contemporary Art, Kansas City, MO.

If you refer to a reproduction, give the publication information.

 Excerpts from a student essay, Chicago style 231

37. Mary Cassatt, The Child’s Bath, 1893, oil on canvas, Art Access,
The Art Institute of Chicago, accessed October 13, 2017, http://www
-artic.edu/aic/collections/exhibitions/Impressionism/Cassatt.

Cassatt, Mary. The Child’s Bath. 1893. Oil on canvas. Art Access. The Art
Institute of Chicago. Accessed October 13, 2017. http://www.artic
.edu/aic/collections/exhibitions/Impressionism/Cassatt.

38. Pamphlet, report, or brochure Information about the author or

publisher may not be readily available, but give enough information
to identify your source.
38. International Monetary Fund, Western Hemisphere: Tale of Two
Adjustments, World Economic and Financial Surveys (Washington, DC:
International Monetary Fund, 2017), 29.

International Monetary Fund. Western Hemisphere: Tale of Two Adjustments.

World Economic and Financial Surveys. Washington, DC: International
Monetary Fund, 2017.

39. Government document

39. U.S. House Committee on Ways and Means, Economic Mobility

Act of 2019, 116th Cong., 1st sess. (Washington, DC: Government Printing
Office, 2020), 23.

U.S. House Committee on Ways and Means. Economic Mobility Act of 2019.
116th Cong., 1st sess. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office,
2020.

18d Excerpts from a research-based history

@=am=e essay, Chicago style
CRinEter waren On the following pages are excerpts from an essay
by Amanda Rinder that conforms to the Chicago
guidelines described in this chapter.
.
=
Amanda Rinder
STUDENT
WRITING
Rinder 2

First page Only one city has the “Big Shoulders” described by Carl
of body text
Sandburg: Chicago (fig. 1). So renowned are its skyscrapers and
is p. 2
celebrated building style that an entire school of architecture is
Essay refers named for Chicago. Presently, however, the place that Frank Sinatra
to each
called “my kind of town” is beginning to lose sight of exactly what
figure by
number kind of town it is. Many of the buildings that give Chicago its
distinctive character are being torn down in order to make room
Thesis for new growth. Both preserving the classics and encouraging new
introduced
creation are important; the combination of these elements gives
Chicago architecture its unique flavor. Witold Rybczynski, a professor
Double- of urbanism, told Tracie Rozhon of the New York Times, “Of all the
spaced text
|
cities we can think of . . . we associate Chicago with new things, with
building new. Combining that with preservation is a difficult task, a
Source tricky thing. It’s hard to find the middle ground in Chicago.”! Yet
cited using
finding a middle ground is essential if the city is to retain the original
superscript
numeral character that sets it apart from the rest. In order to maintain Chicago's

Figure
caption
includes
number,
short title, Fig. 1. Chicago skyline, circa 1940s. (Postcard courtesy of Minnie
and source Dangburg.)
 Excerpts from a student essay, Chicago style 233

7 Cae ONG = SS FS eee STUDENT

; WRITING
Rinder 9 :|
|
||
|
Notes |
i

1. Tracie Rozhon, “Chicago Girds for Big Battle over Its Skyline,” _— Article in
New York Times, November 12, 2000, Academic Search Premier. database
2. David Garrard Lowe, Lost Chicago (New York: Watson-Guptill Print book
Publications, 2000), 123.
3. Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. (2000), s.v. “Louis Sullivan.”
|
|
4. Daniel Bluestone, Constructing Chicago (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1991), 105. |
5. Alan J. Shannon, “When Will It End?” Chicago Tribune, Indirect
September 11, 1987, quoted in Karen J. Dilibert, From Landmark to source
Landfill (Chicago: Chicago Architectural Foundation, 2000), 11. |
6. Steve Kerch, “Landmark Decisions,” Chicago Tribune, March |
18, 1990, sec. 16.

7. John W. Stamper, Chicago's North Michigan Avenue (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1991), 215.
8. Alf Siewers, “Success Spoiling the Magnificent Mile?” Chicago
Sun-Times, April 9, 1995.
9. Paul Gapp, “McCarthy Building Puts Landmark Law on a
Collision Course with Developers,” Chicago Tribune, April 20, 1986,
quoted in Karen J. Dilibert, From Landmark to Landfill (Chicago:
Chicago Architectural Foundation, 2000), 4.

10. Paul Gapp, quoted in Karen J. Dilibert, 4. eae

11. Rozhon, “Chicago Girds for Big Battle.” SCUIES:
12. Kerch, “Landmark Decisions.” eee a
13. Robert Bruegmann, The Architects and the City (Chicago: SONICS
University of Chicago Press, 1997), 443.
234 Chicago Style

STUDENT [ggg
WRITING
; Rinder 10
|
|
|

| Bibliography
i
Print book Bluestone, Daniel. Constructing Chicago. New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1991.
}
i
|
|
| Bruegmann, Robert. The Architects and the City. Chicago: University of
|
| Chicago Press, 1997.
|
4

Pamphlet Dilibert, Karen J. From Landmark to Landfill. Chicago: Chicago

| Architectural Foundation, 2000.
|

Newspaper Kerch, Steve. “Landmark Decisions.” Chicago Tribune, March 18, 1990,
article sec. 16.

| Lowe, David Garrard. Lost Chicago. New York: Watson-Guptill

| Publications, 2000.

Article from Rozhon, Tracie. “Chicago Girds for Big Battle over Its Skyline.” New
database York Times, November 12, 2000. Academic Search Premier.
Siewers, Alf. “Success Spoiling the Magnificent Mile?” Chicago Sun-
Bibliography Times, April 9, 1995.
entries use i rae
hanging Stamper, John W. Chicago's North Michigan Avenue. Chicago: University
indent and of Chicago Press, 1991.
are not
numbered
}
}

|
19 CSE Style
Writers in the physical sciences, the life sciences, and mathematics
often use the documentation style set forth by the Council of Sci-
ence Editors (CSE). Guidelines for citing print sources can be found
in Scientific Style and Format: The CSE Manual for Authors, Editors,
and Publishers, Eighth Edition (2014).

19a Following CSE format

SEB

Title page Center the title of your paper. Beneath it, center your
name. Include other relevant information, such as the course name
and number, the instructor’s name, and the date submitted.

Margins and spacing Leave standard one-inch margins at the

top and bottom and on both sides of each page. Double-space the
text and the references list.

Page numbers Typea short version of the paper’s title and the page
number in the upper right-hand corner of each page. Omit the page
number on the title page and number the first page of text as page 2.

Abstract CSE style frequently calls for a one-paragraph abstract.

The abstract should be on a separate page, right after the title page,
with the title Abstract centered one inch from the top of the page.

Headings Use headings when possible to help readers quickly

find the contents of a section of the paper.

Tables and figures Tables and figures must be labeled Table or

Figure and numbered separately, one sequence for tables and one
for figures. Give each table and figure a short, informative title. Be
sure to introduce each table and figure in your text, and comment
on its significance.

List of references Start the list of references on a new page at the

end of the paper, and continue to number the pages consecutively.
Center the title References one inch from the top of the page, and
double-space before beginning the first entry.
 CSE Style

19b creating CSE in-text citations

In CSE style, citations within the text follow one of three formats.

¢ The citation-sequence format calls for a superscript number or a

number in parentheses after any mention of a source. The sources
are numbered in the order they appear. Each number refers to the
same source every time it is used. The first source mentioned in the
paper is numbered 1, the second source is numbered 2, and so on.
¢ The citation-name format also calls for a superscript number or a
number in parentheses after any mention of a source. The numbers
are added after the list of references is completed and alphabetized,
so that the source numbered 1 is alphabetically first in the list of
references, 2 is alphabetically second, and so on.
¢ The name-year format calls for the last name of the author and the
year of publication in parentheses after any mention of a source.
If the last name appears in a signal phrase, the name-year format
allows for giving only the year of publication in parentheses.

Before deciding which system to use, ask your instructor’s preference.

1. In-text citation using citation-sequence or citation-name format

VonBergen2é provides the most complete discussion of this phenomenon.

For the citation-sequence and citation-name formats, you would
use the same superscript (12) for each subsequent citation of this
work by VonBergen.

2. In-text citation using name-year format

VonBergen (2003) provides the most complete discussion of this

phenomenon.

Hussar’s two earlier studies of juvenile obesity (1995, 1999) examined

only children with diabetes.

The classic examples of such investigations (Morrow 1968; Bridger et al.

1971; Franklin and Wayson 1972) still shape the assumptions of current
studies.
If a work has three or more authors, use the first author’s name and
et al. in the in-text citation.
 Creating a CSE list of references 237

19¢c Creating a CSE list of references

Reese

The citations in the text of a paper correspond to items on a list

titled References, which starts on a new page at the end of the paper.
Continue to number the pages consecutively, center the title Refer-
ences one inch from the top of the page, and double-space before
beginning the first entry. Start each entry aligned left and indent
subsequent lines one-quarter inch.
The order of the entries depends on which format you follow:

¢ Citation-sequence format: number and list the references in the

order they are first cited in the text.
¢ Citation-name format: list and number the references in alphabeti-
cal order.
¢ Name-year format: list the references, unnumbered, in alphabetical
order.

In the following examples, you will see that both the citation-
sequence and citation-name formats call for listing the date after
the publisher’s name in references for books and after the periodi-
cal name in references for articles. The name-year format calls for
listing the date immediately after the author’s name in any kind of
reference.
CSE style also specifies the treatment and placement of the fol-
lowing basic elements in the list of references:

¢ Author. List all authors last name first, and use only initials for
first and middle names. Do not place a comma after the author’s
last name, and do not place periods after or spaces between the
initials. Use a period after the last initial of the last author listed.
* Title. Do not italicize titles and subtitles of books and titles of
periodicals. Do not enclose titles of articles in quotation marks.
For books and articles, capitalize only the first word of the title and
any proper nouns or proper adjectives. Abbreviate and capitalize all
major words in a periodical title.

As you refer to these examples, pay attention to how publication infor-

mation (publishers for books, details about periodicals for articles)
and other specific elements are styled and punctuated. We have used
underlining in some examples only to draw your attention to impor-
tant elements. Do not underline anything in your own citations.
 CSE Style

LIST OF EXAMPLES ks
References in CSE style
BOOKS 9. Article in a magazine, 241
1. One author, 238 10. Article in a newspaper, 241
. Two or more authors, 238
DIGITAL SOURCES
. Organization as author, 239
11. Material from an online
. Book prepared by editor(s), 239
database, 242
. Section of a book with an editor, 239
. Article in an online journal, 242
. Chapter of a book, 240
. Article in an online
. Paper or abstract in conference newspaper, 243
proceedings, 240
. Online book, 243
PERIODICALS . Website, 243
8. Article in a journal, 240 . Government website, 243

Books
71. One author

CITATION-SEQUENCE AND CITATION-NAME

1. Tyson ND. Astrophysics for people in a hurry. New York (NY): Norton;
2017.

NAME-YEAR

Tyson ND. 2017. Astrophysics for people in a hurry. New York (NY): Norton.

2. Two or more authors List all authors up to ten. If there are more
than ten authors, follow the tenth with the abbreviation et al.

CITATION-SEQUENCE AND CITATION-NAME

2. Wojciechowski BW, Rice NM. Experimental methods in kinetic studies.

2nd ed. St. Louis (MO): Elsevier Science; 2003.

NAME-YEAR
Wojciechowski BW, Rice NM. 2003. Experimental methods in kinetic
studies. 2nd ed. St. Louis (MO): Elsevier Science.
 Creating a CSE list of references

3. Organization as author

CITATION-SEQUENCE AND CITATION-NAME

3. World Health Organization. The world health report 2002: reducing
risks, promoting healthy life. Geneva (Switzerland): The Organization;
2002.

Place the organization’s abbreviation at the beginning of the name-

year entry, and use the abbreviation in the corresponding in-text
citation. Alphabetize the entry by the first word of the full name,
not by the abbreviation.

NAME-YEAR

[WHO] World Health Organization. 2002. The world health report 2002:
reducing risks, promoting healthy life. Geneva (Switzerland): The
Organization.

4. Book prepared by editor(s)

CITATION-SEQUENCE AND CITATION-NAME

4. Torrence ME, Isaacson RE, editors. Microbial food safety in animal
agriculture: current topics. Ames (IA): Iowa State University Press; 2003.

NAME-YEAR

Torrence ME, Isaacson RE, editors. 2003. Microbial safety in animal

agriculture: current topics. Ames (IA): Iowa State University Press.

5. Section of a book with an editor

CITATION-SEQUENCE AND CITATION-NAME

5. Kawamura A. Plankton. In: Perrin MF, Wursig B, Thewissen JGM, editors.
Encyclopedia of marine mammals. San Diego (CA): Academic Press;
2002. p. 939-942.

NAME-YEAR

Kawamura A. 2002. Plankton. In: Perrin MF, Wursig B, Thewissen JGM,

editors. Encyclopedia of marine mammals. San Diego (CA): Academic
Press. p. 939-942.
240 CSE Style

6. Chapter of a book

CITATION-SEQUENCE AND CITATION-NAME

6. Honigsbaum M. The fever trail: in search of the cure for malaria. New
York (NY): Picador; 2003. Chapter 2, The cure; p. 19-38.

NAME-YEAR

Honigsbaum M. 2003. The fever trail: in search of the cure for malaria.
New York (NY): Picador. Chapter 2, The cure; p. 19-38.

7. Paper or abstract in conference proceedings

CITATION-SEQUENCE AND CITATION-NAME

7. Gutierrez AP. Integrating biological and environmental factors in crop

system models [abstract]. In: Integrated Biological Systems Conference;
2003 Apr 14-16; San Antonio, TX. Beaumont (TX): Agroeconomics
Research Group; 2003. p. 14-15.

NAME-YEAR

Gutierrez AP. 2003. Integrating biological and environmental factors

in crop system models [abstract]. In: Integrated Biological Systems
Conference; 2003 Apr 14-16; San Antonio, TX. Beaumont (TX):
Agroeconomics Research Group. p. 14-15.

Periodicals
Provide volume and issue numbers for journals. For magazines,
include the month and year or the month, day, and year. For news-
paper articles, include the section designation and column number,
if any, and the date. For all periodicals, give inclusive page numbers.
For rules on abbreviating journal titles, consult the CSE manual or
ask an instructor.

8. Article in a journal

CITATION-SEQUENCE AND CITATION-NAME

8. Citrin DE. Recent developments in radiotherapy. New EnglJ Med.

2017;377(11):1065-1075.
 Creating a CSE list of references 241

NAME-YEAR

Citrin DE. 2017. Recent developments in radiotherapy. New EnglJ Med.

377(11):1065-1075.

9. Article in a magazine

CITATION-SEQUENCE AND CITATION-NAME

9. Livio M. Moving right along: the accelerating universe holds secrets

to dark energy, the Big Bang, and the ultimate beauty of nature.
Astronomy. 2002 Jul:34-39.

NAME-YEAR

Livio M. 2002 Jul. Moving right along: the accelerating universe holds
secrets to dark energy, the Big Bang, and the ultimate beauty of nature.
Astronomy. 34-39.

10. Article in a newspaper

CITATION-SEQUENCE AND CITATION-NAME

10. Kolata G. Bone diagnosis gives new data but no answers. New York
Times (National Ed.). 2003 Sep 28;Sect. 1:1 (col. 1).

NAME-YEAR

Kolata G. 2003 Sep 28. Bone diagnosis gives new data but no answers.
New York Times (National Ed.). Sect. 1:1 (col. 1).

Digital sources
These examples use the citation-sequence or citation-name system.
To adapt them to the name-year system, delete the note number and
place the update date immediately after the author’s name.
The basic entry for most sources accessed through the Internet
should include the following elements:

¢ Author. Give the author’s name, if available, last name first,

followed by the initial(s) and a period.
¢ Title. For book, journal, and article titles, follow the style for print
materials. For all other types of electronic material, reproduce the
title that appears on the screen.
 CSE Style

Description. Identify sources such as images, infographics, pod-

casts, videos, blogs, and social media posts with descriptive words
in brackets: [infographic], [video], [podcast, episode 12].
Place of publication. For online books and websites, include the
place of publication as you would for print sources.
Publisher. For material other than journal articles from websites
and online databases, include the individual or organization that
produces or sponsors the site. If no publisher can be determined,
use the words publisher unknown in brackets.
Dates. Cite three important dates if possible: the date that the
publication was placed on the Internet or the copyright date; the
latest date of any update or revision; and the date you accessed the
publication.
Page, document, volume, and issue numbers. When citing a por-
tion of a larger work or site, list the inclusive page numbers or
document numbers of the specific item being cited. For journals or
journal articles, include volume and issue numbers. If exact page
numbers are not available, include in brackets the approximate
length in computer screens, paragraphs, or bytes: [2 screens],
[10 paragraphs], [332K bytes].
Address. Include the URL or other electronic address, followed by a
period.

1 ~ . Material from an online database

11. Shilts E. Water wanderers. Can Geographic. 2002 [accessed 2010 Jan
27);122(3):72-77. Academic Search Premier. http://www.ebscohost
.com/. Document No.: 6626534.

12. Article in an online journal

12. Perez P, Calonge TM. Yeast protein kinase C. J Biochem. 2002 Oct
[accessed 2016 Nov 3];132(4):513-517. http://edpex104.bcasj.or.jp
/jb-pdf/132-4/jb132-4-513.pdf
 Excerpts from student writing, CSE style

13. Article in an online newspaper

13. Gorman J. Trillions of flies can’t all be bad. New York Times. 2017
Nov 13 [accessed 2017 Dec 1]. https://nyti.ms/2hwjhw0

14. Online book

14. Patrick TS, Allison JR, Krakow GA. Protected plants of Georgia. Social
Circle (GA): Georgia Department of Natural Resources; c1995 [accessed
2013 Dec 3]. http://www.georgiawildlife.com/content/displaycontent
.asp?txtDocument=89 &txtPage=9

To cite a portion of an online book, give the name of the part after
the publication information: Chapter 6, Encouraging germination.
See model 6.

15. Website

15. Geology and public policy. Boulder (CO): Geological Society of

America; c2010 [updated 2010 Jun 3; accessed 2015 Sep 19].
http://www.geosociety.org/geopolicy.htm

16. Government website

16. Health disparities in cancer: reducing health disparities in cancer.

Atlanta (GA): Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US); 2012 Nov
14 [updated 2014 Jul 21; accessed 2017 Nov 13]. http://www.cdc.gov
/cancer/healthdisparities/basic_info/disparities.htm

19d Excerpts from a literature

review for biology, CSE style

The following excerpts from a literature review by Joanna Hays for

a biology class conforms to the name-year format in the CSE guide-
lines described in this chapter.
 CSE Style

eee
nearer mn emeny
iw °. —— . tsa’ Sri it i
WRITING i
Niemann-Pick Disease 2 }

Running
head has Overview
short title,
page number Niemann-Pick Disease (NP) occurs in patients with deficient
acid sphingomyelinase (ASM) activity as well as with the lysosomal
accumulation of sphingomyelin. It is an autosomal recessive disorder
(Levran et al. 1991). As recently as 1991, researchers had classified
two major phenotypes: Type A and Type B (Levran et al. 1991). In
more recent studies several more phenotypes have been identified,
including Types C and D. Each type of NP has distinct characteristics
and effects on the patient. NP is distributed worldwide, but is closely
associated with Ashkenazi Jewish descendants. Niemann-Pick Disease
is relevant to the molecular world today because of advances being
made in the ability to identify mutations, to trace ancestry where
the mutation may have originated, and to counsel patients with a
high potential of carrying the disease. Genetic counseling primarily
consists of confirmation of the particular disease and calculation
of the possible future reappearance in the same gene line (Brock
1974). The following discussion will summarize the identification of
mutations causing the various forms of NP, the distribution of NP, as
well as new genotypes and phenotypes that are correlated with NP.
Headings Mutations Causing NP
organize
Levran et al. (1991) inform readers of the frequent
project
identification of missense mutations in the gene associated with
Ashkenazi Jewish persons afflicted by Type A and Type B NP.
This paper identifies the mutations associated with NP and the
beginning of many molecular techniques to develop diagnoses.
Greer et al. (1998) identify a new mutation that is specifically
identified to be the cause of Type D. NP in various forms is
closely associated with the founder effect caused by a couple
married in the early 1700s in what is now Nova Scotia. Simonaro
et al. (2002) discusses the distribution of Type B NP as well as
new phenotypes and genotypes. All three of these papers identify
 Excerpts from student writing, CSE style

Niemann-Pick Disease 9

References |
Brock DJH. 1974. Prenatal diagnosis and genetic counseling. J Clin Alphabetical
Pathol Suppl. (R Coll Path.) 8:150-155. py pains
Greer WL, Ridell DC, Gillan TL, Girouard GS, Sparrow SM, Byers DM,
Dobson MJ, Neumann PE. 1998. The Nova Scotia (type D) form of
Niemann-Pick disease is caused by a G3097 —T transversion in
NPC1. Am J Hum Genet 63:52-54.
Levran 0, Desnick RJ, Schuchman EH. 1991. Niemann-Pick disease:
a frequent missense mutation in the acid sphingomyelinase gene
of Ashkenazi Jewish type A and B patients. P Natl Acad Sci USA
88:3748-3752.
Simonaro CM, Desnick RJ, McGovern MM, Wasserstein MP, Schuchman
EH. 2002. The demographics and distribution of type B Niemann-
Pick disease: novel mutations lead to new genotype/phenotype
correlations. Am J Hum Genet 71:1413-1419.
 Style: Effective
Language

Language and Identity 248

21. writing across Cultures, Communities,

and Identities 250

22 Language That Builds Common

Ground 254

§ Language Varieties 260

oa

24 Word Choice 268

| 20 Language and Identity >
Draw a circle in the middle of a piece of paper or screen and put
your name in it. Then add spokes pointing out from all around that
circle and take some time to list words that identify you: your rela-
tionship to family and others (sister, brother, mentor, friend); your
major interests (musician, sports fan, runner, reader, gamer); your
background (nationality, hometown, race, religion, sexual orienta-
tion); personal attributes you claim or that others use to label you
(good student, friendly, shy). Some of the words you’ve written are
bits of language that help you to construct your identity. Others
may be words that other people have used to identify you, words you
may or may not agree with or accept.
Identity is a familiar word, but it’s worth pausing to think a bit
about what it means. Most scholars would define identity as a web
of relationships built up through language—it’s how you understand
your relationship to the world around you and use that understand-
ing to imagine possibilities for your future. In more everyday terms,
identity is the way you think about yourself and the characteristics
that define you. And language is the tool you have for naming these
characteristics.
Parts of your identity are stable—your age, for example, or your
birthplace. But much of identity is constructed through social inter-
actions with other people and with institutions and is thus flexible,
subject to change and evolution. So identities can be multiple and
shifting. They can also be imposed on you by other people or institu-
tions that use language to label you in a way that is inappropriate,
unfair, or unacceptable to you. In these ways, language works to
construct who you are and who you can be.

20a _ Recognizing how the language of others

@=m—@ can shape identity

Look back at the circle and spokes you drew and the words you
attached to the spokes. Underline the ones that you think may be
labels others would put on you. If you’ve found any words like “gifted
athlete” or “bad at math” or “outsider” or “immigrant” or “top of the
class,” are these descriptors ones that you have chosen as part of your

248
 Using language to shape your own identity 249

identity? Research has shown that children who are put into groups
labeled according to ability levels tend to simply adapt to that label.
Mike Rose, now a professor at UCLA, has written about being placed
in a vocational (non-college-bound) track: “I lived down to expec-
tations.” In Rose’s case, he was eventually able to resist and reject
that label, with the help of a teacher. But until he did so, that label—
non-college-bound—was a part of his identity. In the same way, author
and linguist Geneva Smitherman recalls being put in “special educa-
tion” courses because of the way she spoke—using African American
English. She learned that if she just stayed silent, she advanced rapidly
in school. She learned to circumvent a broken system that labeled her
one way in order to assert her own sense of identity.
It’s worth taking time to ask how you use language (especially
labels) to “identify” other people, both those you know and those
you don’t know. While all people tend to categorize others as a way
to understand them (she’s a sorority girl; he’s a baller), those labels
may not be accurate or important to the other person’s own under-
standing of themselves—and may indeed be oversimplifications or
stereotypes. Open-minded, ethical college writers take care not to
impose identities on others, just as they resist letting others impose
identities on them.

20b Using language to shape your own identity

Rie
One of your main goals as a college writer is not only to be aware
of how the language of other people and groups can shape your
identity but to resist such efforts by making sure that you are the
person doing that shaping as much as possible. Professor Mike Rose
(see 20a) had a chance to reject the label of lower-track student,
but what’s even more important is that he seized the opportunity
to begin defining himself as a high-performing honors student who
would eventually earn a PhD. Poet and artist Gloria Anzaldua often
asked her students “who is the you you want to be in ten years?” In
her own case, Anzaldua remembers being discouraged from writing
and reading—and being criticized and even punished for her unique
writing style. But these criticisms did not stop her from thinking
of herself as a writer and pursuing her own idea of just what that
meant. She literally wrote herself into being the writer and person
she envisioned. Her message to students: you can do the same thing!
 Writing across Cultures, Communities, and Identities

In addition, college writers need to think about whose voices are

heard and whose may be ignored in certain situations. Smitherman
(see 20a) was disrespected for the way she spoke and wrote, but once
she learned and used the “power language” of standardized English,
she used her linguistic expertise to gain respect and then challenge
that “power language.” She mixes dialects in different ways, and this
style and voice is part of her identity. As another example, a student
speaking or writing from the identity of a beginner or novice may not
get the respect that one writing from an identity of expertise does.
A student writing about mental health issues among college stu-
dents, for example, might draw on her experience and expertise as
an activist for mental health resources on campus, or as a double
major in biology and psychology, or as a suicide attempt survivor.
Or perhaps all of these aspects of her identity may help to establish
her ethos, or her credibility (see also 9e). As a college writer, aim to
be confident in your own identity, to communicate from an identity
of your own choosing, and to imagine and pursue other identities
you want to embrace.

Take a few minutes to jot down notes in response to these

EXERCISE 20.1 questions: How do | shape my own identity through lan-
guage? How do other people and groups or institutions shape my identity
through language? How do | use language that may be shaping the identities
of others? Then write a paragraph describing how you would like to make
changes to these identities or this use of language.

21 Writing across Cultures,

Communities, and Identities
People today often communicate instantaneously across vast dis-
tances and cultures and across a wide range of professional and
personal identities. Businesspeople complete multinational trans-
actions, students take online classes at distant universities, and
conversations circle the globe via social media. No surprise, then,
that during the COVID-19 pandemic, U.S. governmental and
health organizations found themselves striving to provide useful
 Clarifying meaning 251

information to people from a range of cultures and language back-

grounds, and to provide it in ways that could be understood across
all those differences.
You will surely find yourself writing to (or with) people from
other communities, cultures, language groups, and countries. In
this era of rapid global communication, you must know how to
write effectively across these cultures and communities. As always,
remember that people from any community or culture have com-
plex, intersecting identities informed by many factors, including
class, ethnicity, race, religion, sexual orientation, gender, physical
ability, age, and others. As a writer, your goals are to think very
carefully about those you are addressing, to understand as much
as possible about where they are coming from, and to acknowledge
and respect the range of differences you will encounter.

21a Thinking about what seems “normal”

equa
More than likely, your judgments about what is “normal” are based
on assumptions that you are not aware of. Most of us tend to see our
own way as the “normal” or right way to do things. If your ways seem
inherently right, then perhaps you assume that other ways are some-
how less than right. To communicate effectively with people across
cultures and communities, recognize the norms that guide your own
behavior and how those norms differ from those of other people.

* Know that most ways of communicating are influenced by cultural

contexts and differ from one culture or community to the next as
well as within cultures.
* Observe the ways that people from cultures or communities other
than your own communicate, and be flexible and respectful.
¢ Respect the differences among individuals within a culture or
community. Don’t assume that all members of a community
behave in the same way or value the same things.

21b clarifying meaning

ae
All writers face challenges in trying to communicate across space,
languages, and cultures. You can address these challenges by work-
ing to be sure that you understand what others say—and that they
 Writing across Cultures, Communities, and Identities

understand you. In such situations, take care to be explicit about

the meanings of the words you use. In addition, don’t hesitate
to ask people to explain a point if you’re not absolutely sure you
understand, and invite responses by asking whether you’re making
yourself clear or what you could do to be more clear.

21c Meeting audience expectations

Same
When you do your best to meet an audience’s expectations about
how a text should work, your writing is more likely to have the
desired effect. In practice, figuring out what audiences want, need,
or expect can be difficult—especially when you are writing in public
spaces online and your audience can be composed of anyone, any-
where. If you know little about your potential audience, carefully
examine your assumptions about your readers.

Expectations about your authority as a writer Writers com-

municating across cultures often encounter audiences who have dif-
fering attitudes about authority and about the relationship between
the writer and the people being addressed. In the United States,
students are frequently asked to establish authority in their writing—
by drawing on personal experience, by reporting on research, or by
taking a position for which they can offer strong evidence and sup-
port. But some cultures position student writers as novices, whose
job is to learn from others who have greater authority. When you
write, think carefully about your audience’s expectations and atti-
tudes toward authority.

What is your relationship to those you are addressing?

What knowledge are you expected to have? Is it appropriate for you
to demonstrate that knowledge—and if so, how?
What is your goal—to answer a question? to make a point? to agree?
something else?
What tone is appropriate? If in doubt, show respect: politeness is
rarely if ever inappropriate.

Expectations about persuasive evidence You should think care-

fully about how to use evidence in writing, and pay attention to what
counts as evidence to members of groups you are trying to persuade.
 Meeting audience expectations 253

Are facts, concrete examples, or statistical data most convincing to

the intended audience? Does the testimony of experts count heavily
as evidence? What people are considered trustworthy experts, and
why? Do firsthand personal experiences or narratives offer particu-
larly persuasive evidence? Will the audience value citations from reli-
gious or philosophical texts, proverbs, or everyday wisdom? Are there
other sources that would be considered strong evidence? If analogies
are used as support, which kinds are most powerful?
Once you determine what counts as evidence in your own think-
ing and writing, consider where you learned to use and value this
kind of evidence. You can ask these same questions about how
members of other cultures use evidence.

Expectations about organization The organizational patterns

that you find pleasing are likely to be deeply embedded in your own
culture. Many U.S. readers expect a well-organized piece of writing
to use the following structure: introduction and thesis, necessary
background, overview of the parts, systematic presentation of evi-
dence, consideration of other viewpoints, and conclusion.
However, in cultures that value indirection, subtlety, or repeti-
tion, writers tend to prefer different organizational patterns. When
writing for global audiences, think about how you can organize
material to get your message across effectively. Consider where to
state your thesis or main point (at the beginning, at the end, some-
where else, or not at all) and whether to use a straightforward orga-
nization or to employ digressions or repetitions to good effect.

Expectations about style Effective style varies broadly across

communities and cultures and depends on the rhetorical situ-
ation—your purpose, audience, and so on. Even so, there is one
important style question to consider when writing across cultures:
what level of formality is most appropriate? In most writing to a
general audience in the United States, a fairly informal style is often
acceptable, even appreciated. Many cultures, however, tend to value
a more formal approach. When in doubt, err on the side of formal-
ity in writing to people from other cultures, especially to your elders
or to those in authority. Use appropriate titles (Dr. Moss, Professor
Mejia); avoid slang or jargon that may be unfamiliar to those in
your audience; use complete words and sentences (even in email);
and use first names only if invited to do so.
254 Language That Builds Common Ground

22 Language That Builds

Common Ground
The supervisor who refers to staff as “team members” (rather than
as “my staff” or as “subordinates”) has chosen language intended to
establish common ground with co-workers. Your own language can
work to build common ground if you carefully consider the feelings
and preferences of others and if you watch for words that betray your
assumptions, even though you have not directly stated them.

22a Examining assumptions and avoiding

== stereotypes

Unstated assumptions that enter into thinking and writing can

destroy common ground by ignoring important differences. For
example, a student in a religion seminar who uses we to refer to
Christians and they to refer to members of other religions had better
be sure that everyone in the class identifies as Christian, or some
may rightly feel left out of the discussion.
At the same time, don’t overgeneralize about or stereotype a
group of people. Because stereotypes are often based on half-truths,
misunderstandings, and hand-me-down prejudices, they can lead to
intolerance, bias, and bigotry.
Remember that members of your audiences will almost certainly
come from many different regions of the United States or from other
countries as well as from a wide range of socioeconomic backgrounds,
and that they will practice a number of different religions. It’s also
important to recognize and respect the range of sexualities and gen-
der identities those in your audience may inhabit, including lesbian,
gay, bisexual, heterosexual, non-binary, transgender, and cisgender.
As a writer who seeks to build common ground, you will want to
avoid stereotypes about any of these groups. In addition, remember to
use labels or references to race, religion, sexual orientation, and so on
only if they are relevant or necessary to your discussion.

Each of the following sentences stereotypes a person or a

group of people. Underline the word or phrase that identifies
 Examining assumptions about gender 255

the stereotyped person or group, and explain why the stereotype may be
offensive, demeaning, or unfair. Example:

If you have trouble printing, ask a computer geek for help.

Assumes that all computer-savwvy people are geeky, which is not the case.

For a blue-collar worker, he was extremely well-read.

All women just adore those flowery romance novels!
Did you see a chiropractor or a real doctor for your back problem?
Ge Everyone in the South prefers the Confederate flag to that of the United
Ge
E>
States.
5. The professor is intelligent, although he speaks English with an accent.

22b Examining assumptions about gender

as

Powerful gender-related words can subtly affect our thinking and

our behavior. For instance, at one time, speakers commonly referred
to hypothetical doctors or engineers as he (and then labeled a
woman who worked as a doctor a woman doctor, as if to say, “She’s
an exception; doctors are normally men”). Similarly, a label like
male nurse reflects stereotyped assumptions about proper roles for
men. Equally problematic is the traditional use of man and man-
kind to refer to all human beings and the use of he and him to refer
generally to any human being. In fact, the binary he/she distinction
ignores the wide range of gender identities available. Because this
binary ignores certain people—those who use the pronoun they, for
example—it hardly helps a writer build common ground.

Eliminating sexist nouns and pronouns Sexist language, which

unnecessarily calls attention to gender, can usually be revised fairly
easily by using plural nouns and pronouns or eliminating the need
for a pronoun:
Lawyers they
> A-lawyer must pass the bar exam before ke can practice.
“a Aa

racticing.
> A lawyer must pass the bar exam before leeanarecice:
“A

Eliminate common sexist nouns from your writing as well.

 Language That Builds Common Ground

INSTEAD OF TRY USING

anchorman, anchorwoman anchor

businessman businessperson, business
executive
congressman member of Congress,
representative
fireman firefighter
male nurse nurse
man, mankind person, the people, humanity,
the human race
policeman, policewoman police officer
woman engineer engineer

Considering pronoun choices Take special care with personal

pronouns, since the use of she and he leaves out many people who
do not identify with either of those terms, including some people
with non-binary or gender-nonconforming identities. For this rea-
son, many now use singular they/them/theirs, as in “Fallon asked
to borrow my book, so I gave it to them.” (See 36b.) Others use
alternative gender-neutral pronouns such as ve/ver/vis, ze/hir/hirs,
or ze/zir/zirs, as in “Ze called me, so I called zir back.” Still others
are just fine with he or she.
Today, linguists seem to agree that singular they has won out
over alternatives and writers are increasingly embracing this usage.
You may have noticed that it’s become standard to declare your
pronouns on personal and professional email, on personal websites,
and on other forms of communication. For example, here’s the sig-
nature line from an email message:

Taylor Johanneson
Director of the Initiative for Social Justice
Pronouns: they, their, theirs
[email protected] ||
Perhaps you have been asked to declare your pronouns in an aca-
demic or professional scenario.
Using they/their instead of he/she may take some getting used
to, but then we have assimilated many changes to our language;
 Examining assumptions about race and ethnicity 257

what once seemed awkward now seems absolutely normal. And, of

course, there are other ways of avoiding he/she usage.
* Just cut out the pronoun: instead of “Before anyone can safely
board an airplane, he or she must fill out a COVID-19 question-
naire,” why not say “Before safely boarding an airplane, a passenger
must fill out a COVID-19 questionnaire.”
Drop the third-person singular pronoun: instead of “Before every
passenger exits the airplane, he or she must fill out a form provid-
ing contact information,” why not say “Before passengers exit the
airplane, they must fill out a form providing contact information.”

Choosing gender-neutral, nonsexist language is one very important

way to try to include—and to respect—all members of your potential
audience.

Take a look at the following advertisement for a social

EXERCISE 22.2
media internship, noting any language in the ad that might
today be considered sexist or noninclusive. Revise the passage, substituting
nonsexist and/or inclusive language as necessary.

Social Media Intern

Join our team of men and women who love music and love promoting
entertainment events. Come help us boost brand engagement and create
buzz! This is a remote position, so the ideal candidate will work with our dig-
ital marketing team but set his or her own schedule. The social media intern
will contribute his or her ideas daily for blog posts, tweets, videos, and press
releases and can expect to research audience needs and competing content.
The ideal candidate will demonstrate his or her analytical skills by tracking
customer engagement and suggesting follow-up campaigns. He or she will
also have the opportunity to attend live and online concert events. Come
work with our 9-man marketing team—a friendly, open-minded group!

22¢€ Examining assumptions about race

@==e and ethnicity
Generalizations about racial and ethnic groups can result in espe-
cially harmful stereotyping. To build common ground, then, avoid
258 Language That Builds Common Ground

language that ignores differences not only among individual

members of a race or ethnic group but also among subgroups. Be
aware, for instance, of the diverse places from which Americans of
Spanish-speaking ancestry have come.
When writing about an ethnic or racial group, how can you refer
to that group in terms that its members actually desire? Doing so
is sometimes not an easy task, for terms can change often and vary
widely.
The word colored, for example, was once widely used in the United
States to refer to Americans of African ancestry. By the 1950s, the
preferred term had become Negro. This changed in the 1960s, how-
ever, as Black came to be preferred by most, though certainly not all,
members of the community. Since the late 1980s, both Black and
African American have been widely used.
Once widely used, the term American Indian has been challenged
as inaccurate. According to author Benny Wayne Sully, a Sicangu
Lakota Native, it’s best to refer to Indigenous Peoples, First Nations,
or Native Americans—or, if possible, to use the specific name of the
nation or pueblo, such as Chippewa or Zuni, or the specific clan,
such as the Navajo Towering House Clan. Many people once referred
to as Eskimo are more appropriately referred to as Inuit or a more
specific term such as Tsimshian, Yupik, Haida, or Tlingit.
Latino and Latina (or the gender-neutral Latinx) are geographic
references; these words describe people who trace their ancestry
to any country in Latin America—Mexico, Central America, South
America, or the Caribbean. Hispanic, on the other hand, describes
people who trace their ancestry to a Spanish-speaking county. For
example, Native Brazilians, who speak Portuguese as their first lan-
guage, are Latinx but not Hispanic.
You may have seen or heard the word Caucasian used to refer
to white people. The term is both outdated as well as geographi-
cally inaccurate (white people aren’t all descendants of people
from the Caucasus region that lies between Europe and Asia).
For decades, the U.S. census listed the single term white as a
racial category to be selected. But for the 2020 census, the term
is first defined as “all individuals who identify with one or more
nationalities or ethnic groups originating in Europe, the Middle
East, or North Africa. Examples of these groups include, but are
not limited to, German, Irish, English, Italian, Lebanese, Egyp-
tian, Polish, French, Iranian, Slavic, Cajun, and Chaldean.” The
 Considering abilities and disabilities 259

census form then provides boxes for those filling out the census
to be specific about their ethnic background. In the United States,
white people seem increasingly inclined to identify with a more
specific ethnic group.
Ethnic terminology changes often enough to challenge the most
careful writers—including writers who belong to the groups they are
writing about. Consider your words carefully and seek information
about ways members of groups refer to themselves, but don’t expect
one person to speak for all members of a group or expect unanimity
on such terms.

22d Considering abilities and disabilities

Gamay

According to the most recent U.S. census, one in five Americans is

a person with a disability of some kind; millions more will have a
disability sometime in their lives. Think of everyone you know who
wears glasses, hearing aids, or other prosthetic devices, of those who
have limited mobility, vision, or hearing (or none), of those who are
color-blind, of those who have cognitive processing differences. In
fact, you yourself may be a person with a disability. It’s a mistake,
then, to ignore such differences, since doing so makes it more diffi-
cult to reach all audience members and build common ground with
them. A few tips may be helpful here:

¢ When you are using color, remember that everyone won’t see it as
you may. When putting colors next to one another, then, use those
on opposite sides of the color spectrum, such as purple and gold, in
order to achieve the highest contrast.
Make sure all your readers can access the content in a digital text—
by providing alternative text (called “alt text”) for all visuals so
they will make sense when read by a screen reader and by providing
captions for sound files and longer audio content.
Check the website for the Americans with Disabilities Act for guide-
lines on designing accessible web texts (www.ada.gov).
In peer groups or in class, think about whether members would
rather receive documents in very large type or as audio files. Try to
accommodate the needs of all peers.
260 Language Varieties

¢ In presentations, make sure to face any audience members who are

lip reading, or check to see if a sign language interpreter may be
needed.

If you have trouble processing letters and sounds in sequence, try

“talking pens” that can scan words and read them aloud, or voice-
recognition programs that can transcribe dictated text. If you have
difficulty taking notes on a computer or in a notebook, try dictat-
ing them into a word processor with voice-recognition capability.
Or check out other assistive technologies such as reading and writ-
ing software that offers help with everything from audio and visual
options to mechanics, punctuation, and formatting.

Review the following sentences for offensive or inappropri-

EXERCISE 22.3.
ate references or terms. If a sentence contains unacceptable
terms, rewrite it. Example:

Passengers
Elderly-passengers on the cruise ship Romance Afloat will enjoy
“A
swimming, shuffleboard, and nightly movies.

1. The doctor and the male nurse had different bedside manners when
tending to the patients in their care.
Barack Obama was the first colored president of the United States.
The Oriental girl who works at the bank is always pleasant and efficient.
My family recently moved into an area full of rednecks.
eSOur skylight was installed last week by a woman carpenter.
Sa
Sh

a 23 Language Varieties >

When Pulitzer Prize-winning author Junot Diaz spoke to a group of
college students in California, he used colloquial English and Spanish—
plus more than a little profanity—and the students loved every minute
of it, cheering throughout the talk. Later, when he was interviewed
on National Public Radio, however, Diaz addressed his nationwide,
maybe even worldwide, audience using more formal—though also less
 Practicing language awareness

colorful—English. As a college student, you will often need to think

about how to make language choices that will fit the occasion and
audience you are addressing while also reflecting your unique identity
as a language user with access to a large and rich language repertoire.

23a Practicing language awareness

ene
Recognizing the crucial role language plays in shaping identity has
led some writers to conclude that “I am my language.” Author and
artist Gloria Anzaldua certainly makes that case when she says
that she wants all of her languages to be recognized and respected
as part of her identity: the standardized English and Spanish she
has learned, working class/slang English, the northern Mexican
Spanish dialect, and Tex-Mex, the regional Spanish of Texas and
New Mexico. Anzaldta’s recognition of the inextricable relationship
between language and identity is echoed by Nobel Prize-winning
novelist Toni Morrison:

The language, only the language . . . is the thing that Black people
love so much. . . . It’s a love, a passion, its function is like a preach-
er’s to make you stand up out of your seat, make you lose your-
self and hear yourself. The worst of all possible things that could
happen would be to lose that language. There are certain things |
cannot say without recourse to my language.
—Toni Morrison

Think for a moment about the languages and varieties of lan-

guages or dialects that are part of your background and who you are.
Today 25 percent of people in the United States speak a language
other than English at home. But even if you think of yourself as
speaking only English, you probably know and use a number of dia-
lects. If you come from Boston or Birmingham, from Minnesota or
the mountains of Eastern Tennessee, or from another region of the
country, you probably speak the regional dialect common to that
area. In addition, you may be learning a professional dialect (like
the specialized language of computer programmers) or using one
associated with groups you belong to (surfers or political activists).
The dialects and languages you have at your disposal are what allow
you to communicate effectively and powerfully with a wide range
of audiences.
 Respecting Black Language
The Africans who were brought to America in chains by white
captors some 400 years ago spoke many languages. Expected by
slaveholders to communicate in English, they used their ingenuity
to develop a creole, or mix of different languages, that eventu-
ally became what we now know as African American or Black
language, along the way enriching English with many words
of African origin, including foods (banana, okra, yam), musi-
cal instruments (banjo, marimba), animals (zebra, mamba), and
musical terms (jazz, juke, jive). In spite of widespread anti-literacy
laws, many enslaved people persevered in learning to read and
write—and then taught others to do so. As they learned, they
developed the rich rhythms and rhetorical practices rooted in the
African verbal tradition associated with the expressive power of
Black language today, language that is used—and celebrated—
locally and globally through the spread of African American
culture. Remember, though, that Black language is by no means
uniform or static but rather broadly and deeply diverse.
iw G sti i ft

This broad and inclusive view respects the validity and power of
all languages and dialects available to writers and speakers today. It
also recognizes that languages are never fixed but rather flexible and
changing across time and place and genre.

23b What is standardized English?

aD
One variety of English, often referred to as “standard” or “standard-
ized,” has been taught prescriptively in schools and used in much of
the national media, as well as in business and government, by those
having social, cultural, and economic power. The story of how this dia-
lect came to such power—came to be “standard”—is long and complex,
but there’s no doubt that it has worked to privilege some and to erase,
oppress, and silence others. If you’ve been made fun of for “talking
country,” been refused housing on the basis of how you spoke, or been
punished in school for the language you use, you have experienced
the linguistic discrimination—sometimes referred to as linguicism—that
has characterized much of this country’s history. (For a provocative
 What is standardized English? 263

analysis of linguicism, check out scholar and spoken word artist Jamila
Lyiscott’s TED talk, “Three Ways to Speak English.”)
Understanding discrimination based on race and class is one
important step in practicing language awareness and in recognizing
that no one language or dialect is inherently superior to another.
Rather, the hierarchy that places one above another is socially con-
structed as part of a power structure that ripples throughout our
society. In fact, standardized English is only one of many varieties
of English, and even it varies widely according to purpose and audi-
ence. And while standardized English is still widely taught and used
in schools, writers and speakers are changing it, making it more
conversational and more informal—and bringing in other dialects
and other languages to challenge its dominant role.
All languages and all varieties or dialects of English are legiti-
mate forms we should recognize and value: if “variety is the spice
of life,” then language variety in the United States makes us a
particularly flavorful culture. Research shows that the ability to
communicate in multiple languages and varieties of English is a
valuable asset to writers, an ability that you can certainly use to
your advantage, both in academic and nonacademic writing. In
fact, many writers and speakers of English move seamlessly among
languages and varieties of English, creating unique special effects
and helping to connect to their audiences. Here are just a few
of the ways writers today are pushing beyond the boundaries of
standardized English to use other languages and dialects to com-
municate powerfully and effectively.

Evoking a place or community Weaving together regional

varieties and standardized English can be very effective in creating
a sense of place in your writing. Here, an anthropologist writing
about one Carolina community takes care to let the residents speak
their minds—and in their own words:
For Roadville, schooling is something most folks have not gotten
enough of, but everybody believes will do something toward helping
an individual “get on.” In the words of one oldtime resident, “Folks
that ain’t got no schooling don’t get to be nobody nowadays.”
—Shirley Brice Heath, Ways with Words

Varieties of language, including slang and colloquial expressions,

can also help writers evoke other kinds of communities. (See also 24a.)
264 Language Varieties

Connecting with a community Whether you are indigenous or

trace your ancestry to Europe, Asia, Latin America, Africa, or elsewhere,
your heritage lives on in the rich diversity of the English language. See
how one writer uses Hawaiian Pidgin, now an official language of
Hawaii, to paint a picture of young teens hearing a “chicken skin”
story from their grandmother.
“—So, rather dan being rid of da shark, da people were stuck
with many little ones, for dere mistake.”
Then Grandma Wong wen’ pause, for dramatic effect, I guess, and
she wen’ add, “Dis is one of dose times. ... Da time of da sharks.”
Those words ended another of Grandma’s chicken skin
stories. The stories she told us had been passed on to her by her
grandmother, who had heard them from her grandmother. Always
skipping a generation.
—Rodney Morales, When the Shark Bites

Notice how the narrator of the story presents information neces-

sary to the story line mostly in standardized English, though with a
decided Hawaiian Pidgin rhythm, and Hawaiian Pidgin to represent
spoken language. This use demonstrates that the writer is a mem-
ber of the community whose language he is representing and thus
builds credibility with others in the community. Writers must take
care, however, in using the language of communities other than their
own. When used inappropriately, such language can have an opposite
effect, perhaps destroying credibility and alienating your audience.

illustrating a point See how distinguished linguist Geneva Smith-

erman mixes varieties of English as she discusses the ability of Black
language not only to survive but to thrive:
Black or African American Language (BL or AAL) is a style of speaking
English words with Black flava—with Africanized semantic,
grammatical, pronunciation, and rhetorical patterns. . . . Despite
elitist language pronouncements, despite language eradication
efforts in the schools, despite White America’s ambivalence toward
the language, “speaking Black” has persisted over generations and
decades. The language is bound up with and symbolic of identity,
camaraderie, culture, and home. And it ain gon nowhere.
—Geneva Smitherman, Word from the Mother:
Language and African Americans
 Bringing in other languages 265

Here, Smitherman underscores the point she is making by using BL pro-

nunciation (“flava”) to punctuate a sentence that is otherwise written
in standardized English. And she ends the passage with a short, power-
ful BL sentence that embodies and illustrates her larger point.
These examples—and so many others like them—demonstrate
a point made by historian of African American women’s literacies
Jacqueline Jones Royster following her delivery of a keynote address. A
member of the audience approached Royster after her speech, which
was entitled “When the First Voice You Hear Is Not Your Own,” to say
she was “so glad” to hear Royster speaking in her “authentic voice.”
Royster’s response: “I have many voices, and they are all authentic.”
In fact, we all have many voices, many languages and language variet-
ies that constitute our full repertoire, and they too are all authentic.

23C Bringing in other languages

Cars

You might use a language other than English for the same reasons
you might use different dialects of English: to represent the actual
words of a speaker, to make a point, to connect with your audience,
or to get their attention. See how Gerald Haslam uses Spanish to
capture his great-grandmother’s words and to make a point about
his relationship to her.

“Expectoran su sangre!” exclaimed Great-grandma when I showed

her the small horned toad I had removed from my breast pocket. I
turned toward my mother, who translated: “They spit blood.”
“De los ojos,” Grandma added. “From their eyes,” mother
explained, herself uncomfortable in the presence of the small beast.
—Gerald Haslam, California Childhood

And here, a student writer uses her native Spanish as she writes a
literacy narrative about her experience growing up in Puerto Rico
and learning English.
“Todo se ve bien . . .” my father would start and look at me with his right
eyebrow raised. The same gesture I forced myself to learn, staring at a
mirror for a month, just so I could prove to him that it didn’t intimidate
me. “Qué pasd con Inglés?” I would simply look away and shrug my
shoulders, desperately avoiding the gaze of disappointment that his eyes
would try to burn on me. After all, I was his first born, and there were a lot
266 23C Language Varieties

of expectations to meet. “;Voy a ver un cambio para el proximo semestre,

verdad?” And without glancing back at him, I would answer a soft, “Si.”
In elementary school, I got A’s and B’s in every course except one:
English. Young and naive, born and raised on a Spanish-speaking island,
I never understood why I needed another language.
—Paola Garcia-Munhiz

Note that Garcia-Muniz includes Spanish in her narrative without

translating it. In this case, the student deliberately chose to include
the phrases in Spanish because she wanted to represent her two
worlds (two languages) in the essay so that “the audience would
better understand what I was talking about: it wasn’t about making
it simpler or harder for readers to read, but allowing them to visual-
ize the story exactly as it happened.”
Another student describes how he combines multiple languages
as part of his learning process. Taking notes in multiple languages,
he says, “helps [him] save time.”
I think that note-taking activities play a significant role in the retention
of ideas. Using multiple languages such as Hindi, Sanskrit, and English
increases the speed of this activity and helps me retain knowledge of

Recognizing Global Varieties of English

Like other world languages, English is used in many countries, so
it has many global varieties. For example, British English differs
somewhat from U.S. English in certain vocabulary (bonnet for
hood of a car), syntax (to hospital rather than to the hospital),
spelling (centre rather than center), and pronunciation. In your
travels, you may have encountered Canadian English, Australian
English, or New Zealand English. Or in Singapore, where English
introduced by colonizers was later chosen to serve as a “bridge”
among many ethnic groups, Singaporean Colloquial English
developed—and became so popular that the government
mounted the Speak Good English Movement, an attempt to man-
date Standard Singapore English in all schools. The more you visit
other countries and cultures, the more global varieties of English
you will find.
 Bringing in other languages

these languages for a long time. I mainly use Hindi to present my ideas
briefly and Sanskrit to describe the actions of the subject. I use multiple
languages because it helps me save time during note-taking, as well as
retain knowledge about Hindi and Sanskrit languages.

SHRAVAN
OF
COURTESY
YANDRA

Fig. 1. Photo of my notes. By the author, 7 Sept. 2015.

— Shravan Yandra

Like these students, you may want to bring other languages

into your writing to help you communicate more efficiently and
effectively with your audiences.

| Spend a few minutes thinking about the following ques-

_ tions, adapted from materials available through Teaching
ren Tolerance, and then jot down answers to them:

What does a really smart, brainy person sound like?

What does a really not-smart person sound like?
What does a really bad person sound like?
What does a hero sound like?
What do authority figures sound like?
What does someone you admire the most sound like?
Bring your notes to class for discussion. What do your answers suggest about
what kind of language or varieties of language you value most, respect most?
Where do these ideas come from? In what ways, if any, do your answers rep-
resent linguistic discrimination, or linguicism?
268 Word Choice

Working with a partner, brainstorm what you know about

EXERCISE 23.2
the way languages change and what causes those changes.
Then do some online investigating. What can you find out about how the Eng-
lish language has changed in the last several hundred years? Take notes on
what you find—and on what you may know from your own experience. What
strikes you as surprising in what you have learned? What patterns do you see
in the changes? What are the most recent changes you can find out about, and
how do you see yourself and your own experiences in these changes? (This exer-
cise is shared courtesy of Kristin vanEyk at the University of Michigan.)

| 24 Word Choice >

Deciding which word is the right word can be a challenge. It’s not
unusual to find many words that have similar but subtly different
meanings, and each makes a different impression on your audience.
For instance, the “pasta with marinara sauce” presented in a restau-
rant may look and taste much like the “macaroni and gravy” served
at an Italian family dinner, but the choice of one label rather than
the other tells us not only about the food but also about the people
serving it and the people to whom they expect to serve it.

24a Using levels of formality

a
In an email or letter to a friend or close associate, informal everyday
language is often a good choice. For a lot of academic and profes-
sional writing, however, which addresses people you may not know
well, you may want to choose the more formal conventions of stan-
dardized English.

EMAIL TO SOMEONE YOU KNOW WELL

> Myisha is great, super energetic—hire her if you can!

LETTER OF RECOMMENDATION TO SOMEONE YOU DO NOT KNOW

> Iam pleased to recommend Myisha Fisher. She will bring good
ideas and extraordinary energy to your organization.
 Using levels of formality 269

Slang and colloquial language Slang, context-specific language

used more often in speech than in writing, is often confined to a
relatively small group and changes very quickly, though some slang
gains wide use (ripoff, zine). Colloquial language, such as a lot, in a
bind, or snooze, is less informal, more widely used, and longer lasting
than most slang. Vernacular refers to everyday speech or dialect and
may include colloquialisms and slang.
Slang and colloquial language are important parts of any lan-
guage, but they can risk not being understood by those who don’t
know the slang terms. If you are writing for a general audience
about how digital currency is challenging traditional money and
you use a term like bread or benjamins, some readers may not know
what you mean, and others may be irritated by what they see as a
frivolous reference to a serious subject.

Revise each of the following sentences to use appropriate

EXERCISE
ERPRCISE 2
24.1 :
formality consistently. Example:

Although feel excited as soon as

I can get-all-enthused about writing, but I sit down to write my
“ “ blank. és
mind goes right+te-sleep-:
“aA

1. At the conclusion of Jane Austen’s classic novel Pride and Prejudice, the
two eldest Bennet sisters both get hitched.
2. I agree with many of his environmental policies, but that proposal is
totally nuts.
3. The celebrated Shakespearean actor gave the performance of a lifetime,
despite the lame supporting cast.
4. Moby Dick’s humongous size was matched only by Ahab’s obsessive
desire to wipe him out.
5. The refugees had suffered great hardships, but now they were able to see
the light at the end of the tunnel.

Jargon Jargon is the special vocabulary of a particular trade or pro-

fession, enabling members to speak and write concisely to one another.
Reserve jargon for an audience that will understand your terms. The
example that follows, from a web page about digital cameras, uses jar-
gon appropriately for an interested and knowledgeable audience.

Image quality for mirrorless models is similar to that of a dSLR with

an equivalent lens. Performance of midrange models has gotten
270 Word Choice

competitive with sophisticated autofocus and fast continuous-

shooting speeds. —CNET, Camera Buying Guide

Jargon can be irritating and incomprehensible—or extremely

helpful. Before you use technical jargon, remember your readers:
if they will not understand the terms, or if you don’t know your
readers well enough to judge, then say whatever you need to say in
everyday language.

Pompous language, euphemisms, and doublespeak Stuffy or

pompous language is unnecessarily formal for the purpose, audi-
ence, or topic. It often gives writing an insincere or unintentionally
humorous tone, making a writer’s ideas seem insignificant or even
unbelievable.

POMPOUS

> Pursuant to the August 9 memorandum regarding the company

carbon-footprint-reduction initiative, it is incumbent upon us to
endeavor to make maximal utilization of telephonic and digital
communication in lieu of personal visitation.

REVISED

> According to the August 9 memo, the company wants us

to reduce our use of oil and gas, so we should call or email
whenever possible rather than make personal visits.

Euphemisms are words and phrases that make unpleasant ideas

seem less harsh. Your position is being eliminated seeks to soften the
blow of being fired or laid off. Although euphemisms can sometimes
 Considering denotation and connotation

appeal to an audience by showing that you are considerate of peo-

ple’s feelings, they can also sound insincere or evasive.
Doublespeak is language used to hide or distort the truth. Dur-
ing massive layoffs in the business world, companies may describe
a job-cutting policy as employee repositioning, deverticalization, or
rightsizing. The public—and particularly those who lose their jobs—
recognize such terms as doublespeak.

For each of the scenarios that follow, note who the audience
EXERCISE 24.2
would be for the piece of writing. Then indicate the level of
formality—formal or informal—that would be appropriate. Be prepared to
explain your answer. Example:

An online forum for people who are interested in Harley-Davidson

motorcycles
Audience is others who share your passion; informal

A text to a childhood friend across the country

2. An email requesting an interview in response to an online job posting
3. A brochure explaining the recycling policies of your community to local
residents
4. A letter to the editor of the Washington Post explaining that a recent
editorial failed to consider all the facts about health insurance
5. Acover letter asking a professor to accept the late paper you are sending
after the end of the semester

24b Considering denotation and connotation

se
The words enthusiasm, passion, and obsession all carry roughly the
same denotation, or dictionary meaning. But the connotations, or
associations, are quite different: an enthusiasm is a pleasurable and
absorbing interest; a passion has a strong emotional component
and may affect someone positively or negatively; an obsession is an
unhealthy attachment that excludes other interests.
Note the differences in connotation among the following three
statements:
> Students Against Racism (SAR) erected a temporary barrier on
the campus oval, saying the structure symbolized “the many
barriers to those discriminated against by university policies.”
272 Word Choice

> Left-wing agitators threw up an eyesore right on the oval to try

to stampede the university into giving in to their demands.
> Supporters of human rights for all students challenged the
university’s investment in racism by erecting a protest barrier on
campus.

The first statement is the most neutral, merely stating facts (and quot-
ing the assertion about university policy to represent it as someone’s
opinion); the second, by using words with negative connotations
(agitators, eyesore, stampede), is strongly critical; the third, by using
words with positive connotations (supporters of human rights) and
presenting opinions as facts gives a favorable slant to the protest.

Read each of the following sentences, looking for mistakes

EXERCISE 24.3
in denotation and using your dictionary as needed. Cross
out every error that you find. Then examine each error to determine the word
intended, and write in the correct word. Example:

Some schools are questioning whether selling bottled water on

decision
campus is the right iweisien for the environment.
“a

1. Even if students are customary to recycling on campus, many bottles

end up in the trash, adding to landfill waste.
2. Some students abdicate the use of refillable plastic bottles, which they
can fill up at home or at water stations on campus.
3. Other students think drinking fountains should suffice to keep the
school population hydrogenated.
4. Some students favor the sale of bottled water on campus, and they think it is
unfair to sell other items in vending machines while bottled water is exuded.
5. These students ascertain that they should be allowed to purchase water
just as they can purchase soda or candy bars.

The sentences in this exercise contain words with strongly

~ judgmental connotative meanings. Underline these words;
‘ren revise each sentence to make it more neutral. Example:

The current NRA scheme is appealing to patriotism as a

smokescreen to obscure the real issue of gun control.
The current NRA campaign is appealing to patriotism rather than
responding directly to gun-control proposals.
 Using general and specific language effectively 273

1. The Democrats are conspiring on a new education bill.

2. CEOs always waltz away with millions in salary, stock options, and pen-
sions while the little people who keep the company running get peanuts.
3. The United States is turning into a nation of fatsos.
4. Tree-huggers ranted about the Explorer’s gas mileage outside the Ford
dealership.
5. Naive voters often stumble to the polls and blindly pick whatever
names they see first.

24C Using general and specific language

e==e effectively

Effective writers balance general words (those that name groups or

classes) with specific words (those that identify individual and partic-
ular things). Abstractions, which are types of general words, refer to
things we cannot perceive through our five senses. Specific words are
often concrete, naming things we can see, hear, touch, taste, or smell.
If your aim is to bring a scene to life in your reader’s mind, using
specific, concrete words along with action verbs will help you do so.

GENERAL LESS GENERAL SPECIFIC MORE SPECIFIC

website dating website LGBTQdating BiCupid

website
ABSTRACT LESS ABSTRACT CONCRETE MORE CONCRETE

culture visual art painting Lawrence’s The

Migration Series

Rewrite each of the following sentences to be more specific

and more concrete. Example:

The truck entered the roadway.

The red Ford F150 entered Interstate 95.

That book was interesting.

They couldn’t decide what to eat.
I pulled over and waited for the tow truck.
The castle is very old.
a Jorge sat at the bus stop.
hes
lee
SOS
 Word Choice

24d Using figurative language effectively

EES.
Figurative language, or figures of speech, paints pictures in read-
ers’ minds, allowing readers to “see” a point readily and clearly. Far
from being a frill, such language is crucial to understanding.

Metaphors, similes, and analogies Similes use like, as, as if, or

as though to make explicit the comparison between two seemingly
different things. Metaphors are implicit comparisons, omitting the
like, as, as if, or as though of similes. Analogies compare similar fea-
tures of two dissimilar things; they explain something unfamiliar by
relating it to something more familiar.

SIMILE

> Dunkirk, set against events that happened over seventy-five years
ago, is like a message from a lost world.

METAPHOR

> Faces carry history. They’re genetic maps, but they’re vessels of
spiritual memory, too.

ANALOGY

> Dunkirk is a supreme achievement made from small strokes, a

kind of Seurat painting constructed with dark, glittering bits of
history. —Stephanie Zacharer, The Miracle of Dunkirk

Clichés and mixed metaphors A cliché is an overused figure of

speech, such as busy as a bee. By definition, we use clichés all the time,
especially in speech, and many serve usefully as shorthand for famil-
iar ideas. But if you use clichés to excess in your writing, readers may
conclude that what you are saying is not very new or is even insincere.
Mixed metaphors make comparisons that are inconsistent.

> The lectures were like brilliant comets streaking through the
dazzling flashes
night sky, showering listeners with aterrentialrain of insight.
“a “an
The images of streaking light and heavy precipitation are inconsistent;
in the revised sentence, all of the images relate to light.
 Using figurative language effectively 275

Identify the similes and metaphors in each of the following

EXERCISE 24.6
numbered items, and decide how each contributes to your
understanding of the passage or sentence in which it appears. Example:

Her strong arms, her kisses, the clean soap smell of her face, her voice
calming me—all of this was gone. She was like a statue in a church.
—Louise Erdrich, “Shamengwa”
like a statue in a church (simile): vividly emphasizes the woman's cold,
stone-like persona

1. Smell is a potent wizard that transports us across thousands of miles

and all the years we have lived.
—Helen Keller, The World I Live In
2. He sometimes thinks marriage is like a football game and he’s quarter-
backing the underdog team.
—Stephen King, “Premium Harmony”
3. The senses feed shards of information to the brain like microscopic
pieces of a jigsaw puzzle.
—Diane Ackerman, A Natural History of the Senses
4. I like cemeteries too because they are huge, densely populated cities.
—Guy de Maupassant, “The Graveyard Sisterhood”
5. The sun was a wide crescent, like a segment of tangerine.
—Annie Dillard, “Total Eclipse”

EXERCISE 24.7 Choose the appropriate word in each set of parentheses.

SC Example:

Antifreeze can have a toxic (affect/effect) on pets.

People need antifreeze in (their/there/they’re) cars in cold (weather/

whether). Unfortunately, antifreeze also tastes (grate/great) to cats and
dogs, who drink it from the greenish puddles commonly (scene/seen) on
asphalt. Antifreeze made of ethylene glycol causes kidney failure and has
(lead/led) to the deaths of many pets. (Its/It’s) not (to/too/two) hard to
protect (your/you’re) animals from antifreeze poisoning, however. First,
(buy/by) antifreeze that does not contain ethylene glycol, in spite of (its/
it’s) higher cost. Second, do not let pets wander out of (cite/sight/site)
when they are outdoors. Third, if a pet acts sick, get help even if the animal
(seams/seems) to improve—animals with antifreeze poisoning appear to feel
better shortly before they (die/dye).
 . s2¢ts; SSrision x) %

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eV 7issn Tes . ae ptgixty)
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i 1 = oo

*" os 941i A |AS Sov re * ‘ P b 26°" vife Si]

Ton FY
2 KR | liad 3
57 163t - r fa eat)
1
bi ; sing
| t LT

eee
ae1928 ohaggat
pry

ee
GS

ne a ie mre °— : :
 Style: Effective
Sentences

Varying Sentences 278

26 Consistency and Completeness 280

- Coordination and Subordination 283

$8 conciseness 287

Parallelism 290

30 shifts 293
7 25 Varying Sentences >
Why should writers pay special attention to style today? Because
more than ever before, information is coming at us in fire-hose
quantities, so much information that we can’t possibly attend to
even a fraction of it. In such a time, researchers and media theorists
point out, what most attracts and holds our attention is the style in
which the information is presented. It’s worth spending some time,
then, on making sure the sentences you write are stylistically appro-
priate and powerful. Variety in sentence structures will help you get
and keep your readers’ attention.

25a Varying sentence length

a
Is there a “just right” length for a sentence? Not a chance.
Rather, like most of the choices writers make, sentence length
depends on your purpose, audience, and topic: a children’s story,
for instance, may call for mostly short sentences, whereas an
article on nuclear disarmament may call for considerably longer
ones. While a series of short or long sentences can sometimes be
effective, varying sentence length can work well in college writ-
ing, where the punch of a short sentence after a longer one is
powerful:

To become a doctor, you spend so much time in the tunnels

of preparation—head down, trying not to screw up, just going
from one day to the next—that it is a shock to find yourself at
the other end, with someone offering you a job. But the day
comes.
—Atul Gawande

25b Varying sentence openings

ES

If sentence after sentence begins with a subject, the passage will usu-
ally seem “choppy” and monotonous. Take a look at the revisions to
the following passage, which help to vary the sentence openings and
make the passage more effective and easy to read:

278
 Varying sentence openings

>» The way football and basketball are played is as interesting as the
Because football each
players. Soeeeeldis a game of ea ioic
Each th is diagrammed

to Seen a certain goal. Basketball, i:agame of endurance.

In fact, a
A basketball game looks like a track ritee, the team that drops
“a

of exhaustion first, loses. Basketball players are often compared

their
to artists/; Fhe-players- graceful moves and slam dunks are their
a

masterpieces.

The editing adds variety by using a subordinating word (Because)

and a prepositional phrase (In fact) in linking sentences. Varying
sentence openings prevents the passage from seeming to jerk or
lurch along.
You can vary sentence openings by using transitions, phrases, and
dependent clauses:

TRANSITIONS

> Incontrast, our approach will save time and money.

> Nevertheless, the show must go on.

PHRASES

> Before dawn, the tired commuters drink their first cups of coffee.
> Frustrated by the delays, the drivers started honking their horns.

DEPENDENT CLAUSES

> What they want is a place to call home.

> Because the hills were dry, the fire spread rapidly.

a The following paragraph can be improved by varying sen-

is ~~ tence length. Revise it, creating some short, emphatic sen-
renee and COMGInine other sentences to create more effective long sentences.
Add words or change punctuation as you need to.

Before planting a tree, a gardener needs to choose a good location and

dig a deep enough hole. The location should have the right kind of soil,
280 Consistency and Completeness

sufficient drainage, and enough light for the type of tree chosen. The hole
should be slightly deeper than the root-ball and about twice as wide. The
gardener must unwrap the root-ball, for even burlap, which is biodegrad-
able, may be treated with chemicals that will eventually damage the roots.
The roots may have grown into a compact ball if the tree has been in a pot
for some time, and they should be separated or cut apart in this case. The
gardener should set the root-ball into the hole and then begin to fill the hole
with loose dirt. After filling the hole completely, the gardener should make
sure to water the tree thoroughly. New plantings require extra water and
extra care for about three years before they are well rooted.

| 26 Consistency and Completeness >

If you listen carefully to the conversations around you, you will hear
speakers use different styles to get their points across. The words,
tone, and structure they choose have a big impact on your impres-
sion of them—their personality and credibility, for example—and
their ideas. Often, you will hear inconsistent and incomplete struc-
tures. For instance, during an interview with Kelly Ripa and Ryan
Seacrest, Oprah Winfrey described a recent trip to New Zealand,
part of her “year of adventure”:

It should be on your bucket list. Put it on your bucket list. And

look at that water [on the slide] behind me—it is like crystal blue,
I mean, no kind of Instagram fixin’ up stuff. No filter. Nothing.
It just is like... because the water’s coming off of the glaciers
and it enters... and it’s just like, from the minerals, it’s like pure
turquoise.

Because Winfrey is talking casually, some of her sentences begin one

way but then move in another direction. The mixed structures pose
no problem for listeners—they sound like everyday conversations—
but sentences such as these can be confusing in writing. For this
reason, using consistent and complete sentence structure will help
get and hold your readers’ attention.
 Matching subjects and predicates 281

26a Revising confusing sentence structure

RS
Beginning a sentence with one grammatical pattern and then
switching to another one can confuse readers.

MIXED The fact that I get up at 5:00 AM, a wake-up time

that explains why I’m always tired in the evening.

This sentence starts out with a subject (The fact) followed by a

dependent clause (that I get up at 5:00 AM). The sentence needs
a predicate to complete the independent clause, but instead it
moves to another phrase followed by a dependent clause (a wake-
up time that explains why I’m always tired in the evening), and a frag-
ment results.
REVISED The fact that I get up at 5:00 AM explains why
I’m always tired in the evening.
Deleting a wake-up time that changes the rest of the sentence into a
predicate.

FAULTY In some car ads sell a lifestyle more than a

product.
REVISED Some car ads sell a lifestyle more than a product.

The revised sentence begins with a proper subject rather than a

prepositional phrase.

26b Matching subjects and predicates

ea
Another kind of mixed structure, called faulty predication, occurs
when a subject and predicate do not fit together grammatically or
simply do not make sense together.
generosity.
> A characteristic that I admire is
A person is not a characteristic.
require that
> The rules of the corporation expect employees te be on time.
“a
Rules cannot expect anything.
282 Consistency and Completeness

Is when, is where, the reason...is because Although you will

often hear these expressions in everyday use, such constructions are
inappropriate in academic or professional writing.
an unfair characterization of
> A stereotype is Se EES EE a BxOUD unfairly.
the practice of sending
> Spamming is Diet SOB Sa: electronic junk mail.

> The-+xeasen I like to play soccer is because it provides aerobic

exercise.

26c Making complete comparisons

aS
When you compare two or more things, make the comparison com-
plete and clear.

> Iwas often embarrassed because my parents were so

from my friends’ parents.
different/
“aA
Adding from my friends’ parents completes the comparison.

UNCLEAR Aneil always felt more affection for his brother than
his sister.
CLEAR Aneil always felt more affection for his brother than
his sister did. OR Aneil always felt more affection
for his brother than he did for his sister.

Revise this passage so that all sentences are grammatically

and logically consistent and complete.

A concentrated animal feeding operation, or CAFO, is when a factory farm

raises thousands of animals in a confined space. Vast amounts of factory-farm
livestock waste, dumped into giant lagoons, which are an increasingly com-
mon sight in rural areas of this country. Are factory-farm operations healthy
for neighbors, for people in other parts of the country, and the environment?
One problem with factory farming is the toxic waste that has contaminated
groundwater in the Midwest. In addition, air quality produces bad-smelling
 Relating equal ideas 283

and sometimes dangerous gases that people nearby have to breathe. When a
factory farm’s neighbors complain may not be able to close the operation. The
reason is because most factory farms have powerful corporate backers.
Not everyone is angry about the CAFO situation; consumers get a short-
term benefit from a large supply of pork, beef, and chicken that is cheaper
than family farms can raise. However, many people think that these opera-
tions damage our air and water more than small family farms.

4 27 Coordination and Subordination .

You may notice a difference between your spoken and your writ-
ten language. In speech, most people tend to use and and so as all-
purpose connectors.

He enjoys psychology, and he has to study hard.

The meaning of this sentence may be perfectly clear in speech, which

provides clues with voice, facial expressions, and gestures. In writing,
however, the same sentence could have more than one meaning.

Although he enjoys psychology, he has to study hard.

He enjoys psychology although he has to study hard.

The first sentence links two ideas with a coordinating conjunc-

tion, and; the other two sentences link ideas with a subordinating
conjunction, although. A coordinating conjunction gives the ideas
equal emphasis, and a subordinating conjunction emphasizes one
idea more than another.

27a Relating equal ideas

eRe
When you want to give equal emphasis to different ideas in a sen-
tence, link them with a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, nor,
or, so, yet) or a semicolon.

> They acquired horses, and their ancient nomadic spirit was
suddenly free of the ground.
284 Coordination and Subordination

> There is perfect freedom in the mountains, but it belongs to the

eagle and the elk, the badger and the bear.
—N. Scott Momaday, The Way to Rainy Mountain

Coordination can help make explicit the relationship between two

separate ideas.
forced
> My son watches The Simpsons religiously/; Fereed to choose, he
“a
would probably take Homer Simpson over his sister.
Connecting these two sentences with a semicolon strengthens the
connection between two closely related ideas.

When you connect ideas in a sentence, make sure that the relation-
ship between the ideas is clear.
but
> Surfing the internet is a common way to spend leisure time, and
it should not replace human contact. “te
What does being a common form of leisure have to do with replacing
human contact? Changing and to but better relates the two ideas.

Using the principles of coordination to signal equal importance,

EXERCISE 27.1 j
combine and revise the following group of short sentences
into several longer and more effective ones. Add or delete words as necessary.

The room was crowded. I wondered if no one had heard of COVID-19.

People stood close together. No one had a mask on. They were laughing and
shouting, even singing. I stood outside and watched. Maybe | should take a
chance. I came to my senses. I adjusted my mask. I turned and walked away.
I would stay safe at least for tonight.

276 Distinguishing main ideas

Ceci)
Subordination allows you to distinguish major points from minor
points or to bring supporting details into a sentence. If, for instance,
you put your main idea in an independent clause, you might then put
any less significant ideas in dependent clauses, phrases, or even sin-
gle words. The following sentence underlines the subordinated point:

> Mrs. Viola Cullinan was a plump woman who lived in a three-
bedroom house somewhere behind the post office.
—Maya Angelou, “My Name Is Margaret”
 Distinguishing main ideas 285

The dependent clause adds some important information about Mrs.

Cullinan, but it is subordinate to the independent clause.
Notice that the choice of what to subordinate rests with the
writer and depends on the intended meaning. Angelou might have
given the same basic information differently:

> Mrs. Viola Cullinan, a plump woman, lived in a three-bedroom

house somewhere behind the post office.

Subordinating the information about Mrs. Cullinan’s size to that

about her house would suggest a slightly different meaning. As a
writer, you must think carefully about what you want to emphasize
and subordinate information accordingly.
Subordination also establishes logical relationships among dif-
ferent ideas. These relationships are often specified by subordinat-
ing conjunctions.

SOME COMMON SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

after if until
although, even though once when
as, as if since where
because that, so that while
before though

The following sentence underlines the subordinate clause and itali-

cizes the subordinating word:

> She usually rested her smile until late afternoon when her women
friends dropped in and Miss Glory, the cook, served them cold
drinks on the closed-in porch.
—Maya Angelou, “My Name Is Margaret”

Using too many coordinate structures can be monotonous and can

make it hard for readers to recognize the most important ideas. Sub-
ordinating lesser ideas can help highlight the main ideas.

> Many people check email in the evening, and so they turn on the
Though they
computer. Fhey may intend to respond only to urgent messages,
cae which
a friend sends a link to a blog post, and they decide to read # for
a
286 Coordination and Subordination

Eventually,
just a short while/. asd they get engrossed in Facebook, and they
“aA

end up spending the whole evening in front of the screen.

Determining what to subordinate

Although our
> ©ue new boss can be difficult, although she has revived and
aA
maybe even saved the division.
The editing puts the more important information—that the new boss
has saved part of the company—in an independent clause and subor-
dinates the rest.

Avoiding too much subordination When too many subordi-

nate clauses are strung together, readers may not be able to keep
track of the main idea in the independent clause.

TOO MUCH SUBORDINATION

> Philip II sent the Spanish Armada to conquer England, which

was ruled by Elizabeth, who had executed Mary because she was
plotting to overthrow Elizabeth, who was a Protestant, whereas
Mary and Philip were Roman Catholics.

REVISED

> Philip II sent the Spanish Armada to conquer England, which was
ruled by Elizabeth, a Protestant. She had executed Mary, a Roman
Catholic like Philip, because Mary was plotting to overthrow her.
Putting the facts about Elizabeth executing Mary into an independent
clause makes key information easier to recognize.

» Revise the following paragraph, using coordination and

: ~~ subordination where appropriate to clarify the relationships
among ideas.

Reggae is a style of music. It originated in Jamaica in the late 1960s.

Reggae evolved out of earlier types of Jamaican music. Ska was one of reg-
gae’s main influences. It has a fast-paced rhythm. It accents the second and
fourth beats of each measure. Ska developed in Jamaica in the late 1950s.
It combined elements of calypso music and American jazz and rhythm and
blues. Reggae emerged in the late 1960s. Reggae songs focus on politics and
 Eliminating empty words 287

racial equality. They resonated with the youths of the time. Youths of the
time were rising up in protest movements around the world. Musicians Bob
Marley and Jimmy Cliff became internationally famous in the 1970s. Reggae
gained a permanent place in popular music around the world.

a 28 conciseness .
If you have a Twitter account, you probably know a lot about being
concise—that is, about getting messages across in no more than
280 characters. When New York Times editor Bill Keller tweeted,
“Twitter makes you stupid. Discuss,” his comment drew a large
number of responses, including a very concise message from his
wife: “I don’t know if Twitter makes you stupid, but it’s making
you late for dinner. Come home.” Conciseness is often a feature
of good writing.

28a_ Eliminating redundant words

EID
Sometimes writers add words for emphasis, saying that something
is large in size or red in color or that two ingredients should be com-
bined together. The italicized words are redundant (unnecessary for
meaning), as are the deleted words in the following examples:
A
> Compulsoryattendance at assemblies is required.
“aA

> The auction featured contemporary “antiques” made recently.

> Many different forms of hazing occur, such as physical abuse and
mental abuse.

28b Eliminating empty words

CED
Words that contribute little or no meaning to a sentence include
vague nouns like area, kind, situation, and thing as well as vague
modifiers like definitely, major, really, and very. Delete such words,
or find a more specific way to say what you mean.
 Conciseness

H strongly influence
> The-housing situation can ignifi
ca “ social
the-secialaspectef a student’s life.
A

28c Replacing wordy phrases

eae
Many common phrases can be reduced to a word or two with no
loss in meaning.

WORDY CONCISE

at that point in time then

at the present time now/today
due to the fact that because
for the purpose of for
in order to to
in spite of the fact that although

EXERCISE 28.1 Make each of the following sentences clear and concise by
= eliminating unnecessary words and phrases and by making
additions or revisions as needed. Example:

The imeredible-unbelievable feats that Houdini performed amazed

and-asteunded-al-ef his audiences whe-came+te-see-him.

1. Harry Houdini, whose real birth name was Ehrich Weiss, made the
claim that he had been born in Appleton, Wisconsin, but in actual fact
he was born into the world in Budapest, Hungary.
2. Shortly after Houdini’s birth, his family moved to Appleton, where his
father served as the one and only rabbi in Appleton at that point in
time.
3. Houdini gained fame as a really great master escape artist.
His many numerous escapes included getting out of a giant sealed enve-
lope without tearing it and walking out of jail cells that were said to be
supposedly escape-proof.
5. Before his untimely early death, Houdini told his brother to burn and
destroy all papers describing how Houdini’s illusions worked.
 Simplifying sentence structure 289

28d _ simplifying sentence structure

poss)
Using simple grammatical structures can tighten and strengthen
your sentences considerably.

> Hurricane Katrina, which-was-certainly one of the most

widespread
powerful storms ever to hit the Gulf Coast, caused damage.
“A “aA

to-a-very-wide-area.

Strong verbs Be verbs (is, are, was, were, been) often result in
wordiness. (See also 33j.)
harms
> A high-fat, high-cholesterol diet is-badfor your heart.
Aa

Expletives Sometimes expletive constructions such as there is,

there are, and it is introduce a topic effectively; often, however, your
writing will be better without them.
M
> There-are-many people whe fear success because they believe
“aA
they do not deserve it.

P. need
> Itisnecessaryforpresidential candidates to perform well on
“a “A
television.

Active voice Some writing situations call for the passive voice,
but it is always wordier than the active—and often makes for dull or
even difficult reading (see 31f).
Gower
> In-Gowers-+esearch,it-was found that pythons often dwell
tA
in trees.

5. Revise the following paragraph so that each sentence is as

"concise as possible. Combine or divide sentences if necessary.

In this day and age, many people obsess over fitness or the way they look
or their appearance. As a result of this very widespread obsession, people
290 Parallelism

quite frequently flock to gyms and other places that offer great opportunities
for all kinds of really strenuous exercise. They are absolutely positively sure
that spending hours and hours on Peloton machines will improve their health
but also make them definitely more attractive. In addition, they make use of
lots of diet or health supplements and expensive creams and other potions
that are supposedly going to improve the tone or resilience of their skin. All
in all, they are willing to spend quite remarkable sums of money chasing after
a way to look and feel and perform better. I for one have to wonder whether
they are getting what they hope and believe they are paying for.

| 29 Parallelism >
If you look and listen, you will see parallel grammatical structures
in everyday use. Bumper stickers often use parallelism to make their
messages memorable (Minds are like parachutes; both work best when
open), as do rap lyrics and jump-rope rhymes. In addition to creat-
ing pleasing rhythmic effects, parallelism can help clarify meaning.

29a Making items in a series or list parallel

SD
All items in a series should be in parallel form—all nouns, all verbs,
all prepositional phrases, and so on. Parallelism makes a series
both graceful and easy to follow.

> In the eighteenth century, armed forces could fight in open

fields and on the high seas. Today, they can clash on the ground
anywhere, on the sea, under the sea, and in the air.
—Donald Snow and Eugene Brown, International Relations
The parallel structure of the phrases, and of the sentences themselves,
highlights the contrast between the eighteenth century and today.

> The children ran down the hill, skipped over the lawn, and
jumped
werejumping into the swimming pool.
“a
 Making paired ideas parallel

> The duties of the job include babysitting, housecleaning, and

preparing
i meals.
aA

Items that are in a list, in a formal outline, and in headings should

be parallel.
> Kitchen rules: (1) Coffee to be made only by library staff.

(2) Coffee service to be closed at 4:00 pm. (3) Doughnuts to be

Coffee materials not to be handled by
kept in cabinet. (4)
faculty. ~

29b Making paired ideas parallel

CET

Parallel structures can help you pair two ideas effectively. The more
nearly parallel the two structures are, the stronger the connection
between the ideas will be.
> I type in one place, but I write all over the house.
—Toni Morrison

Writers are often more interesting on the page than they are in
the flesh.
Bosses::
In these examples, the parallel structures help readers see an impor-
tant contrast between two ideas or acts.

With conjunctions When you link ideas with and, but, or, nor,
for, so, or yet, try to make the ideas parallel by using the same struc-
ture after: either... or, both... and, neither... nor, not... but, not
only... but also, just as... so, and whether... or.
who is
> Consult a friend in your class or who is good at math.
“a
accepts
> The wise politician promises the possible and sheuld-accept the
aA
inevitable.
live in
> I wanted not only to go away to school but also to New England.
“a
292 Parallelism

Complete the following sentences, using parallel words or

EXERCISE 29.1
phrases in each case. Example:

The wise politician _promises the possible _|_ encourages the

beneficial and _accepts
the inevitable

1. My favorite streaming shows of 2020 include ______, ___,

and

PX, jiowseigeye
ey ll wlerette (eval(io) a Val

3. Three things I admire in people are ____, ______, and

4. In preparation for their virtual graduation, the students _____,

, and

10) eee era GHVILesmyerr al Gimounel

enjoys.

29C Using words necessary for clarity

ESD
In addition to making parallel elements grammatically similar, be
sure to include any words—prepositions, articles, verb forms, and
so on—that are necessary for clarity.
in
> We'll move to a city in the Southwest or Mexico.
“A
To a city in Mexico or to Mexico in general? The editing clarifies this.

Revise the following paragraph to maintain proper paral-

is lelism where it exists and to supply all words necessary for
claret grammar, and idiom in parallel structures.

Family gatherings for events such as weddings, holidays, and going on

vacation are supposed to be happy occasions, but for many people, getting
together with family members causes tremendous stress. Everyone hopes to
share warm memories and for a picture-perfect family event. Unfortunately,
the reality may include an uncle who makes offensive remarks, a critical
mother, or anger at a spouse who doesn’t lift a finger to help. Neither dif-
ficult relatives nor when things go wrong will necessarily ruin a big family
gathering, however. The trick is to plan for problems and being able to adapt.
 Revising shifts in tense

People who try to make a family gathering a success will almost always either
be able to enjoy the event or laugh about it later.

30 snitts yO
A shift is an abrupt change. Sometimes writers or speakers shift
deliberately, as Geneva Smitherman does in this passage from her
2006 book Word from the Mother:
There are days when I optimistically predict that Hip Hop will sur-
vive—and thrive. .. . In the larger realm of Hip Hop culture, there is
cause for optimism as we witness Hip Hop younguns tryna git they
political activist game togetha.

Her meshing of standardized English and Black American vernacu-

lar patterns calls out for and holds our attention. At times, however,
writers must revise shifts to avoid confusion.

30a Revising shifts in tense

ema
If verbs in a passage refer to actions occurring at different times,
they may require different tenses. Be careful, however, not to
change tenses without a good reason.

> A few countries produce almost all of the world’s illegal drugs,
affects
but addiction affected many countries.
“aA

_ Revise the following sentences that include unnecessary

' shifts in verb tense or in mood. Example:
asked
We stood outside the office and ask people not to cross the picket line.
A

1. Many students try to check off items on their bucket list when they
needed to study.
2. I waited for almost forty-five minutes on hold, but after a while I give
up hope.
3. She is biking to work when she realized what she wanted.
4. As the scandal developed, the executives stop talking to the press.
If you eat too much ice cream, you regretted it immediately.
294 Shifts

30b Revising shifts in voice

Be)
Do not shift between the active voice (she sold it) and the passive
voice (it was sold) without a reason. Sometimes a shift in voice is
justified, but often it only confuses readers.
me
> Two youths approached me, and Lwas asked for my opinion in a
“aA
survey.
The original sentence shifts from active to passive voice, so it is
unclear who asked for the opinion.

30Cc Revising shifts in point of view

CED

Unnecessary shifts in point of view between first person (I or we),

second person (you), and third person (he, she, it, one, or they), or
between singular and plural subjects, can be very confusing to readers.
You
> One can do well on this job if you budget your time.
“a
Is the writer making a general statement or giving advice to someone?
Revising the shift eliminates this confusion.

Revise each of the following sentences to eliminate an

"EXERCISE 30.2 unnecessary shift in voice or point of view. Example:
|
When I remember to take deep breaths and count to ten, yeu really
my cA
can control yeur anger.
ray

1. “Notorious RBG” was a nickname used by fans of Supreme Court

justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg because her fiery dissents inspired admiration
and action.
2. I had planned to walk home after the movie, but you shouldn’t be on
campus alone after dark.
3. When largely peaceful protests against police brutality spread across the
country, scenes of vandalism were focused on by the media.
4. Instructors at the studio cooperative offer a wide variety of dance
lessons, and art and voice training are also given there.
5. We knew that emails promising free gifts were usually scams, but you
couldn’t resist clicking on the link just to see.
 Revising shifts 295

30d Revising shifts between direct

@==—_ and indirect discourse

When you quote someone’s exact words, you are using direct dis-
course: She said, “I’m an editor.” When you report what someone
says without repeating the exact words, you are using indirect dis-
course: She said she was an editor. Shifting between direct and indi-
rect discourse in the same sentence can cause problems, especially
with questions.
he
> Bob asked what could he do to help?.
“A A
The editing eliminates an awkward shift by reporting Bob’s question
indirectly. It could also be edited to quote Bob directly: Bob asked,
“What can I do to help?”

“EXERCISE 30.3 Eliminate the shifts between direct and indirect discourse in
the following sentences by putting the direct discourse into
indirect form. Example:
states his
Steven Pinker stated that m¥ book is meant for people who use
aA “A
language and respect it.

1. Richard Rodriguez acknowledges that intimacy was not created by a

language; “it is created by intimates.”
2. Chris said that during a semester abroad, “I really missed all my
friends.”
3. The bewildered neighbor asked Ricardo, “What the heck he thought he
was doing on the roof?”
4. Loren Eiseley feels an urge to join the birds in their soundless flight, but
in the end he knows that he cannot, and “I was, after all, only a man.”
5. The instructor told us, “Please submit your assignments to the course
website” and that she might give us a quiz.
 a . :
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 Grammar

Verbs and Verb Phrases 298

Nouns and Noun Phrases 313

Subject-Verb Agreement 319

Adjectives and Adverbs 325

Modifier Placement 329

Pronouns 333

Prepositions and Prepositional

Phrases 342

Comma Splices and Fused

Sentences 345

Sentence Fragments 349

oe 31 Verbs and Verb Phrases >
One famous restaurant in New Orleans offers to bake, broil, pan-fry,
BBQ, deep-fry, poach, sauté, fricassée, blacken, or scallop any of the
fish entrées on its menu. To someone ordering—or cooking—at this
restaurant, the important distinctions lie entirely in the verbs.

31a Using regular and irregular verb forms

ED
You can create all verb tenses from four verb forms: the base form,
the past tense, the past participle, and the present participle. For
regular verbs, the past tense and past participles are formed by
adding -d or -ed. Present participles are formed by adding -ing.

BASE FORM PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE PRESENT PARTICIPLE

love loved loved loving

honor honored honored honoring
obey obeyed obeyed obeying

An irregular verb does not follow the -ed or -d pattern. If you are
unsure about whether a verb is regular or irregular, or what the cor-
rect form is, consult the following list or a dictionary. Dictionaries
list any irregular forms under the entry for the base form.

Some common irregular verbs

BASE FORM PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE PRESENT PARTICIPLE

be was/were been being

begin began begun beginning
break broke broken breaking
bring brought brought bringing
choose chose chosen choosing
come came come coming
do did done doing

298
 Using regular and irregular verb forms 299

draw drew drawn drawing

drink drank drunk drinking
eat ate eaten eating
fall fell fallen falling
feel felt felt feeling
fly flew flown flying
get got gotten, got getting
give gave given giving
go went gone going
hang hung hung hanging
(suspend)!
have had had having
keep kept kept keeping
lead led led leading
lie lay lain lying
(recline)?
prove proved proved, proven proving
ring rang rung ringing
run ran run running
speak spoke spoken speaking
swim swam swum swimming
swing swung swung swinging
take took taken taking
wake woke, waked waked, woken waking
write wrote written writing

1 Hang meaning “execute by hanging” is regular: hang, hanged, hanged.

2 Lie meaning “tell a falsehood” is regular: lie, lied, lied.

) Underline each verb or verb phrase in the following sen-

- tences. Example:

Many people throughout the United States commemorate the end

of slavery on Juneteenth.
300 Verbs and Verb Phrases

1. OnJune 19, 1865, Union soldiers brought news that all enslaved people
were free to Galveston, Texas.
2. But this event occurred two and a half years after President Lincoln
signed the Emancipation Proclamation.
3. According to one legend, an earlier messenger was murdered on his way
to deliver the news to Texas.
4. Others said that the troops withheld the news in order for slaves to
keep harvesting cotton.
5. Whatever the reasons for the delay, the formerly enslaved people of
Texas took in their first breaths of freedom.

Complete each of the following sentences by filling in each

EXERCISE 31.2. blank with the past tense or past participle of the verb listed
in parentheses. Example:

Frida Kahlo _2°4™€_ (become) one of Mexico’s foremost painters.

1. Frida Kahlo ________ (grow) up in Mexico City, where she

(spend) most of her life.

Po Sai ——___—_ (oye) loyevna inn ELOY, Wythe ave haven —____ (GV) aot
her birth year ____ (be) 1910.

3. In 1925 a bus accident _________ (leave) Kahlo horribly injured.

4, The accident ________ (break) her spinal column and many other
bones, so Kahlo ________ (lie) in bed in a body cast for months.

5. She had always ________ (be) a spirited young woman, and she
(take) up painting to avoid boredom while convalescing.

31b Building verb phrases

—
Verb phrases can be built up out of a main verb and one or more
helping (auxiliary) verbs.
>» Immigration figures are rising every year.
> Immigration figures have risen every year.
 Building verb phrases 301

Seeing Grammar as Flexible

Teachers of writing often dread telling new acquaintances what
they do for a living because too often they hear: “Oh, | better
watch my grammar.” While speakers of any language acquire its
grammar as they learn, learning a second language or a dialect
like standardized English (which no one grows up speaking)
takes effort. While there are some “rules” of grammar that
almost always apply—such as word order in English—much of
what counts as rules are just conventions—widely accepted uses
that develop and change over time. In addition, English and its
many dialects are flexible, allowing writers to follow—or resist—
conventions depending on purpose, audience, and stance.

Verb phrases have strict rules of order. If you try to rearrange the words
in either of these sentences, you will find that most alternatives are
impossible. You cannot say Immigration figures rising are every year.

Putting auxiliary verbs in order

In the sentence Immigration figures may have been rising, the main
verb rising follows three auxiliaries: may, have, and been. Together
these auxiliaries and the main verb make up a verb phrase.

¢ May is a modal that indicates possibility; it is followed by the base

form of a verb.
¢ Have is an auxiliary verb that in this case indicates the perfect
tense; it must be followed by a past participle (been).
¢ Any form of be, when it is followed by a present participle ending in
-ing (such as rising), indicates the progressive tense.
¢ Be followed by a past participle, as in New immigration policies have
been passed in recent years, indicates the passive voice (31f).

As the following chart shows, when two or more auxiliaries

appear in a verb phrase, they follow a particular order based on
the type of auxiliary: (1) modal, (2) a form of have that indicates
302 31b Verbs and Verb Phrases

a perfect tense, (3) a form of be that indicates a progressive tense,

and (4) a form of be that indicates the passive voice. (Few sentences
include all four kinds of auxiliaries.)

Perfect Progressive Passive Main

Modal Have Be Be Verb

Sonia — has — been invited to visit a

family in
Prague.

She should — — be finished with school

soon.

The must have — been sent in the

invitation spring.
She _ has been — studying Czech.

She may — be _ feeling nervous.

She might have been — expecting to travel

elsewhere.

The trip — will have been being planned for a month

by the time
she leaves.

Only one modal is permitted in a verb phrase.

be able to
> She will ean speak Czech much better soon.
“a

Editing the Verbs in Your Writing

Y Check verb endings that cause you trouble. (31a)
V Double-check forms of /ie and Jay, sit and set, rise and raise.
(31d)
V Refer to action in a literary work (such as a novel, poem, or
story) in the present tense. (31e)
VY Check that verb tenses in your writing express meaning
accurately. (31e)
V Use passive voice appropriately. (31f)
 Building verb phrases 303

Forming auxiliary verbs Whenever you use an auxiliary, check

the form of the word that follows.

Modal + base form Use the base form of a verb after can, could, will, would,
shall, should, may, might, and must: Alice can read Latin. In many other
languages, modals like can or must are followed by the infinitive (to +
base form). Do not substitute an infinitive for the base form in English.

>» Alice can te read Latin.

Perfect have, has, or had + past participle To form the perfect tenses,
use have, has, or had with a past participle: Everyone has gone home.
They have been working all day.

Progressive be + present participle A progressive form of the verb is

signaled by two elements, a form of the auxiliary be (am, is, are, was,
were, be, or been) and the -ing form of the next word: The children are
studying. Be sure to include both elements.
are
> The children studying science.
A
studying
> The children are study science.
A

Some verbs are rarely used in progressive forms. These are verbs that
express unchanging conditions or mental states rather than deliber-
ate actions: believe, belong, hate, know, like, love, need, own, resemble,
understand.
Passive be + past participle Use am, is, are, was, were, being, be, or been
with a past participle to form the passive voice.

> Tagalog is spoken in the Philippines.

Notice that the word following the progressive be (the present par-
ticiple) ends in -ing, but the word following the passive be (the past
participle) never ends in -ing.

PROGRESSIVE JaVale is studying music.

PASSIVE Natasha was taught by a famous violinist.

If the first auxiliary in a verb phrase is a form of be or have, it must

show either present or past tense and must agree with the subject:
JaVale has played in an orchestra.
304 Verbs and Verb Phrases

Rewrite the following passage by adding appropriate forms

EXERCISE 31.3
of have and main-verb endings or forms for the verbs in
parentheses. Example:

1 like (like) to try new foods, so 1 have eaten (eat) in many

different kinds of restaurants in my life.

Several times, ] ______ (hear) people musing about the bravery of

the firsts DersOnmWMOLev cian (Cat)mcal Oster nen (DG) eel
interestinguduestionwhatedOmy OU === =e (chica) pam (naa)
anyone do such a thing? But personally, ] ____ (wonder) all my life
about how ancient people _________ (discover) the art of baking bread.
After all, preparing a lobster ________ (be) pretty simple in comparison
to baking. Bread ________ (feed) vast numbers of people for centuries,
so it certainly ________ (be) a more important food source than lobster,
too. Those of us who _________ (love) either lobster or bread, or both,
(be) grateful to those who _______ (give) us such a wonderful
culinary legacy.

31¢ Using infinitives and gerunds

CEE
Knowing whether to use an infinitive (to read) or a gerund (read-
ing) in a sentence may be a challenge.

INFINITIVE

> My adviser urged me to apply to several colleges.

GERUND

> Applying took a great deal of time.

In general, infinitives tend to represent intentions, desires, or expec-

tations, while gerunds tend to represent facts. The infinitive in the
first sentence tells us that applying is desired but not yet accom-
plished, while the gerund in the second sentence tells us that the
application process was actually carried out.
The association of intention with infinitives and facts with
gerunds can often help you decide which one to use when another
verb immediately precedes it.
 Using infinitives and gerunds 305

INFINITIVES

> Kumar expected to get a good job after graduation.

> Last year, Jorge decided to become a math major.
> The strikers have agreed to go back to work.

GERUNDS

> Jerzy enjoys going to the theater.

> We resumed working after our coffee break.
> Alycia appreciated getting candy from Sean.

A few verbs can be followed by either an infinitive or a gerund. With

some, such as begin and continue, the choice makes little difference
in meaning. With others, however, the difference in meaning is
striking.

> Carlos was working as a medical technician, but he stopped to

study English.
The infinitive indicates that Carlos left his job because he intended to
study English.
> Carlos stopped studying English when he left the United States.
The gerund indicates that Carlos actually studied English but then
stopped.

_ Shecking Usage with Search Engines _ a

"Search podne: ateoe
2 checksentence structurean 4

Mm
usage. For example,
bos pepe a
ptyverb eXxf
ify <. not sure whether to use ani sh
(in
in)or the ver
ou pale archchic os el care
onfirm after t e 2
xpected toOrt jeldsBs r
dicate ia Sh conttg
ts lin
Theres
; eerecession.Bes
eeclic sre

parables gee resul make : NO

ils
ults co
306 Verbs and Verb Phrases

The distinction between fact and intention is a tendency, not a

rule, and other rules may override it. Always use a gerund—not an
infinitive—directly following a preposition.
eating.
> This fruit is safe for te-eat
ray

You can also remove the preposition and keep the infinitive.

> This fruit is safe fer to eat.

31d Using Jie and /ay, sit and set, rise and raise
eee

These pairs of verbs cause confusion because both verbs in each pair
have similar-sounding forms and somewhat related meanings. In
each pair, one verb is transitive, meaning that it is followed by a
direct object (I lay the package on the counter). The other is intransi-
tive, meaning that it does not have an object (He lies on the floor,
unable to move). The best way to avoid confusing these verbs is to
memorize their forms and meanings.
PAST PRESENT
BASE FORM PAST TENSE PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE -S FORM

lie (recline) lay lain lying lies

lay (put) laid laid laying lays
sit (be seated) sat sat sitting sits
set (put) set set setting sets
rise (get up) rose risen rising rises
raise (lift) raised raised raising raises

lie
> The doctor asked the patient to la¥ on his side.
“a
set
> Tamika sat the vase on the table.
aA
raised
> Jaime rese himself to a sitting position.
“a

A Choose the appropriate verb form in each of the following

"> sentences. Example:

The boys laid/lay on the couch, hoping for something good on TV.
 Using verb tenses 307

My grandparents rose/raised from poverty to own their own farm.

2. Finished at last, the weary student laid/lay the book down and went to
bed.
3. The students sat/set their digital devices down and stared grimly at the
new teacher.
4. Lie/lay your packages down and stay for supper.
Don’t just lie/lay there; do something!

31e Using verb tenses

II
Tenses show when the verb’s action takes place. The three simple
tenses are the present tense, the past tense, and the future tense.

PRESENT TENSE I ask, write

PAST TENSE I asked, wrote
FUTURE TENSE I will ask, will write

More complex aspects of time are expressed through progressive,

perfect, and perfect progressive forms of the simple tenses.

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE _Liz is asking, is writing

PAST PROGRESSIVE Liz was asking, was writing
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE Liz will be asking, will be writing
PRESENT PERFECT Liz has asked, has written
PAST PERFECT Liz had asked, had written
FUTURE PERFECT Liz will have asked, will have written
PRESENT PERFECT Liz has been asking, has been writing
PROGRESSIVE
PAST PERFECT Liz had been asking, had been writing
PROGRESSIVE
FUTURE PERFECT Liz will have been asking, will have been
PROGRESSIVE writing

The simple tenses locate an action only within the three basic time
frames of present, past, and future. Progressive forms express con-
tinuing actions; perfect forms express completed actions; perfect
progressive forms express actions that continue up to some point in
the present, past, or future.
308 Verbs and Verb Phrases

Special purposes of the present tense When writing about

action in literary works, use the cet tense.
realizes
> Ishmael slowly reahzed all Hate
see at stake in the search for the
white whale. “
General truths or scientific facts should also be in the present tense,
even when the predicate in the main clause is in the past tense.
makes
> Pasteur demonstrated that his boiling process eee milk safe to
drink.

In general, when you are quoting, summarizing, or paraphrasing a

work, use the present tense.

writes
> Adam Banks wrete that we should “fly on, reaching for the stars
“aA
we cannot yet map, see, or scan.”

But when using APA (American Psychological Association) style,

report the results of your experiments or another researcher’s work
in the past tense (wrote, noted) or the present perfect tense (has
discovered). (For more on APA style, see Chapter 17.)
noted
> Comer (1995) netes that protesters who deprive themselves
“A
of food are seen not as dysfunctional but rather as “caring,
sacrificing, even heroic” (p. 5).

From the following list, identify the form of each verb or

Ps Zhe. verb phrase in each of the numbered sentences.

simple present past perfect

simple past present progressive
present perfect past progressive

Example:

Residents are preparing for wildfires. present progressive

1. Sasha was getting ready for bed when the wildfire warning sounded.
 Using active and passive voice 309

2. At first, she thought firefighters were controlling the fire.

But within an hour, Sasha saw the fire come over the hill and roar
down to the houses below.
4. The family had rehearsed their evacuation plan; they left everything
behind and raced to the car.
5. They escaped with their lives and now hope the fire has spared their home.

Complete each of the following sentences by filling in the

EXERCISE 31.6
blank with an appropriate form of the verb given in paren-
theses. Because more than one form will sometimes be possible, choose one
form and then be prepared to explain the reasons for your choice. Example:

People have been practicing/have practiced (practice) the art of

yoga for thousands of years.

1. The word yoga ________ (come) from Sanskrit.

2. Although many people today ________ (begin) a yoga practice purely

for physical exercise, it is actually a path to spirituality that
(date) back thousands and thousands of years.

3. Yoga’s popularity in America ______ (explode) over the last decade.

4. Asa result of this surge in popularity, many yoga studios

(open) throughout the city.

5. When you _______ (begin) a yoga practice, it is important to find a

reputable teacher who _____ (receive) proper certification.

Sequencing verb tenses When you use the appropriate tense for
each action, readers can follow time changes easily.
had
> By the time he lent her the money, she declared bankruptcy.
“A
The revision makes clear that the bankruptcy occurred before the loan.

31f Using active and passive voice

fos)
Voice tells whether a subject is acting (He questions us) or being
acted upon (He is questioned). When the subject is acting, the verb is
in the active voice; when the subject is being acted upon, however,
310 Verbs and Verb Phrases

the verb is in the passive voice. Most contemporary writers use

the active voice as much as possible because it makes their prose
stronger and livelier. To shift a sentence from passive to active voice,
make the performer of the action the subject of the sentence.
My sister took the
> The prizewinning photograph. wastaken-by-my-sister.
“A “A

Use the passive voice when you want to emphasize the recipient of
an action rather than the performer of the action.

> John Lewis was eulogized by three former Presidents of the

United States.

In scientific and technical writing, use the passive voice to focus

attention on what is being studied.

> The volunteers’ food intake was closely monitored.

Convert each sentence from active to passive voice or from

EXERCISE 31.7
passive to active, and note the differences in emphasis these
changes make. Example:

The largest fish was caught by me.

| caught the largest fish.

Online retailers were swamped by customers on Black Friday.

Police used tear gas and pepper bullets on the protesting students.
Fans of BTS were thrilled with the release of Map of the Soul: 7.
My favorite dinner was cooked by my mother on my birthday.
Se The lead part in the school play was gotten by Ivan.
cot!

31g Using mood appropriately

ena
The mood of a verb indicates the writer’s attitude toward what
he or she is saying. The indicative mood states facts or opin-
ions and asks questions: I did the right thing. Did I do the right
thing? The imperative mood gives commands and instructions:
Do the right thing. The subjunctive mood (used primarily in
dependent clauses beginning with that or if) expresses wishes
 Using mood appropriately 311

and conditions that are contrary to fact: If Iwere doing the right
thing, I’d know it.
The present subjunctive uses the base form of the verb with all
subjects.

> It is important that children be ready for a new sibling.

The past subjunctive is the same as the simple past except for the
verb be, which uses were for all subjects.

> He spent money as if he had infinite credit.

> Ifthe store were better located, it would attract more customers.

Because the subjunctive creates a rather formal tone, many people

today substitute the indicative mood in informal conversation.

INFORMAL

> If the store was better located, it would attract more customers.

For academic or professional writing, use the subjunctive in the fol-

lowing contexts:

CLAUSES EXPRESSING A WISH

were
> He wished that his brother was still living nearby.
aA

THAT CLAUSES EXPRESSING A REQUEST OR DEMAND

be
> The plant inspector insists that a supervisor és on site at all times.
aA

IF CLAUSES EXPRESSING A CONDITION THAT DOES NOT EXIST

were
> If public transportation was widely available in the U.S., fewer
a
Americans would commute by car.

One common error is to use would in both clauses. Use the subjunc-
tive in the if clause and would in the other clause.
had
> If I weuld-have played harder, I would have won.
“aA
312 Verbs and Verb Phrases

Revise the following sentences that do not use the ap-

EXERCISE 31.8
propriate subjunctive verb forms required in formal or
academic writing. Example:
were
If money was no object, I would have one house in the mountains,
“a
one on the beach, and one in the city.

The only requirement is that all applicants are over eighteen years of age.
2. Malcolm is acting as if he was the only one who worked on the project.
Even if PPE was widely available, the hospital is still running low on
ventilators.
4. If she would have gone to the doctor sooner, the symptoms would not
be so severe.
5. I wish I was a more diligent student.

31th Using conditional sentences appropriately

re
English distinguishes among many different types of conditional sen-
tences: sentences that focus on questions and that are introduced by ifor
its equivalent. Each of the following examples makes different assump-
tions about the likelihood that what is stated in the ifclause is true:

> If you practice (or have practiced) writing often, you learn (or have
learned) what your main problems are.
This sentence assumes that what is stated in the if clause may be true;
any verb tense that is appropriate in a simple sentence may be used in
both the if clause and the main clause.
> If you practice writing for the rest of this term, you will (or may)
understand the process better.
This sentence makes a prediction and again assumes that what is
stated may turn out to be true. Only the main clause uses the future
tense (will understand) or a modal that can indicate future time (may
understand). The if clause must use the present tense.
> If you practiced (or were to practice) writing every day, it would
eventually seem easier.
This sentence indicates doubt that what is stated will happen. In the
if clause, the verb is either past—actually, past subjunctive (31g)—or
were to + the base form, though it refers to future time. The main
clause contains would + the base form of the main verb.
 Nouns and Noun Phrases 313

> If you practiced writing on Mars, you would find no one to read
your work.
This sentence imagines an impossible situation. Again, the past
subjunctive is used in the if clause, although here past time is not being
referred to, and would + the base form is used in the main clause.
> If you had practiced writing in ancient Egypt, you would have used
hieroglyphics.
This sentence shifts the impossibility back to the past; obviously you
won't find yourself in ancient Egypt. But a past impossibility demands
a form that is “more past”: the past perfect in the if clause and would
+ the present perfect form of the main verb in the main clause.

Revise each of the following sentences so that both the /f

EXERCISE 31.9 clause and the main, or independent, clause contain appro-
priate verb forms. If any sentence does not contain an error, write Correct.
Example:

If you want to determine your own work schedule, you wewuld

are
probably be considering being an Uber driver.

1. Until recently, many people thought that the gig economy will continue
to expand unless workers will be allowed to earn benefits.
2. If market growth had continued, that prediction might come true.
3. Instead, many in the gig economy will have a hard time if the corona-
virus continues unabated.
4. Ifconsumers are forced to rely on takeout food services, however, thou-
sands of potential Uber drivers applied.
5. If ride-share companies were to pay well, applicants would flood their
hiring site.

: 32 Nouns and Noun Phrases _

Everyday life is filled with nouns: orange juice, hip-hop, the morn-
ing news, a bus to work, meetings, pizza, tweets, Diet Coke, errands,
dinner with friends, a chapter in a good book. Every language includes
nouns. In English, words called articles (a book, an email, the news)
often accompany nouns.
 Nouns and Noun Phrases

32a Understanding count and noncount nouns

eee)
Nouns in English can be either count nouns or noncount nouns.
Count nouns refer to distinct individuals or things that can be directly
counted: a doctor, an egg, a child; doctors, eggs, children. Noncount
nouns refer to masses, collections, or ideas without distinct parts:
milk, rice, courage. You cannot count noncount nouns except with a
preceding phrase: a glass of milk, three grains of rice, a little courage.
Count nouns usually have singular and plural forms: tree, trees.
Noncount nouns usually have only a singular form: grass.

COUNT NONCOUNT

people (plural of person) humanity

tables, chairs, beds furniture
letters mail
pebbles gravel
suggestions advice

Some nouns can be either count or noncount, depending on their

meaning.

COUNT Before video games, children played with marbles.

NONCOUNT The palace floor was made of marble.

When you learn a noun in English, you will therefore need to learn
whether it is count, noncount, or both. Many dictionaries provide
this information.

Identify each of the common nouns in the following short

EXERCISE 32.1 paragraph as either a count or a noncount noun. The first
one, from a review of Chippewa author Louise Erdrich’s work, has been done
for you.
count noun
Erdrich’s career has been an act of resistance against racism—the
hateful and the sentimental varieties—and the implacable force of
white America’s ignorance. In one powerful book after another,
she has carved [American] Indians’ lives, histories, and stories
back into our national literature, a canon once determined to wipe
them away.
—Ron Charles
 Using determiners 315

32b Using determiners

GEER
Determiners are words that identify or quantify a noun, such as this
study, all people, his suggestions.

COMMON DETERMINERS
¢ the articles a, an, the
¢ this, these, that, those
¢ my, our, your, his, her, its, their
* possessive nouns and noun phrases (Sheila’s paper, myfriend’s book)
¢ whose, which, what
¢ all, both, each, every, some, any, either, no, neither, many, much, (a)
few, (a) little, several, enough
¢ the numerals one, two, etc.

These ... Can precede these noun

determiners... types Examples

a, an, each, every singular count nouns a book

an American
each word
every Buddhist

this, that singular count nouns this book

noncount nouns that milk

(a) little, much noncount nouns a little milk

much affection

some, enough noncount nouns some milk

enough trouble
plural count nouns some books
enough problems

the singular count nouns the doctor

plural count nouns the doctors
noncount nouns the information

these, those, (a) plural count nouns these books

few, many, both, those plans
several a few ideas
many students
both hands
several trees
316 Nouns and Noun Phrases

Determiners with singular count nouns Every singular count

noun must be preceded by a determiner. Place any adjectives
between the determiner and the noun.
my
> sister
ray
the
> growing population
“a
that
> old neighborhood
A

Determiners with plural nouns or noncount nouns Non-

count and plural nouns sometimes have determiners and some-
times do not. For example, This research is important and Research is
important are both acceptable but have different meanings.

32C Using articles

se)
Articles (a, an, and the) are a type of determiner. In English, choos-
ing which article to use—or whether to use an article at all—can be
challenging. Although there are exceptions, the following general
guidelines can help.

Usingaoran Use indefinite articles a and an with singular count

nouns. Use a before a consonant sound (a car) and an before a
vowel sound (an uncle). Consider sound rather than spelling: a
house, an hour.
A or an tells readers they do not have enough information to
identify specifically what the noun refers to. Compare the following
sentences:

> Ineed a new coat for the winter.

> Isaw a coat that I liked at Dayton’s, but it wasn’t heavy enough.

The coat in the first sentence is hypothetical rather than actual.

Since it is indefinite to the writer and the reader, it is used with a,
not the. The second sentence refers to an actual coat, but since the
writer cannot expect the reader to know which one, it is used with
a rather than the.
 Using articles 317

If you want to speak of an indefinite quantity rather than just one

indefinite thing, use some or any with a noncount noun or a plural
count noun. Use any in either negative sentences or questions.

> This stew needs some more salt.

> Isaw some plates that I liked at Gump’s.
> This stew doesn’t need any more salt.

Using the Use the definite article the with both count and
noncount nouns whose identity is known or is about to be
made known to readers. The necessary information for identi-
fication can come from the noun phrase itself, from elsewhere
in the text, from context, from general knowledge, or from a
superlative.
the
> Let’s meet at fountain in front of Dwinelle Hall.
“A
The phrase in front of Dwinelle Hall identifies the specific fountain.

> Last Saturday, a fire that started in a restaurant spread to a

The store
nearby clothing store. Stere was saved, although it suffered water
“a

damage.
The word store is preceded by the, which directs our attention to
the information in the previous sentence, where the store is first
identified.
the
> She asked him to shut door when he left her office.
“a
The context shows that she is referring to her office door.
the
> She is now one of best hip-hop artists in the neighborhood.
A
The superlative best identifies the noun hip-hop artists.

No article Noncount and plural count nouns can be used with-

out an article to make generalizations:

> In this world nothing is certain but death and taxes.

—Benjamin Franklin
 Nouns and Noun Phrases

Franklin refers not to a particular death or specific taxes but to death

and taxes in general, so no article is used with death or with taxes.
English differs from many other languages that use the definite
article to make generalizations. In English, a sentence like The ants
live in colonies can refer only to particular, identifiable ants, not to
ants in general.

Each of the following sentences contains an error with a

EXERCISE 22-4 noun phrase. Revise each sentence. Example:
a
Many people use small sponge to clean their kitchen counters.
“aA

1. Bacteria are invisible organisms that can sometimes make the people
sick.
2. Dangerous germs such as salmonella are commonly found in a some
foods.
3. When acook prepares chicken on cutting board, salmonella germs may
be left on the board.
4. Much people regularly clean their kitchen counters and cutting boards
to remove bacteria.
5. Unfortunately, a warm, wet kitchen sponge is a ideal home for bacteria.

Insert articles as necessary in the following passage. If no

EXERCISE
Bs
32.3
-_
|
article is needed, leave the space blank. Example:

One of _the_ things that makes English unique

is__the number of English words.

—__ English language has —__ very large vocabulary. About

200,000 words are in everyday use, and if less common words
are included, ____ total reaches more than ____ million. This makes ____
English rich language, but also difficult one to learn well. In addi-
tion, rules of English grammar are sometimes confusing. They were
modeled on ____ Latin rules, even though ___ two languages are very dif-
ferent. Finally, __— fact that ___ English has ___ large number of ___
words imported from —__ other languages makes ____ English spelling very
hard to master.
 Checking for words between subject and verb 819

: 33 Subject-Verb Agreement ,
The everyday word agreement refers to an accord of some sort: you
reach an agreement with your boss; friends agree to go to a movie.
This meaning covers grammatical agreement as well. Verbs must
agree with their subjects in number (singular or plural) and in
person (first, second, or third).
To make a verb in the present tense agree with a third-person
singular subject, add -s or -es to the base form.

> A vegetarian diet lowers the risk of heart disease.

To make a verb in the present tense agree with any other subject, use
the base form of the verb.

> I miss my family.

> They live in another state.

Have and be do not follow the -s or -es pattern with third-person

singular subjects. Have changes to has; be has irregular forms in
both the present tense and the past tense.

> War is hell.

> The soldier was brave beyond the call of duty.

33a Checking for words between subject

que and verb

Make sure the verb agrees with the simple subject and not with
another noun that falls between them.
have
> Many books on the best-seller list has little literary value.
The simple subject is books, not list. si

Be careful when you use as well as, along with, in addition to, together
with, and similar phrases. They do not make a singular subject plural.
was
> A passenger, as well as the driver, were injured in the accident.
“a
Though this sentence has a grammatically singular subject, it would
320 Subject-Verb Agreement

be clearer with a compound subject: The driver and a passenger were

injured in the accident.

33b Checking agreement with compound subjects

ERED
Compound subjects joined by and are generally plural.
were
> A backpack, a canteen, and a rifle was issued to each recruit.
A

When subjects joined by and are considered a single unit or refer to

the same person or thing, they take a singular verb form.

> The lead singer and chief songwriter wants to make the new
songs available online.
The singer and songwriter are the same person.

remains
> Drinking and driving ¥emain a major cause of highway accidents
and fatalities. S
In this sentence, drinking and driving is considered a single activity,
and a singular verb is used.

With subjects joined by or or nor, the verb agrees with the part
closer to the verb.

> Neither my roommate nor my neighbors like my loud music.

eae e
> Either the witnesses or the defendant is lying.
If you find this sentence awkward, put the plural noun closer to the
verb: Either the defendant or the witnesses are lying.

Underline the appropriate verb form in each of the follow-

EXERCISE
ing
33.1 sentences. Example:

Bankers, politicians, and philanthropists alike is/are becoming

increasingly interested in microfinance.

1. Many microlending institutions, such as the Grameen Bank, has/have

been in existence for decades.
 Making verbs agree with collective nouns 321

2. In microlending, credit or small loans is/are provided to poor entrepre-

neurs in developing nations.
3. These borrowers and their families usually do/does not possess the col-
lateral required for more traditional loans.
4. A person running a small business or farm is/are often the primary
recipient of a loan.
5. A list of the benefits of microlending includes/include economic
mobility and support for entrepreneurs.

33c Making verbs agree with collective nouns

aD
Collective nouns—such as family, team, audience, group, jury, crowd,
band, class, and committee—and fractions can take either singular
or plural verbs, depending on whether they refer to the group as a
single unit or to the multiple members of the group. The meaning
of a sentence as a whole is your guide.

> After deliberating, the jury reports its verdict.

. . . Yue errs . :

The jury acts as a single unit.

> The jury still disagree on a number of counts.

The members of the jury act as multiple individuals.
has
> Two-thirds of the park have burned.
“A
Two-thirds refers to the single portion of the park that burned.
were
> One-third of the student body was commuters.
“aA
One-third here refers to the students who commuted as individuals.

Treat phrases starting with the number of as singular and with a

number of as plural.
SINGULAR The number of applicants for the internship was
unbelievable.
PLURAL A number of applicants were put on the waiting
list.
 Subject-Verb Agreement

33d Making verbs agree with indefinite

@=== pronouns

Indefinite pronouns do not refer to specific persons or things.

Most take singular verb forms.

SOME COMMON INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

another each much one

any either neither other
anybody everybody nobody somebody
anyone everyone no one someone
anything everything nothing something

Li
> Of the two jobs, neither holds much appeal.
depicts
> Each of the plays dosics a hero undone by a tragic flaw.
A

Both, few, many, others, and several are plural.

a a
> Though many apply, few are chosen.
All, any, enough, more, most, none, and some can be singular or plural ’

depending on the noun they refer to.

> All of the cake was eaten.

> All of the candidates promise to improve the schools.

 Making verbs agree with subjects that end in -s 323

33e@ Making verbs agree with who, which,

e==p and that

When the relative pronouns who, which, and that are used as
subjects, the verb agrees with the antecedent of the pronoun (36b).

> Fear is an ingredient that goes into creating stereotypes.

ENA
> Guilt and fear are ingredients that go into creating stereotypes.

Problems often occur with the words one of the. In general, one of
the takes a plural verb, while the only one of the takes a singular verb.
work
> Carla is one of the employees who always werks overtime.
“A
Some employees always work overtime. Carla is among them. Thus
who refers to employees, and the verb is plural.
works
> Nina is the only one of the employees who always werk overtime.
A
Only one employee, Nina, always works overtime. Thus one is the
antecedent of who, and the verb form must be singular.

33f Making linking verbs agree with subjects

SSD
A linking verb should agree with its subject, which usually pre-
cedes the verb, not with the subject complement, which follows it.
are
> These three key treaties is the topic of my talk.
aA
The subject is treaties, not topic.
was
> Nero Wolfe’s passion were orchids.
“aA
The subject is passion, not orchids.

33g Making verbs agree with subjects

am that end in -s
Some words that end in -s seem to be plural but are singular in
meaning and thus take singular verb forms.
strikes
> Measles still strike many people in North America.
“A
324 Subject-Verb Agreement

Some nouns of this kind (such as statistics and politics) may be

either singular or plural, depending on context.

SINGULAR Statistics is a course I really dread.

PLURAL The statistics in that study are questionable.

33h Checking for subjects that follow the verb

aD
In English, verbs usually follow subjects. When this order is reversed,
make the verb agree with the subject, not with a noun that happens
to precede it.
stand
> Beside the barn stands silos filled with grain.
“aA
The subject, silos, is plural, so the verb must be stand.

In sentences beginning with there is or there are (or there was or there
were), there is just an introductory word; the subject follows the verb.
Pet ee
> There are five basic positions in classical ballet.

33) Making verbs agree with titles and words

@==e used as words

Titles and words used as words always take singular verb forms, even
if their own forms are plural.
describes
> One Writer’s Beginnings deseribe Eudora Welty’s childhood.
“A
1S
> Steroids are a little word that packs a big punch in the world of
a
sports.

>» Revise each of the following sentences as necessary to estab-

Eee es lish subject-verb agreement. Example:
has
A museum displaying O. Winston Link’s photographs have opened
“a
in Roanoke, Virginia.

1. Anyone interested in steam locomotives have probably already heard of

the photographer O. Winston Link.
 Adjectives and Adverbs 325

2. Imagine that it are the 1950s, and Link is creating his famous
photographs.
3. The steam locomotives—the “iron horses” of the nineteenth century—
has begun to give way to diesel engines.
4. Only the Norfolk & Western rail line’s Appalachian route still use
steam engines.
5. Link and his assistant Thomas Garver sets up nighttime shots of steam
locomotives.

33) Considering forms of be in varieties

@=— of English

Conventions for subject-verb agreement with be in both spoken and

vernacular varieties of English may differ from those of academic
English. For instance, an Appalachian speaker might say “I been
down” rather than “I have been down”; a speaker of African American
vernacular might say “He at work” or “He working” rather than “He
is at work.” These usages are legitimate and often very effective forms,
and you may want to use such phrases in your writing, especially to
create special effects or to connect with your audience. (For more on
using varieties of English, see Chapter 23.)

34 Adjectives and Adverbs ,

Adjectives and adverbs can add indispensable differences in mean-
ing to the words they describe or modify. In basketball, for example,
there is an important difference between a flagrant foul and a tech-
nical foul, a layup and a reverse layup, and an angry coach and an
abusively angry coach. In each instance, the modifiers are crucial
to accurate communication.
Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns; they answer the ques-
tions which? how many? and what kind? Adverbs modify verbs,
adjectives, and other adverbs; they answer the questions how?
when? where? and to what extent? Many adverbs are formed by add-
ing -ly to adjectives (slight, slightly), but some are formed in other
ways (outdoors) or have forms of their own (very).
326 Adjectives and Adverbs

34a Using adjectives after linking verbs

CLD
When adjectives come after linking verbs (such as is), they usually
describe the subject: I am patient. Note that in specific sentences,
certain verbs may or may not be linking verbs—appear, become, feel,
grow, look, make, prove, seem, smell, sound, and taste, for instance.
When a word following one of these verbs modifies the subject, use
an adjective; when it modifies the verb, use an adverb.

Lae ee
ADJECTIVE Fluffy looked angry.
y
PSAe
ADVERB Fluffy looked angrily at the poodle.

Linking verbs suggest a state of being, not an action. In the

preceding examples, looked angry suggests the state of being angry;
looked angrily suggests an angry action.
In everyday conversation, you will often hear (and perhaps use)
adjectives in place of adverbs. For example, people often say go quick
instead of go quickly. When you write in academic and professional Eng-
lish, however, use adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
carefully.
> You can feel the song’s meter if you listen earefitt
A
really
> The audience was ¥eat disappointed by the show.
“A

Good, well, bad, and badly The modifiers good, well, bad, and
badly cause problems for many writers because the distinctions
between good and well and between bad and badly are often not
observed in conversation. Problems also arise because well can func-
tion as either an adjective or an adverb.
good
> J look wel in blue.
“a
well
> Now that the fever has broken, I feel geed again.
cay
well.
> I play the trumpet geed-
“aA
bad
v I feel badtdy for the Toronto fans.
A
badly.
v Their team played bad.
“a
 Using adjectives after linking verbs

Using Adjectives with Plural Nouns

In Spanish, Russian, and many other languages, adjectives agree
in number with the nouns they modify. In English, adjectives do
not change number in this way: the kittens are cute (not cutes).

Identify the adjectives and adverbs in each of the following

EXERCISE 34.1
sentences, underlining the adjectives once and the adverbs
twice. Remember that articles and some pronouns can function as adjectives.
Example:

Clubs in Harlem provided a perfectly supportive atmosphere for

up-and-coming Black musicians.

1. Minton’s famous playhouse, the birthplace of bebop, opened in 1938.

2. Wildly popular nightly jam sessions featured well-known musicians
such as Thelonious Monk and Dizzy Gillespie.
3. They founded a brand new style of jazz, full of fast beats and compli-
cated rhythms.
4. Because it was so sophisticated and complex, bebop kept listeners hap-
pily coming in for decades.
5. I wonder what popular contemporary musical forms loyally trace their
origins to much loved and admired bebop?

Expand each of the following sentences by adding appropri-

PERSIE ee ate adjectives and adverbs. Delete the if need be. Example:

Three thoroughly — nervous

The veterinarians examined the patient.
“A a A

I attended the protest march.

2. Many people enjoy video games.
Each of her superiors praised her work for the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency.
4. Acorporation can fire workers.
5. The NASA mission accomplished its goal.
328 Adjectives and Adverbs

Revise each of the following sentences to maintain cor-

EXERCISE 34.3
rect adverb and adjective use. Then, for each adjective and
adverb you've revised, point out the word that it modifies. Example:

commonly
Almost every language ¢enumen uses nonverbal cues that people
“A
can interpret.

1. Most people understand easy that raised eyebrows indicate surprise.

2. You are sure familiar with the idea that bodily motions are a kind of
language, but is the same thing true of nonverbal sounds?
3. Ifyou feel sadly, your friends may express sympathy by saying, “Awww.”
4. When food tastes well, diners often murmur “Mmmm!”
5. These nonverbal signals are called “paralanguage,” and they are quick
becoming an important field of linguistic study.

34b Using comparatives and superlatives

we
Most adjectives and adverbs have three forms: positive, comparative,
and superlative. You usually form the comparative and superlative
of one- or two-syllable adjectives by adding -er and -est: short,
shorter, shortest. With some two-syllable adjectives, longer adjec-
tives, and most adverbs, use more and most (or less and least): sci-
entific, more scientific, most scientific; elegantly, more elegantly, most
elegantly. Some short adjectives and adverbs have irregular compara-
tive and superlative forms: good, better, best; badly, worse, worst.

Comparatives versus superlatives In academic writing, use the

comparative to compare two things; use the superlative to compare
three or more things.

> Rome is a much older city than New York.

oldest
> Damascus is one of the eldesx cities in the world.
“aw

Double comparatives and superlatives Double comparatives

and superlatives are those that unnecessarily use both the -er or -est
ending and more or most. Occasionally, these forms can add a spe-
cial emphasis, as in the title of Spike Lee’s movie Mo’ Better Blues.
 Modifier Placement 329

In academic and professional writing, however, it’s safest not to use

more or most before adjectives or adverbs ending in -er or -est.

> Paris is the mest loveliest city in the world.

Absolute concepts Some readers consider modifiers such as per-

fect and unique to be absolute concepts; according to this view, a
thing is either unique or it isn’t, so modified forms of the concept
don’t make sense. However, many seemingly absolute words have
multiple meanings, all of which are widely accepted as correct. For
example, unique may mean one of a kind or unequaled, but it can also
simply mean distinctive or unusual.
If you think your readers will object to a construction such as more
perfect (which appears in the U.S. Constitution), then avoid such uses.

Revise the following sentences to use comparatives and

EXERCISE 34.4, superlatives correctly, clearly, and effectively. A variety of
acceptable answers is possible for each sentence. Example:

When Macbeth and Lady Macbeth plot to kill the king, she shows
more
herself to be the mest ambitious of the two.
“A

Some critics consider Hamlet to be Shakespeare’s most finest tragedy.

Romeo and Juliet are probably the famousest lovers in all of literature.
Did you like the movie Titus or the play Titus Andronicus best?
One of my earlier memories is of hearing a song from As You Like It.
a Shakespeare supposedly knew little Latin, but most people today know
Bee
LS
even littler.

35 Modifier Placement yy
To be effective, modifiers should clearly refer to the words they
modify and should be positioned close to those words. Consider
this command:
DO NOT USE THE ELEVATORS IN CASE OF FIRE.
330 Edssa Modifier Placement

Should we avoid the elevators altogether, or only in case there is a

fire? Repositioning the modifier in case of fire eliminates such con-
fusion—and makes clear that we are to avoid the elevators only if
there is a fire: IN CASE OF FIRE, DO NOT USE THE ELEVATORS.

35a _ Revising misplaced modifiers

REED
Modifiers can cause confusion or ambiguity if they are not close
enough to the words they modify or if they seem to modify more
than one word in the sentence.
on voodoo
> She teaches a seminar this term en-veedee at Skyline College.
A
The voodoo is not at the college; the seminar is.
He billowing from the window.
> Billewine-fenmthewindewhe saw clouds of smoke/
“aA A
People cannot billow from windows.
After he lost the 1962 race,
> Nixon told reporters that he planned to get out of politics. after
“A “A
he-lostthe-4962-race.
Nixon did not predict that he would lose the race.

Limiting modifiers Be especially careful with the placement of

limiting modifiers such as almost, even, just, merely, and only. In
general, these modifiers should be placed right before or after the
words they modify. Putting them in other positions may produce
not just ambiguity but a completely different meaning.

AMBIGUOUS The court only hears civil cases on Tuesdays.

CLEAR The court hears only civil cases on Tuesdays.
CLEAR The court hears civil cases on Tuesdays only.

Squinting modifiers If a modifier can refer either to the word

before it or to the word after it, it is a squinting modifier. Put the
modifier where it clearly relates to only a single word.

SQUINTING Students who practice writing often will benefit.

REVISED Students who often practice writing will benefit.
REVISED Students who practice writing will often benefit.
 Revising disruptive modifiers 331

Revise each of the following sentences by moving any mis-

EXERCISE 35.1
placed modifiers so that they clearly modify the words they
are intended to. You may have to change grammatical structures for some
sentences. Example:

Elderly people and students live in the neighborhood

full of identical tract houses
surrounding the university/. whieh-is-full efidentical tract houses:
“A “A

1. Some people continued to have large house parties during COVID-19,

which was foolish.
The spoken word artist captivated the entire audience rapping with verve.
I went through the process of diving off the high board in my mind.
The city approximately spent twelve million dollars on the new stadium.
woh Am
vio I the only person who cares about modifiers in sentences that are
misplaced?

35b Revising disruptive modifiers

SEED
Disruptive modifiers interrupt connections between parts of a sen-
tence, making it hard for readers to follow the progress of a thought.
If they are cooked too long, vegetables will
> Vegetables-will ifthey-arecookedteetong, lose most of their
,
“A
nutritional value.

Split infinitives In general, do not place a modifier between the

to and the verb of an infinitive (to often complain). Doing so makes
it hard for readers to recognize that the two go together.
surrender
> Hitler expected the British to fairly quickly. surrender:
A aA

In certain sentences, however, a modifier sounds awkward if it does

not split the infinitive. Most language experts consider split infini-
tives acceptable in such cases. Another option is to reword the sen-
tence to eliminate the infinitive altogether.
SPLIT I hope to almost equal my last year’s income.
REVISED I hope that I will earn almost as much as I did
last year.
332 Modifier Placement

Revise each of the following sentences by moving disruptive

EXERCISE 35.2 modifiers and split infinitives as well as by repositioning
any squinting modifier so that it unambiguously modifies either the word(s)
before it or the word(s) after it. Example:

The course we hoped would engross us completely bored us.

The course we hoped would completely engross us bored us.
or
The course we hoped would engross us bored us completely.

1. He remembered vividly enjoying the sound of Camila Cabello’s singing.

2. Bookstores sold, in the first week after publication of Michelle Obama’s
Becoming, 1.4 million copies.
3. The mayor promised after her reelection she would not raise taxes.
4. The collector who owned the painting originally planned to leave it to
a museum.
5. Doctors can now restore limbs that have been severed partially to a
functioning condition.

35C Revising dangling modifiers

GEzeae

Dangling modifiers are words or phrases that modify nothing in

the rest of a sentence. They often seem to modify something that is
implied but not actually present in the sentence. Dangling modi-
fiers frequently appear at the beginnings or ends of sentences, as in
the following example:

DANGLING Exploding in rapid bursts of red, white, and blue, the

picnickers cheered for the Fourth of July celebration.
REVISED With fireworks exploding in rapid bursts of red,
white, and blue, the picnickers cheered for the
Fourth of July celebration.

To revise a dangling modifier, often you need to add a subject

that the modifier clearly refers to; sometimes you have to turn the
modifier into a phrase or a clause.
our family gave
» Reluctantly, the hound was-givern to a neighbor.
A
In the original sentence, was the dog reluctant, or was someone else
who is not mentioned reluctant?
 Pronouns 333

When he was
> As a young boy, his grandparents told stories of their years as
“A
migrant workers.
His grandparents, together, were never a young boy.
My
> Fhumbine throughthemagazine—my eyes automatically noticed
ae as | was thumbing through the magazine.
the perfume ads/
Eyes cannot thumb through a magazine.

EXERCISE 35.3
Revise each of the following sentences to correct the dan-
EXERCISE 35 ~ gling modifiers. Example:
a viewer gets
Watching television news, an impression is-given of constant
. “A
disaster.

High ratings are pursued by emphasizing fires and murders.

2. Interviewing famous chefs, little consideration is shown for their
privacy.
3. To provide comic relief, heat waves and blizzards are attributed to the
weather forecaster.
4. Featured as a field investigator, the credentials of the reporter also
include lead news writer.
5. As a visual medium, complex issues are hard to present in a televised
format.

a 36 Pronouns ,

As words that stand in for nouns, pronouns carry a lot of weight

in our everyday discourse. The following directions show why it’s
important for a pronoun to refer clearly to a specific noun or pronoun
antecedent:

> When you see a dirt road on the left side of Winston Lane,
follow it for two more miles.
The word it could mean either the dirt road or Winston Lane.
 Pronouns

36a Considering a pronoun’s role

“umm in the sentence

Most speakers of English usually know intuitively when to use I,

me, and my. The choices reflect differences in case, the form a
pronoun takes to indicate its function in a sentence. Pronouns
functioning as subjects or subject complements are in the sub-
jective case (I); those functioning as objects are in the objective
case (me); those functioning as possessives are in the possessive
case (my).

SUBJECTIVE OBJECTIVE POSSESSIVE

I me my/mine
we us our/ours
you you your/yours
he/she/it him/her/it his/her/hers/its
they them their/theirs
who/whoever whom/whomever whose

Problems tend to occur in the following situations.

In subject complements Americans routinely use the objective

case for subject complements in conversation: Who’s there? It’s me.
If the subjective case for a subject complement sounds stilted or
awkward (It’s I), try rewriting the sentence using the pronoun as
the subject (I’m here).
| was the
> The first person to see Kishore after the awards. was-
“A A

Before gerunds Pronouns before a gerund should be in the

possessive case.
their
> The doctor argued for them writing a living will.
A

With who, whoever, whom, and whomever Today’s speakers

tend not to use whom and whomever, which can create a very formal
tone. But for academic and professional writing in which formality
is appropriate, remember that problems distinguishing between who
and whom occur most often in two situations: when they begin a
 Considering a pronoun’s role in the sentence 335

question, and when they introduce a dependent clause (39d). You

can determine whether to use who or whom at the beginning of a
question by answering the question using a personal pronoun. If
the answer is in the subjective case, use who; if it is in the objective
case, use whom.
Whom
> Whe did you visit?
Aa
I visited them. Them is objective, so whom is correct.
Who
> her do you think wrote the story?
“a
I think she wrote the story. She is subjective, so who is correct.

If the pronoun acts as a subject or subject complement in the clause,

use who or whoever. If the pronoun acts as an object in the clause,
use whom or whomever.
who
>» Anyone can hypnotize a person whem wants to be hypnotized.
“A
The verb of the clause is wants, and its subject is who.
Whomever
> Mheever the party suspected of disloyalty was executed.
A
Whomever is the object of suspected in the clause whomever the party
suspected of disloyalty.

In compound structures When a pronoun is part of a com-

pound subject, complement, or object, put it in the same case you
would use if the pronoun were alone.
he
> When him and Zelda were first married, they lived in New York.
a
me.
> This morning saw yet another conflict between my sister and &
aA

In elliptical constructions Elliptical constructions are sentences

in which some words are understood but left out. When an ellipti-
cal construction ends in a pronoun, put the pronoun in the case it
would be in if the construction were complete.

> His sister has always been more athletic than he [is].

In some elliptical constructions, the case of the pronoun depends

on the meaning intended.
 §$36@a Pronouns

WY Checklist
Editing Pronouns
VY Make sure all pronouns in subject complements are in the
subjective case. (36a)
VY Check for correct use of who, whom, whoever, and whom-
ever. (36a)
Y In compound structures, check that pronouns are in the same
case they would be in if used alone. (36a)
~Y When a pronoun follows than or as, complete the sentence
mentally to determine whether the pronoun should be in the
subjective or objective case. (36a)
V Check that pronouns agree with indefinite-pronoun anteced-
ents, and revise sexist and noninclusive pronouns. (36b)
V Besensitive to pronoun choices; do not assume that all indi-
viduals identify with either he or she. (36b)
V Identify the antecedent that a pronoun refers to. Supply one
if none appears in the sentence. If more than one possible
antecedent is present, revise the sentence. (36c)

> Nolan likes Lily more than she [likes Lily].

She is the subject of the omitted verb likes.

> Nolan likes Lily more than [he likes] her.

Her is the object of the omitted verb likes.

With we and us before anoun If you are unsure about whether

to use we or us before a noun, use whichever pronoun would be cor-
rect if the noun were omitted.
We
> Us fans never give up hope.
A
Without fans, we would be the subject.
us
>» The Broncos depend on we fans.
“A

Without fans, us would be the object of the preposition on.

 Considering a pronoun’s role in the sentence 337

Some of the following sentences contain underlined pro-

EXERCISE 36.1
nouns used incorrectly. Revise each of the incorrect sen-
tences so that they contain correct pronouns. Example:
me
Eventually, the headwaiter told Kim, Stanley, and I that we could be
“A
seated.

Who do you think is the better tennis player, Mac or he?

2. Her and Lena made signs for the rally before they left.
When we asked, the seller promised we that the software would work
on our computer.
4. Though even the idea of hang gliding made Gretchen and she nervous,
they gave it a try.
5. The teacher said us had asked thoughtful questions.

Insert who, whoever, whom, or whomever appropriately in

peRenOse 36:2) the blank in each of the following sentences. Example:

Marisa is someone _“/°_ will go far.

1. Professor Quinones asked we wanted to collaborate with.

2. I would appreciate it if made the mess in the kitchen

could clean it up.

3. shall I say is calling?

4. True crime podcasts appeal to is interested in intrigue,

suspense, storytelling, deviance, and justice.

5. I have no sympathy for was caught driving drunk after

the party Friday night.

) Choose the correct pronoun from the pair in parentheses in

- each of the following sentences. Example:

Of the group, only (she/her) and I finished the race.

1. All the other job applicants were far more experienced than (I/me).
2. Only (he/him) and the two dressmakers knew what his top-secret fall
line would be like.
338 Pronouns

3. When Jessica and (she/her) first met, they wondered if they would be
friends.
4, I know that I will never again meet anyone as impressive as (she/
her).
5. To (we/us) New Englanders, hurricanes are a far bigger worry than
tornadoes.

36b Making pronouns agree with antecedents

aaa
The antecedent of a pronoun is the word the pronoun refers to.
Pronouns and antecedents are said to agree when they match up in
person, number, and gender.
Asgarons i
SINGULAR The choirmaster raised his baton.
Gn oa
PLURAL The boys picked up their music.

The use of the plural pronoun they to refer to singular antecedents is

also acceptable. (See p. 339 for more on inclusive pronouns.)
a
SINGULAR The choirmaster raised their baton.

Compound antecedents Whenever a compound antecedent is

joined by or or nor, the pronoun agrees with the nearer or nearest
antecedent. If the parts of the antecedent are of different genders,
this kind of sentence can be awkward and may need to be revised.

AWKWARD Neither Ann nor Marc got his grade.

REVISED Ann didn’t get her grade, and neither did Marc.

When a compound antecedent contains both singular and plu-

ral parts, the sentence may sound awkward unless the plural part
comes last.

> Neither the blog nor the newspapers would reveal their sources.

Collective-noun antecedents A collective noun such as herd,

team, or audience may refer to a group as a single unit. If so, use a
singular pronoun.

> The committee presented its findings to the board.

 Making pronouns agree with antecedents 339

When a collective noun refers to the members of the group as

individuals, however, use a plural pronoun.

> The herd stamped their hooves and snorted nervously.

Indefinite-pronoun antecedents Indefinite pronouns do not

refer to specific persons or things. Most indefinite pronouns are
always singular; a few are always plural. Some can be singular or
plural depending on the context.

> One of the ballerinas lost her balance.

ha ~ a eo. i aia
> Many in the audience jumped to their feet.
a).
SINGULAR Some of the furniture was showing its age.
hae Te
PLURAL Some of the farmers abandoned their land.

Inclusive pronouns and singular they Remember that pro-

nouns often refer to antecedents of unknown gender. Many
writers use he or she, his or her, and so on to refer to such ante-
cedents: Every citizen should know his or her legal rights, for exam-
ple. However, such wording ignores or even excludes people who
do not identify as male or female or who do not use he or she
pronouns. Recasting the sentence in the plural is one alternative
that is more inclusive: All citizens should know their legal rights.
But note that “singular they” is now widely used and accepted
(Every citizen should know their legal rights), providing another
good alternative. When in doubt, you may also choose to elimi-
nate pronouns altogether: Every citizen should have some knowl-
edge of basic legal rights. For more on gender-neutral pronouns
and singular they, see 22b.

Revise the following sentences as needed to create pronoun-

i antecedent agreement and to eliminate any exclusionary,
sexist, orpenal pronoun references. Some sentences can be revised in more
than one way. For the sentence that is correct as written, write Correct. Example:

Almost everyone will encounter some type of allergy in his lifetime.

Most people will encounter some type of allergy in their lifetime.
340 Pronouns

1. In general, neither dust mites nor pollen can cause life-threatening

reactions, but it is among the most common allergens known.
2. A family that is prone to allergies may have a higher than usual per-
centage of allergic diseases, but their specific allergies are not necessar-
ily the same for all family members.
3. If a person suspects that he might have an allergy, he can go to the
doctor for a skin test or blood test.
4. Because of the severity and frequency of nut allergies in small children,
a typical day-care center has rules specifying that they cannot allow any
nut products.
5. Every meal and treat that is brought into a center must be screened to
make sure their contents are nut-free.

36C Making pronouns refer to clear antecedents

CElED
If a pronoun does not refer clearly to a specific antecedent, readers
will have trouble making the connection between the two.

Ambiguous antecedents In cases where a pronoun could refer

to more than one antecedent, revise the sentence to make the
meaning clear.
the bridge
> The car went over the bridge just before # fell into the water.
A
What fell into the water—the car or the bridge? The revision makes
the meaning clear.
=

> Kerry told Ellen, that-she should be ready soon.

cay A
Reporting Kerry’s words directly, in quotation marks, eliminates the
ambiguity.

Vague use of it, this, that, and which The words it, this, that,
and which often function as a shortcut for referring to something
mentioned earlier. Like other pronouns, each must refer to a spe-
cific antecedent.

> When the senators realized the bill would be defeated, they tried
The entire effort
to postpone the vote but failed. # was a fiasco.
“a
 Making pronouns refer to clear antecedents 341

and her sudden wealth

> Jasmine just found out that she won the lottery, whieh explains
her resignation. ea

Indefinite use of you, it, and they In conversation, we often

use you, it, and they in an indefinite sense in such expressions as you
never know and on television, they said. In academic and professional
writing, however, use you only to mean “you, the reader,” and they
or it only to refer to a clear antecedent.
eople
> Commercials try to make ee bay without thinking.
“a
The
> Onthe Weather Channel/it reported a powerful earthquake in
“a
China.
Many restaurants in France
; allow dogs. in-manyrestaurants-
aA “A

Implied antecedents A pronoun may suggest a noun antecedent

that is implied but not present in the sentence.

> Detention centers routinely blocked efforts by detainees~ families

detainees.
and lawyers to locate them-
“A

Revise each of the following sentences to clarify pronoun

EXERCISE 36.5 reference. All the items can be revised in more than one
way. If a pronoun refers ambiguously to more than one possible antecedent,
revise the sentence to reflect each possible meaning. Example:

After Jane left, Miranda found her keys.

Miranda found Jane’s keys after Jane left.
or
Miranda found her own keys after Jane left.

Quint trusted Smith because she had worked for her before.
Not long after the company set up the subsidiary, it went bankrupt.
When Deyon was reunited with his father, he wept.
Bill smilingly announced to Ed his promotion.
ag On the weather forecast, it said to expect snow in the overnight hours.
ee
ID
ES
Sa
342 Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases

37 Prepositions and Prepositional

Phrases
Words such as to and from, which show the relationships between
other words, are prepositions. They are one of the more challeng-
ing elements of English writing.

37a Choosing the right preposition

Hes
Even if you usually know where to use prepositions, you may have
difficulty knowing which preposition to use. Each of the most com-
mon prepositions has a wide range of different applications, and
this range never coincides exactly from one language to another.
See, for example, how in and on are used in English.

> The peaches are in the refrigerator.

> The peaches are on the table.
> Is that a diamond ring on your finger?

The Spanish translations of these sentences all use the same prepo-
sition (en), a fact that might lead you astray in English.
There is no easy solution to the challenge of using English preposi-
tions idiomatically, but a few strategies can make it less troublesome.

Know typical examples The object of the preposition in is

often a container that encloses something; the object of the prep-
osition on is often a horizontal surface that supports something
touching it.

IN The peaches are in the refrigerator.

There are still some pickles in the jar.
ON The peaches are on the table.

Learn related examples Prepositions that are not used in typical

ways may still show some similarities to typical examples.

IN You shouldn’t drive in a snowstorm.

Like a container, the falling snow surrounds the driver. The preposi-
tion in is used for many weather-related expressions.
 Choosing the right preposition 343

ON Is that a diamond ring on your finger?

The preposition on is used to describe things you wear.

Use your imagination Mental images can help you remember

figurative uses of prepositions.

IN Michael is in love.

Imagine a warm bath—or a raging torrent—in which Michael is

immersed.

ON I’ve just read a book on social media.

Imagine the book sitting on a shelf labeled “Social Media.”

Learn prepositions as part of asystem In identifying the loca-

tion of a place or an event, the three prepositions in, on, and at can
be used. At specifies the exact point in space or time; in is required
for expanses of space or time within which a place is located or an
event takes place; and on must be used with the names of streets
(but not exact addresses) and with days of the week or month.

AT There will be a meeting tomorrow at 9:30 am at 160

Main Street.
IN I arrived in the United States in January.
ON The airline’s office is on Fifth Avenue.
I’ll be moving to my new apartment on September 30.

Insert one or more appropriate prepositions in each of the

_EXERCISE
>
37.1
_ following sentences. Example:

We will have the answer _?Y_ four o’clock this afternoon.

dey Shalliwe cat ee

22 the kitchen or just take food
the deck?
Zemlehate, bikinpres
aire
ree techercity pee
eee ees SHOUT

3. Have you ever cried _____a really sad movie?

4. Griffin won the race __________ more than a full meter.
5, Some contemporary string quartets are known ___________ their
experimental styles.
344 Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases

37b Using two-word verbs idiomatically

PERS
Some words that look like prepositions do not always function as
prepositions. Consider the following sentences:

> The balloon rose off the ground.

> The plane took off without difficulty.

In the first sentence, off is a preposition that introduces the prepo-

sitional phrase off the ground. In the second sentence, off neither
functions as a preposition nor introduces a prepositional phrase.
Instead, it combines with took to form a two-word verb with its
own meaning. Such a verb is called a phrasal verb, and the word off,
when used in this way, is called an adverbial particle. Many preposi-
tions can function as particles to form phrasal verbs.
The verb + particle combination that makes up a phrasal verb is
a single entity that cannot usually be torn apart.
off
> The plane took without difficulty. ef
a “A

Exceptions include some phrasal verbs that are transitive, meaning

that they take a direct object. Some of these verbs have particles
that may be separated from the verb by the object.

> I picked up my baggage at the terminal.

> JI picked my baggage up at the terminal.

If a personal pronoun is used as the direct object, it must separate

the verb from its particle.
it
> I picked up # at the terminal.
“a

In idiomatic two-word verbs where the second word is a preposition,

the preposition can never be separated from the verb.

> Weran into our neighbor on the train. [not ran our neighbor into]
The combination run + into has a special meaning (find by chance).
Therefore, run into is a two-word verb.

Identify each italicized expression as either a two-word verb

» oraverb + preposition. Example:

Look up John Brown the next time you’re in town. two-word verb
 Separating the clauses into two sentences 345

George was still looking for the keys when we left.

I always turn down the thermostat when I go to bed or leave the house.
Marion gave back the borrowed scarf.
Jimmy takes after his father, poor thing.
SSThe car turned into the driveway.
ee
a

38 comma Splices and Fused

Sentences
A comma splice results from placing only a comma between inde-
pendent clauses—groups of words that can stand alone as a sen-
tence. We often see comma splices used effectively to give slogans a
catchy rhythm, for example.

> Dogs have owners, cats have staff. —Bumper Sticker

A related construction is a fused sentence, or run-on, which results

from joining two independent clauses with no punctuation or con-
necting word between them. The bumper sticker as a fused sentence
would be “Dogs have owners cats have staff.”
In academic and professional English, using comma splices or
fused sentences will almost always be identified as an error, so be
careful if you are using them for special effect.

38a _ Separating the clauses into two sentences

anes
The simplest way to revise comma splices or fused sentences is to
separate them into two sentences.
COMMA SPLICE My mother spends long hours every spring

tilling the soil and moving manure/.

Ti A

fhis part of gardening is nauseating.

tay

If the clauses are very short, making them two sentences may sound
abrupt and terse, so another method of revision may be preferable.
 Comma Splices and Fused Sentences

38b Linking the clauses with a comma

@==e and a coordinating conjunction

If the two clauses are closely related and equally important, join
them with a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but,
or, nor, for, so, or yet).
S50
FUSED SENTENCE Interest rates fell, people began borrowing more
“aA
money.

38c Linking the clauses with a semicolon

GEES

If the ideas in the two clauses are closely related and you want to
give them equal emphasis, link them with a semicolon.

COMMA SPLICE This photograph is not at all realistic/; it uses

“A
dreamlike images to convey its message.

Be careful when you link clauses with a conjunctive adverb like

however or therefore or with a transition like in fact. In such sen-
tences, the two clauses must be separated by a semicolon or by a
comma and a coordinating conjunction.

COMMA SPLICE Many low-income countries have high

birthrates/; therefore, most of their citizens
“aA “Aa
are young.

Judging Sentence Length

In U.S. academic contexts, readers sometimes find a series of short
sentences “choppy” and hard to read. If you want to connect two
independent clauses into one sentence, join them using one of
the methods discussed in this chapter to avoid creating a comma
splice or fused sentence. Another useful tip for writing in stan-
dardized English is to avoid writing several very long sentences in
a row. If you find this pattern in your writing, try breaking it up
by including a shorter sentence occasionally. You might also read
your writing aloud or have someone read it to you: if you begin
to lose the meaning of a sentence, it may be too long.
 Linking the two clauses with a dash

38d Rewriting the two clauses as one

@=aap independent clause

Sometimes you can reduce two spliced or fused independent clauses

to a single independent clause.
Most
FUSED SENTENCE A-targe-part of my mail is advertisements
“A

and
mostofthe+restis bills.
Fay

38e Rewriting one independent clause

@==p as a dependent clause

When one independent clause is more important than the other, try
converting the less important one to a dependent clause by adding
an appropriate subordinating conjunction.
Although
COMMA SPLICE Zora Neale Hurston is now regarded as one of
“a
America’s major novelists, she died in obscurity.
In the revision, the writer emphasizes the second clause and makes
the first one into a dependent clause by adding the subordinating
conjunction although.
, which reacted against mass production,
FUSED SENTENCE The arts and crafts movement called for
aA
handmade objects. it+eacted-againstmass-
a

production:
In the revision, the writer chooses to emphasize the first clause (the
one describing what the movement advocated) and make the second
clause into a dependent clause.

38f Linking the two clauses with a dash

SRE
In informal writing, you can use a dash to join the two clauses,
especially when the second clause elaborates on the first clause.

COMMA SPLICE Exercise trends come and go/ this year yoga
is hot.
348 Comma Splices and Fused Sentences

Revise each of the following comma splices or fused sen-

EXERCISE 38.1
tences by using the method suggested in brackets after the
sentence. Example:
but
Americans think of slavery as a problem of the past, it still exists
in some parts of the world. [Join with a comma and a coordinating
conjunction.]

1. We tend to think of slavery only in U.S. terms in fact, it began long before
the United States existed and still goes on. [Separate into two sentences. ]
2. Slavery has existed in Mauritania for centuries it continues today. [Join
with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.|
3. Members of Mauritania’s ruling group are called the Beydanes, they are
an Arab Berber tribe also known as the White Moors. [Recast as one
independent clause.|
4. Another group in Mauritania is known as the Haratin or the Black
Moors, they are native West Africans. [Separate into two sentences. ]
5. In modern-day Mauritania, many of the Haratin are still enslaved, they
serve the Beydanes. [Join with a semicolon. ]

EXERCISE 38.2 Revise the following paragraph, eliminating comma splices

by using a period or a semicolon. Then revise the paragraph
again, this time using any of these three methods:

Separate independent clauses into sentences of their own.

Recast two or more clauses as one independent clause.

Recast one independent clause as a dependent clause.

Comment on the two revisions. What differences in rhythm do you detect?

Which version do you prefer, and why?

My sister Julie is planning a much-needed vacation, obviously she is very

excited. At first, she hoped for a cruise to the Bahamas, in fact, she went so
far as to book a flight. When the virus hit and the economic crisis occurred
she decided to change plans why not take a road trip instead? Julie decided
to drive from Santa Fe to San Francisco, also she wanted at least one friend
to go with her why not? She plotted out the trip so that she would not have
to drive more than 300 miles a day, that made her feel she could manage
without getting too tired. In the end she and her best friend ended the trip
in San Diego, what an adventure they had!
 Identifying sentence fragments

7 39 Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragments are often used to make writing sound conversa-
tional, as in this Twitter post:

Realizing that there are no edible #bagels in this part of Oregon. Sigh.

Or they often create a special effect, as in this familiar advertisement:

“Got milk?”

As these examples show, fragments—groups of words that are

punctuated as sentences but are not sentences—often appear in
intentionally informal writing and in public writing that aims to
attract attention or give a phrase special emphasis. But think care-
fully before using fragments for special effect in academic or pro-
fessional writing, where some readers might regard them as errors.

39a _ identifying sentence fragments

Se

A group of words must meet three criteria to form a complete sen-

tence. If it does not meet all three, it is a fragment. Revise a frag-
ment by combining it with a nearby sentence or by rewriting it as a
complete sentence.

1. A sentence must have a subject.

2. Asentence must have a verb, not just a verbal.

VERB The terrier is barking.

VERBAL The terrier barking.

3. Unless it is a question, a sentence must have at least one clause

that does not begin with a subordinating word. Following are some
common subordinating words:

although how though whether

as if unless which
because since when who
before that where
350 Sentence Fragments

39b Revising phrase fragments

Bese)
A phrase is a group of words that lacks a subject, a verb, or both.
When a phrase is punctuated like a sentence, it becomes a fragment.
To revise a phrase fragment, attach it to an independent clause, or
make it a separate sentence.
with
>» CNN is broadcasting the debates/ With discussions afterward.
“aA
With discussions afterward is a prepositional phrase, not a sentence.
The editing combines the phrase with an independent clause.
a
> The town’s growth is controlled by zoning laws/, A strict set of
regulations for builders and corporations. 4
A strict set of regulations for builders and corporations is a phrase
renaming zoning laws. The editing attaches the fragment to the
sentence containing that noun.

> Kamika stayed out of law school for three months after Linda
She did so to
was born. ¥e recuperate and to take care of her baby.
“a
The revision—adding a subject (she) and a verb (did)—turns the
fragment into a separate sentence.

Fragments beginning with transitions If you introduce an

example or explanation with a transitional word or phrase like also,
for example, such as, or that, be certain you write a sentence, not a
fragment.
such
> Joan Didion has written on many SUBSE LG
Such as the Hoover
Dam and migraine headaches.
The second word group is a phrase, not a sentence. The editing
combines it with an independent clause.

» Choose a magazine or web advertisement that contains

7-! intentional fragments. Rewrite the advertisement to elimi-
nate all sentence fragments. Be prepared to explain how your version and the
original differ in impact and why you think the copywriters for the ad chose
to use fragments rather than complete sentences.
 Revising clause fragments 351

39c Revising compound-predicate fragments

eum
A fragment occurs when one part of a compound predicate lacks
a subject but is punctuated as a separate sentence. Such a frag-
ment usually begins with and, but, or or. You can revise it by
attaching it to the independent clause that contains the rest of
the predicate.
and
> They sold their house/ And moved into an apartment.
A

39d Revising clause fragments

RED
A dependent clause contains both a subject and a verb, but it can-
not stand alone as a sentence; it depends on an independent clause
to complete its meaning. A dependent clause usually begins with a
subordinating conjunction, such as after, because, before, if, since,
that, though, unless, until, when, where, while, who, or which. You can
usually combine dependent-clause fragments with a nearby inde-
pendent clause.

> When I decided to switch to part-time work), I gave up a lot of

my earning potential.

If you cannot smoothly attach a clause to a nearby independent

clause, try deleting the opening subordinating word and turning the
dependent clause into a sentence.
An
> Most injuries in automobile accidents occur in two ways. When
ray
an occupant either is hurt by something inside the car or is
thrown from the car.

Revise each of the following fragments, either by combining

fragments with independent clauses or by rewriting them as
ee sentences. Example:

Zoe looked close to tears. Standing with her head bowed.

Standing with her head bowed, Zoe looked close to tears.
or
Zoe looked close to tears. She was standing with her head bowed.
 Sentence Fragments

1. The Weeknd is famous for his pop songs. For example, “Starboy” and
“Blinding Lights.”
2. Attempting to win the science fair. I built a five-foot solar-powered
submarine.
3. Diners in Creole restaurants might try shrimp gumbo. Or order turtle
soup.
4. My community group saved our local watershed from logging. Working
together to improve our environment.
5. In 2020, hundreds of thousands of activists worked toward racial
justice. Marches and demonstrations in which they protested police
brutality.

Underline every fragment you find in the following para-

EXERCISE 39.3
graph. Then revise the paragraph. You may combine or re-
arrange sentences as long as you retain the original content.

To study abroad or not. That is a major decision for many college stu-
dents. Some will consider domestic programs at universities across the coun-
try. Traditionally, approaching their junior year. Opportunities for study in
major cities and in small villages. Programs to satisfy every interest and
major. There’s a lot to think about. Applications, courses, airfare, accommo-
dations, and visas. Those who accept the challenge are generally rewarded.
With a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. Students who travel to international
destinations can thoroughly immerse themselves in the culture, language,
traditions, and foods of their host country. And end up with new friends,
an enhanced résumé, and a sense of self-reliance. Why not check with your
college today? To see what kinds of global and domestic study programs you
might apply to.
 Punctuation/
Mechanics

LO Commas 354

- Semicolons 365

' End Punctuation 367

, Apostrophes 370

44 Quotation Marks 373

yi Other Punctuation 377

€ 6 Capital Letters 384

47 Abbreviations and Numbers 387

a 40 Commas >

It’s hard to go through a day without encountering directions of

some kind, and commas often play a crucial role in how you inter-
pret instructions. See how important the comma is in the following
directions for making hot cereal:
Add Cream of Wheat slowly, stirring constantly.
That sentence tells the cook to add the cereal slowly. If the comma
came before the word slowly, however, the cook might add all of the
cereal at once and stir slowly.

40a ‘Setting off introductory elements

ES
In general, use a comma after any word, phrase, or clause that
precedes the subject of the sentence.

> ALU 5health care costs keep rising.

> Wearing new tap AES: Audrey prepared for the recital.

> To win the game, players need both skill and luck.

> Fingers on the keyboard, Maya waited for the test to begin.

> While her friends watched, Lila practiced her gymnastics routine.

Some writers omit the comma after a short introductory element

that does not seem to require a pause after it. However, you will
never be wrong if you use a comma.

In the following sentences, add any commas that are needed

after the introductory element. Example:

As early as 1400 Bc, chocolate was used in what is now Latin

America. S

1. Strangely enough for centuries chocolate was only known as a drink.

Even stranger chocolate did not include sugar.
3. By the 1600s chocolate was a favorite though bitter drink of wealthy
people in Europe.
354
 Separating clauses in compound sentences @OBb 9] 355

4, In the early nineteenth century a Dutch chemist finally figured out

how to make chocolate less bitter.
5. Later in the century solid chocolate was created and the rest is history!

40b Separating clauses in compound sentences

a
A comma usually precedes a coordinating conjunction (and, but,
or, nor, for, so, or yet) that joins two independent clauses in a
compound sentence.

> The climbers must reach the summit today, or they will have to
turn back. 4

keSAS Checklist
Editing for Commas
Research for this book shows that five of the most common errors
in college writing involve commas.
¥V Check that a comma separates an introductory word, phrase,
or clause from the main part of the sentence. (40a)
Y Look at every sentence that contains a coordinating conjunc-
tion (and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet). If the groups of words
before and after this conjunction both function as complete
sentences, use a comma before the conjunction. (40b)
VY Look at each adjective clause beginning with which, who,
whom, whose, when, or where and at each phrase and
appositive. If the rest of the sentence would have a different
meaning without the clause, phrase, or appositive, do not set
off the element with commas. (40c)
VY Make sure that adjective clauses beginning with that are not
set off with commas. Do not use commas between subjects
and verbs, verbs and objects or complements, or prepositions
and objects; to separate parts of compound constructions
other than compound sentences; to set off restrictive clauses;
or before the first or after the last item in a series. (40i)
VY Do not use a comma alone to separate two sentences. (See
Chapter 38.)
356 Commas

With very short clauses, you can sometimes omit the comma (She
saw her chance and she took it). But always use the comma if there is
a chance the sentence will be misread without it.

> I opened the heavy junk drawer, and the cabinet door jammed.
“A

Use a semicolon rather than a comma when the clauses are long
and complex or contain their own commas.

> When these early migrations took place, the ice was still confined
to the lands in the far north; but eight hundred thousand
years ago, when man was already established in the temperate
latitudes, the ice moved southward until it covered large parts of
Europe and Asia. —Robert Jastrow, Until the Sun Dies

Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or,

EXERCISE 40.2
for, nor, so, or yet) to combine each of the following pairs of
sentences into one sentence. Delete or rearrange words if necessary. Example:
yet many
There is a lot of talk these days about computer viruses/, Many
people do not know what they really are. *

1. Computer viruses are software programs. They are created to spread

from one computer to another.
2. A biological virus cannot replicate itself. A virus must inject its DNA
into a cell to reproduce.
3. Similarly, a computer virus must hitch on to some other computer pro-
gram. Then it can launch itself.
4. These viruses can be totally destructive or basically benign. When
people think of computer viruses, they generally think of the former.
5. Most viruses spread easily via attachments. People should never open
an email attachment unless they know the sender.

40c Setting off nonrestrictive elements

Rap
Nonrestrictive elements are word groups that do not limit, or
restrict, the meaning of the noun or pronoun they modify. Setting
nonrestrictive elements off with commas shows your readers that
the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
 Setting off nonrestrictive elements 357

Restrictive elements, on the other hand, are essential to meaning

and should not be set off with commas. The same sentence may
mean different things with and without the commas:

> The bus drivers rejecting the management offer remained on

strike.
> The bus drivers, rejecting the management offer, remained on
strike. CF SS
The first sentence says that only some bus drivers, the ones rejecting
the offer, remained on strike. The second says that all the drivers did.

Since the decision to include or omit commas influences how

readers will interpret your sentence, you should think especially
carefully about what you mean and use commas (or omit them)
accordingly.
RESTRICTIVE Drivers who have been convicted of DUI should
lose their licenses.
In the preceding sentence, the clause who have been convicted of DUI
is essential because it explains that only drivers who have been con-
victed of drunken driving should lose their licenses. Therefore, it is
not set off with commas.
NONRESTRICTIVE The two drivers involved in the accident, who
have been convicted of DUI, should lose their
licenses.

In this sentence, however, the clause who have been convicted of DUI
is not essential to the meaning because it does not limit what it
modifies, The two drivers involved in the accident, but merely provides
additional information about these drivers. Therefore, the clause is
set off with commas.
To decide whether an element is restrictive or nonrestrictive, men-
tally delete the element, and see if the deletion changes the meaning
of the rest of the sentence. If the deletion does change the meaning,
you should probably not set the element off with commas. If it does
not change the meaning, the element probably requires commas.

Adjective and adverb clauses An adjective clause that begins

with that is always restrictive; do not set it off with commas. An
adjective clause beginning with which may be either restrictive or
358 Commas

nonrestrictive; however, some writers prefer to use which only for

nonrestrictive clauses, which they set off with commas.

RESTRICTIVE CLAUSES

> The claim that men like seriously to battle one another to some sort
of finish is a myth.
—John McMurtry, “Kill Em! Crush ’Em! Eat Em Raw!”
The adjective clause is necessary to the meaning because it explains
which claim is a myth; therefore, the clause is not set off with commas.

> The man/ who rescued Jana’s puppy/ won her eternal gratitude.
The adjective clause is necessary to the meaning because it identifies
the man, so it takes no commas.

NONRESTRICTIVE CLAUSES

> I borrowed books from the rental library of Shakespeare and

Company, which was the library and bookstore of Sylvia Beach at
12 rue de POdeon. —Ernest Hemingway, A Moveable Feast
The adjective clause is not necessary to the meaning of the indepen-
dent clause and therefore is set off with a comma.

An adverb clause that follows a main clause does not usually require
a comma to set it off unless the adverb clause expresses contrast.

> The park became a popular gathering place, although nearby

residents complained about the noise. ae
The adverb clause expresses contrast, so it is set off with a comma.

Phrases Participial phrases may be restrictive or nonrestrictive.

Prepositional phrases are usually restrictive, but sometimes they are
not essential to the meaning of a sentence and thus are set off with
commas.

NONRESTRICTIVE PHRASES

> The NBA star’s little daughter, refusing to be ignored, interrupted

the interview. 2 =
Using commas around the participial phrase (refusing to be ignored)
makes it nonrestrictive.
 Separating items in a series

Appositives An appositive is anoun or noun phrase that renames

a nearby noun. When an appositive is not essential to identify what
it renames, it is set off with commas.

NONRESTRICTIVE APPOSITIVES

> Savion Glover, the award-winning dancer, taps like poetry in

A A
motion.
Savion Glover’s name identifies him; the appositive the award-
winning dancer provides extra information.

RESTRICTIVE APPOSITIVES

> Mozart’s opera/ The Marriage of Figaro/ was considered

revolutionary.
The phrase is restrictive because Mozart wrote more than one opera.
Therefore, it is not set off with commas.

EXERCISE 40.3. First, underline the restrictive or nonrestrictive elements in

the following sentences. Then, use commas to set off the non-
restrictive elements in any of the sentences that contain such elements. Example:

A Tale of Two Cities, one of Charles Dickens’s most famous works,

“A aA
was first published in 1859.

Everyone who runs in the race will get a T-shirt and a small backpack.
Mammals that have pouches to protect their young are known as
marsupials.
Wasabi a root that is related to horseradish originated in Japan.
Plagiarism does occur on college campuses even though it is dishonest
and illegal.
The game will go into overtime if neither team scores within the next
two minutes.

40d Separating items in a series

ES
> He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns,
Pay “a may
and destroyed the lives of our people.
—Declaration of Independence
360 Commas

You may see a series with no comma after the next-to-last item,
particularly in newspaper writing. Occasionally, however, omitting
the comma can cause confusion.

> All the cafeteria’s vegetables—broccoli, green beans, peas,

and carrots—were cooked to a gray mush. e
Without the comma after peas, you wouldn’t know if there were three
choices (the third being a mixture of peas and carrots) or four.

Coordinate adjectives—two or more adjectives that relate equally

to the noun they modify—should be separated by commas.

> The long, twisting, muddy road led to a shack in the woods.
“aA “a

In a sentence like The cracked bathroom mirror reflected his face, how-
ever, cracked and bathroom are not coordinate because bathroom mir-
ror is the equivalent of a single word, which is modified by cracked.
Hence they are not separated by commas.
You can usually determine whether adjectives are coordinate by
inserting and between them. If the sentence makes sense with the and
added, the adjectives are coordinate and should be separated by commas.

> They are sincere and talented and inquisitive researchers.

The sentence makes sense with the ands, so the adjectives should
be separated by commas: They are sincere, talented, inquisitive
researchers.

> Byron carried an elegant and pocket watch.

The sentence does not make sense with and, so the adjectives elegant
and pocket should not be separated by a comma: Byron carried an
elegant pocket watch.

See 41b for separating items in a series with semicolons.

-) Inthe following sentences, add any commas that are needed

_ to set off words, phrases, or clauses in a series. Example:

The waiter brought water, menus, and an attitude.

A A

1. Iam looking forward to visiting Rome Venice and Florence.

2. The moon circles the earth the earth revolves around the sun and the
sun is just one star in the galaxy.
 Setting off contrasting elements 361

3. The pelican landed in my yard climbed up onto the deck and admired
its reflection in the sliding glass doors.
4. Lin-Manuel Miranda says the only Broadway shows he saw as a kid
were Les Miz Cats and Phantom.
5. During the pandemic, people avoided public transportation stopped
traveling by air and stayed away from even small gatherings.

40e Setting off parenthetical and transitional

@u=me expressions

Parenthetical expressions add comments or information. Because

they often interrupt the flow of a sentence, they are usually set off
with commas.

> Some studies have shown that chocolate, of all nS , helps

prevent tooth decay.

Transitions (such as as a result), conjunctive adverbs (such as

however), and other expressions used to connect parts of sentences
are usually set off with commas.
> Ozone is a by-product of dry cleaning, for example.
“a

40f Setting off contrasting elements,

“=m interjections, direct address, and tag
questions

> Iasked you, not your brother, to sweep the porch.

A ray

> Holy cow, did you see that?

“A

> Remember, sir, that you are under oath.

a A

> The governor did not veto the bill, did she?
A

) Revise each of the following sentences, using commas to

set off parenthetical and transitional expressions, contrast-
ing elements, interjections, words used in direct address, and tag questions.
Example:

Passengers, thank you for your attention.

“aA
362 Commas

Ouch that COVID-19 test actually hurt!

2. Doctor Fauci could you tell us how often we will need vaccine booster
shots?
3. And could you in addition tell us what we might do to prevent future
pandemics?
4. Some communities as a result of their diligence were able to reopen
their economies along with their schools in early 2021.
5. Some communities outside the U.S. I am sorry to say fared worse.

40g Setting off parts of dates and addresses

SEED
Dates Use a comma between the day of the week and the month,
between the day of the month and the year, and between the year
and the rest of the sentence, if any.

> On Wednesday, November 26, 2008, gunmen arrived in Mumbai

by boat. a a .
Do not use commas with dates in inverted order or with dates con-
sisting of only the month and the year.

> Kerry dated the letter 5 August 2016.

> Thousands of Germans swarmed over the wall in November 1989.

Addresses and place-names_ Use a comma after each part of an

address or a place-name, including the state if there is no ZIP code.
Do not precede a ZIP code with a comma.

> Forward my mail to the Department of English, The Ohio State

University, Columbus, Ohio 43210. ss
A “aA

> Portland, Oregon, is much larger than Portland, Maine.

“a “A a

40h setting off quotations

=
Commas set off a quotation from words used to introduce or iden-
tify the source of the quotation. A comma following a quotation
goes inside the closing quotation mark.

> A German proverb warns, “Go to law for a sheep, and lose your
a
cow.”
 Avoiding unnecessary commas 363

> “All I know about grammar,” said Joan Didion, “is its infinite
power.” +;
a

Do not use a comma following a question mark or an exclamation

point.

> “Out, damned spot!/” cries Lady Macbeth.

Do not use a comma to introduce a quotation with that or when

you do not quote a speaker’s exact words.

> The writer of Ecclesiastes concludes that/ “all is vanity.”

> Patrick Henry declared/ that he wanted either liberty or death.

Revise each of the following sentences, using commas ap-

EXERCISE 40.6
propriately with dates, addresses and place-names, titles,
numbers, and quotations. Example:

The store’s original location was 2373 Broadway, New York City.
“A

1. “Education is not the filling of a pail, but the lighting of a fire” said
William Butler Yeats.
2. The White House address is 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue Washington
Gs
3. OnJuly 21 1969 Neil Armstrong became the first person to walk on the
moon.
4. “Neat people are lazier and meaner than sloppy people” according to
Suzanne Britt.
5. Atlanta Georgia has a population of more than half a million.

401 Avoiding unnecessary commas

aman
Excessive use of commas can spoil an otherwise fine sentence.

Around restrictive elements Do not use commas to set off

restrictive elements—elements that limit, or define, the meaning of
the words they modify or refer to (40c).

> I don’t let my children watch movies/that are violent.

> The actor/ Denzel Washington/ might win the award.
364 Commas

Between subjects and verbs, verbs and objects or comple-

ments, and prepositions and objects Do not use a comma
between a subject and its verb, a verb and its object or complement,
or a preposition and its object.

> Watching movies late at night/allows me to relax.

> Parents must decide/what time their children should go to bed.
> The winner of/the prize for community service stepped forward.

In compound constructions In compound constructions other

than compound sentences, do not use a comma before or after a
coordinating conjunction that joins the two parts (38b).

> Improved health care/and more free trade were two of the
administration’s goals.
The and joins parts of a compound subject, which should not be
separated by a comma.

> Mark Twain trained as a printer/ and worked as a steamboat pilot.

The and joins parts of a compound predicate, which should not be
separated by a comma.

In a series Do not use a comma before the first or after the last
item in a series.

> The auction included/ furniture, paintings, and china.

> The swimmer took slow, elegant, powerful/ strokes.

Revise each of the following sentences, deleting unneces-

See: sary commas. If a sentence contains no unnecessary commas,
write Correct. Example:

Workaholics are people/ who can’t seem to make time for anything
but work.

Contrary to popular belief, workaholics are not, simply born that way.
2. Instead they slowly acquire the habit of working, constantly, and don’t
even notice it.
3. Why can’t workaholics learn to give up some work time, or at least take
some breaks?
4. Perhaps, workaholics suffer from an anxiety disorder.
5. If that is the case, they should consider seeking help, from a therapist.
 Linking independent clauses 365

41 semicolons
The following public-service announcement, posted in New York
City subway cars, reminded commuters what to do with a used
newspaper at the end of the ride:

Please put it in a trash can; that’s good news for everyone.

The semicolon in the subway announcement separates two clauses

that could have been written as separate sentences. Semicolons,
which create a pause stronger than that of a comma but not as
strong as the full pause of a period, show close connections between
related ideas.

41a Linking independent clauses

ens
Although a comma and a coordinating conjunction often join
independent clauses (38b), semicolons provide writers with more
subtle ways of signaling closely related clauses. The clause following
a semicolon often restates an idea expressed in the first clause; it
sometimes expands on or presents a contrast to the first.

> Immigration acts were passed; newcomers had to prove, besides

moral correctness and financial solvency, their ability to read.
—Mary Gordon, “More Than Just a Shrine”
The semicolon gives the sentence an abrupt rhythm that suits the
topic: laws that imposed strict requirements.

If two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction

contain commas, you may use a semicolon instead of a comma
before the conjunction to make the sentence easier to read.

> Every year, whether the Republican or the Democratic party

is in office, more and more power drains away from the
individual to feed vast reservoirs in far-off places; and we have
less and less say about the shape of events which shape our
future. —William F. Buckley Jr., “Why Don’t We Complain?”

A semicolon should link independent clauses joined by a conjunc-

tive adverb such as however or therefore or a transition such as as
a result or for example.
366 Semicolons

> The circus comes as close to being the world in microcosm as

anything I know; in a way, it puts all the rest of show business in
the shade. —E. B. White, “The Ring of Time”

Combine each of the following pairs of sentences into one

EXERCISE 41.1 é k
sentence by using a semicolon. Example:
not
I decided to start my diet this week/; Net surprisingly, a package
“a
just arrived from my mother with brownies, cookies, and three
different flavors of popcorn.

1. This sofa is much too big. It will never fit inside my Prius.
2. The business could no longer afford to pay its bills or its employees.
Therefore, the owners filed for bankruptcy.
3. German shepherds are known for their intelligence. They are also
known for their protective behavior.
4. Once students live off-campus, most begin cooking their own meals.
Nevertheless, some choose to maintain their school dining plans.
5. Natalia ran a marathon in four hours and two minutes. Unfortunately,
this time did not qualify her for the Boston Marathon.

41b separating items in a series containing

@==—2 other punctuation
Ordinarily, commas separate items in a series (40d). But when the
items themselves contain commas or other punctuation, semico-
lons make the sentence clearer.

> Anthropology encompasses archaeology, the study of ancient

civilizations through artifacts/; linguistics, the study of
cay
the structure and development of language/; and cultural
Aa
anthropology, the study of language, customs, and behavior.

41¢ Avoiding misused semicolons

ena
Use a comma, not a semicolon, to separate an independent clause
from a dependent clause or phrase.
 End Punctuation 367

> The police found fingerprints/, which they used to identify the
thief. 4

> The new system would encourage students to register for courses
online/, thus streamlining registration.
“A

Use a colon, not a semicolon, to introduce a series or list.

> The reunion tour includes the following bands/: Urban Waste,
Murphy’s Law, Rapid Deployment, andIsm. “

Revise each of the following sentences to correct the misuse

EXERCISE 41.2
of semicolons. If the semicolon in a sentence is appropriate
as written, write Correct. Example:

The new system would encourage high school students to take more
academic courses, thus strengthening college preparation.
“a

To make the tacos, I need to buy; ground beef, beans, and tortillas.
2. For four glorious but underpaid weeks; I’ll be working in Yosemite this
summer.
3. Luis enjoys commuting to work on the train; although it can get
crowded at rush hour.
4. Some gardeners want; low-maintenance plants, limited grass to mow,
and low water usage.
5. Alicia slept through most of her art history lectures; as a result, she
failed the course.

( 42 End Punctuation oo
Periods, question marks, and exclamation points often appear in
advertising to create special effects:

Just do it.
Got milk?
I’m lovin’ it!
368 Baa End Punctuation

End punctuation tells us how to read each sentence—as a matter-

of-fact statement, a question for the reader, or an enthusiastic
exclamation.

42a Using periods

TD
Use a period to close sentences that make statements or give mild
commands.

> All books are either dreams or swords. —Amy Lowell

> Don’t use a fancy word if a simpler word will do.
—George Orwell, “Politics and the English Language”

A period also closes indirect questions, which report rather than ask
questions.

> Iasked how old the child was.

In standardized American English, periods are used with most ab-

breviations. However, more and more abbreviations are currently
appearing without periods.

Mr. MD BCE OF B.C.E.

Ms. PhD AD or A.D.
Sen. Jr. PM or p.m.

Some abbreviations rarely if ever appear with periods. These include

the postal abbreviations of state names, such as FL and TN, and
most groups of initials (NCAA, CIA, AIDS, YMCA, UNICEF). If
you are not sure whether an abbreviation should include periods,
check a dictionary or follow the style guidelines you are using for
a research paper. (For more about abbreviations, see Chapter 47.)
Do not use an additional period when a sentence ends with an
abbreviation that has its own period.

> The social worker referred me to John Pintz Jr./

42b using question marks

os
Use question marks to close sentences that ask direct questions.
 Using end punctuation in informal writing 369

> How is the human mind like a computer, and how is it different?
—Kathleen Stassen Berger and Ross A. Thompson,
The Developing Person through Childhood and Adolescence

Question marks do not close indirect questions, which report rather

than ask questions.

> She asked whether I opposed his nomination?.

@2C Using exclamation points

eae
Use an exclamation point to show surprise or strong emotion. Use
these marks sparingly because they can distract your readers or sug-
gest that you are exaggerating.

> In those few moments of geologic time will be the story of all that
has happened since we became a nation. And what a story it will be!
—James Rettie, “But a Watch in the Night”

Revise each of the following items, inserting end punctua-

_ EXERCISE 42.1
tion in the appropriate places and eliminating any inappro-
priate punctuation. If a sentence is correct as written, write Correct. Example:

Over the centuries, some of history’s most interesting characters

have been women}.

1. In China, the brief reign of Empress Wu from 690 to 705 cE saw some
changes that benefited women.
2. “Which Harry Potter book did you like best,” Maya asked Leah?
Do you remember who said, “We are the ones we’ve been waiting for.
We are the change we seek!”
4. The child cried, “Owie Owie” as her mother pulled off the bandage!
Dee SLOpy citer.

42d Using end punctuation in informal writing

ED
In informal writing, especially on social media, writers today are
more likely to omit end punctuation entirely. Research also shows
that ellipses (. . .), or “dots,” are on the rise; they can be used to signal
 370 Apostrophes

a trailing off of a thought, to raise questions about what is being

left out, to leave open the possibility of further communication, or
simply to indicate that the writer doesn’t want or need to finish the
sentence. Exclamation marks can convey an excited or a chatty tone,
so they are used more frequently in informal writing, though they get
old pretty quickly—and advertisers call them the “kiss of death.” And
some writers have argued that using a period at the end of a text or
tweet rather than no punctuation at all can suggest that the writer
is irritated or angry. The meaning of end punctuation is changing in
informal contexts, so pay attention to how others communicate, and
use what you learn in your own social writing.

ae 43 Apostrophes
The little apostrophe can make a big difference in meaning. The
following sign at a neighborhood swimming pool, for instance, says
something different from what the writer probably intended:

Please deposit your garbage (and your guests) in the trash recep-
tacles before leaving the pool area.

The sign indicates that the guests, not their garbage, should be
deposited in trash receptacles. Adding a single apostrophe would
offer a more neighborly statement: Please deposit your garbage (and
your guests’) in the trash receptacles before leaving the pool area.

43a _ Signaling possessive case

Peresat)

The possessive case denotes ownership or possession. Add an apos-

trophe and -s to form the possessive of most singular nouns, includ-
ing those that end in -s, and of indefinite pronouns (33d). The
possessive forms of personal pronouns do not take apostrophes:
yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs.

>» The bus’s fumes overpowered her.

>» George Lucas’s movies have been wildly popular.
» Anyone’s guess is as good as mine.
 Signaling possessive case 371

Plural nouns To form the possessive case of plural nouns not

ending in -s, add an apostrophe and -s. For plural nouns ending in
-s, add only the apostrophe.

> The men’s department sells suits.

> The clowns’ costumes were bright green and orange.

Compound nouns For compound nouns, make the last word in

the group possessive.

> Both her daughters-in-law’s birthdays fall in July.

Two or more nouns To signal individual possession by two or

more owners, make each noun possessive.

> Great differences exist between Jerry Bruckheimer’s and Ridley

Scott’s films.
Bruckheimer and Scott produce different films.

To signal joint possession, make only the last noun possessive.

> Wallace and Gromit’s creator is Nick Park.

Wallace and Gromit have the same creator.

Complete each of the following sentences by inserting ‘s or

EXERCISE 43.1an apostrophe alone to form the possessive case of the itali-
cized words. Example:
trolls’
Many conspiracy theories are nothing but Internet feels invented
stories.

Such theories go viral on social media because of people gullibility.

Technologys power to inform is great, but so is its power to misinform.
A hoax is easily disseminated because of the recipients inability to see
through it.
4. Many of these conspiracy theories prey on consumers fears.
Have you heard the one about how deodorants ingredients supposedly
cause cancer?
 Apostrophes

43b Signaling contractions

aeeRESED
Contractions are two-word combinations formed by leaving out
certain letters, which are replaced by an apostrophe (it is, it has/
it’s; will not/won’t).
Contractions are common in conversation and informal writing.
Academic and professional work, however, often calls for greater
formality.

Distinguishing its and it’s Its is a possessive pronoun—the pos-

sessive form of it. It’s is a contraction for it is or it has.

> This disease is unusual; its symptoms vary from person to

person.
> It’s a difficult disease to diagnose.

Revise each of the following sentences so that it uses con-

eee tractions. Remove any misused apostrophes. Example:
rll
will bring sushi to the potluck dinner.
“A

1. Genevieve was not even three years old when she moved here from
Germany, so she does not have a German accent.
2. You will see plenty of TV advertisements for alcoholic beverages, but
you will not see any for tobacco products.
Whose dog keeps scratching it’s ears?
4. It has been almost ten years, but I cannot forget how I felt on the night
we received the terrible news.
5. Let us go to the later movie, after he has had a chance to finish his
homework.

43cC Understanding apostrophes and plural forms

ee
Many style guides now advise against using apostrophes for plurals.
> The gymnasts need marks of 8s and 9s in order to qualify for the
finals.

Other guidelines call for an apostrophe and -s to form the plural of

numbers, letters, and words referred to as terms.
 Signaling direct quotation 373

> The five Shakespeare’s in the essay were spelled five different
ways.

Check your instructor’s preference.

44 Quotation Marks ,
“Hilarious!” “A great family movie!” “A must see!” Quotation
marks are a key component of statements like these from movie ads;
they make the praise more believable by indicating that it comes
from people other than the movie promoter. Quotation marks iden-
tify a speaker’s exact words or the titles of short works.

aaa Signaling direct quotation

EE

> The crowd chanted i Celtics, Celtics” as they waited for the game
to begin.
> Jasmine smiled and said, .Son, this is one incident that I will
never forget.”

Use quotation marks to enclose the words of each speaker within

running dialogue. Mark each shift in speaker with a new paragraph.

“T want no proof of their affection,” said Elinor; “but of their

engagement I do.”
“T am perfectly satisfied of both.”
“Yet not a syllable has been said to you on the subject, by either
of them.” —Jane Austen, Sense and Sensibility

Single quotation marks Single quotation marks enclose a quo-

tation within a quotation. Open and close the quoted passage with
double quotation marks, and change any quotation marks that
appear within the quotation to single quotation marks.

> Baldwin says, “The title The Uses of the Blues’ does not refer to
music; I don’t know anything about music.”
374 Quotation Marks

Long quotations To quote a passage that is more than four typed

lines, set the quotation off by starting it on a new line and indenting
it one-half inch from the left margin. This format, known as block
quotation, does not require quotation marks.

In “Suspended,” Joy Harjo tells of her first awareness of jazz as a child:

My rite of passage into the world of humanity occurred then, via jazz.
The music made a startling bridge between the familiar and strange
lands, an appropriate vehicle, for . . . we were there when jazz was
born. I recognized it . . . as a way to speak beyond the confines of
ordinary language. (84)

This block quotation, including the ellipsis dots and the page num-
ber in parentheses at the end, follows the style of the Modern
Language Association, or MLA (see Chapter 16). The American Psy-
chological Association, or APA, has different guidelines for setting
off block quotations (see Chapter 17).

Poetry When quoting poetry, if the quotation is brief (fewer than

four lines), include it within your text. Separate the lines of the poem
with slashes, each preceded and followed by a space, in order to tell
the reader where one line of the poem ends and the next begins.

In one of his best-known poems, Robert Frost remarks, “Two roads

diverged in a yellow wood, and I— / I took the one less traveled by / And
that has made all the difference.”

To quote more than three lines of poetry, indent the block one-half
inch from the left margin. Do not use quotation marks. Take care to
follow the spacing, capitalization, punctuation, and other features
of the original poem.

The duke in Robert Browning’s poem “My Last Duchess” is clearly a jealous,
vain person, whose arrogance is illustrated through this statement:
She thanked men—good! but thanked
Somehow—I know not how—as if she ranked
My gift of a nine-hundred-years-old name
With anybody's gift. (lines 31-34)
 Identifying titles of short works and definitions

In the following sentences, add quotation marks each time

EXERCISE 44.1
someone else’s exact words are being used. Some sentences
may not require quotation marks; mark correct sentences Correct. Example:

Your phone’s ringing!” yelled Phil from the end of the hall.

1. My banjo teacher told me that I have to practice at least three hours a

day or face the fact that I’ll never be a good player.
2. It’s not fair, she told him. You always win.
3. They kill the white girl first is the first sentence of Toni Morrison’s
Paradise.
4. I could not believe the total devastation of Beirut, he wrote.
Keep your opinions to yourselves, Dad muttered as he served the lumpy
oatmeal.

44b identifying titles of short works and

e===— definitions
Use quotation marks to enclose the titles of short poems, short sto-
ries, articles, essays, songs, sections of books, and episodes of televi-
sion and radio programs. Quotation marks also enclose definitions.

> The essay “The Art of Stephen Curry” analyzes some reasons for
the success of the Warriors’ star.
> In social science, the term sample size means “the number of
individuals being studied in a research project.”
—Kathleen Stassen Berger and Ross A. Thompson,
The Developing Person through Childhood and Adolescence

Revise each of the following sentences by using quotation

? x recs marks appropriately to signal both titles and definitions.
Example:

One of the best short stories we read last semester was “The Story
of an Hour” by Kate Chopin.

1. The term emoji, which means a small digital image used to express an
emotion, comes from Japanese.
2. Géirl by Jamaica Kincaid is a single-sentence short story.
 Quotation Marks

3. Lady Gaga’s Stupid Love was a top hit in 2020.

4. My favorite episode of the Netflix series Unsolved Mysteries is The Men
in Black.
5. The New York Times article Dealing with Student Debt helps college
graduates understand the best way to handle their student loans.

44 Using quotation marks with other punctuation

San
Periods and commas go inside closing quotation marks.

> “Don’t compromise yourself,” said Janis Joplin. “You are all
you've got.”

Colons, semicolons, and footnote numbers go outside closing quo-

tation marks.

> I felt one emotion after finishing “Eveline”: sorrow.

> Tragedy is defined by Aristotle as “an imitation of an action that
is serious and of a certain magnitude.”!

Question marks, exclamation points, and dashes go inside if they

are part of the quoted material, outside if they are not.

PART OF THE QUOTATION

> The cashier asked, “Would you like a receipt?”

NOT PART OF THE QUOTATION

> What is the theme of “The Birth-Mark”?

44d avoiding misused quotation marks

ee
Do not use quotation marks for indirect quotations—those that do
not use someone’s exact words.
> Mother smiled and said that /‘she was sure she would never
forget the incident.?
Do not use quotation marks merely to add emphasis to particular
words or phrases.

> The hikers were startled by the appearance of a fgigantich grizzly

bear.
 Using parentheses 377

Do not use quotation marks around slang or colloquial language;

they create the impression that you are apologizing for using those
words. If you have a good reason to use slang or a colloquial term,
use it without quotation marks.

> After our twenty-mile hike, we were completely exhausted and

ready to turn in.?

EXERCISE 44.3 Revise each of the following sentences, using quotation

- marks appropriately.

1. Should America the Beautiful or Lift Every Voice and Sing replace The
Star-Spangled Banner as the national anthem?
2. Inthe chapter called The Last to See Them Alive, Truman Capote shows
the utterly ordinary life of the Kansas family.
3. Several popular films have used ABBA hits such as Dancing Queen and
Take a Chance on Me.
4. After working a double shift, we were completely “exhausted.”
My dictionary defines isolation as the quality or state of being alone.

| 45 other Punctuation ie
Parentheses, brackets, dashes, colons, slashes, and ellipses are
everywhere. Every URL includes colons and slashes, many sites use
brackets or parentheses to identify updates and embedded media,
and dashes and ellipses are increasingly common in writing that
expresses conversational informality.
You can also use these punctuation marks for more formal pur-
poses: to signal relationships among parts of sentences, to create
particular rhythms, and to help readers follow your thoughts.

45a Using parentheses

er
Use parentheses to enclose material that is of minor or secondary
importance in a sentence—material that supplements, clarifies,
comments on, or illustrates what precedes or follows it.
ve | Other Punctuation

> Inventors and men of genius have almost always been regarded as
fools at the beginning (and very often at the end) of their careers.
—Fyodor Dostoyevsky

> Hamilton (the musical by Lin-Manuel Miranda) won eleven Tony

Awards in 2016.

Parentheses are also used to enclose textual citations and numbers

or letters in a list.

> Freud and his followers have had a most significant impact
on the ways abnormal functioning is understood and treated
(Joseph, 1991). —Ronald J. Comer, Abnormal Psychology

The in-text citation in this sentence shows the style of the American
Psychological Association (APA).

> Five distinct styles can be distinguished: (1) Old New England,
(2) Deep South, (3) Middle American, (4) Wild West, and (5)
Far West or Californian. —Alison Lurie, The Language of Clothes

With other punctuation A period may be placed either inside or

outside a closing parenthesis, depending on whether the parenthetical
text is part of a larger sentence. A comma, if needed, is always placed
outside a closing parenthesis (and never before an opening one).

> Gene Tunney’s single defeat in an eleven-year career was to a

flamboyant and dangerous fighter named Harry Greb (“The
Human Windmill”), who seems to have been, judging from
boxing literature, the dirtiest fighter in history.
—Joyce Carol Oates, On Boxing

45b using brackets

SED
Use brackets to enclose any parenthetical elements in material
that is itself within parentheses. Brackets should also be used to
enclose any explanatory words or comments you are inserting into
a quotation.

> Eventually, the investigation had to examine the major agencies

(including the National Security Agency [NSA]) that were
conducting covert operations.
 Using dashes ie 379

>» Massing notes that “on average, it [Fox News] attracts more than
eight million people daily.”
The bracketed words clarify the meaning of it in the original quotation.

In the quotation in the following sentence, the artist Gauguin’s

name is misspelled. The bracketed word sic, which means “so,” tells
readers that the person being quoted—not the writer who has picked
up the quotation—made the mistake.

> One admirer wrote, “She was the most striking woman I’d ever
seen—a sort of wonderful combination of Mia Farrow and one of
Gaugin’s [sic] Polynesian nymphs.”

Revise the sentences below, using parentheses and brackets

EXERCISE 45.1 °
correctly. Change any other punctuation as needed.

1. The words media elite have been said so often usually by people who are
themselves elite members of the media that the phrase has taken on a
life of its own.
2. Are the media really elite, and are they really liberal, as talk-show regu-
lars (Ann Coulter, for example argue)?
3. Media critic Eric Alterman has coined the term “so-called liberal
media” [SCLM] because he believes that the media have been intimi-
dated by criticism.
4. An article in the Journal of Communication discussing the outcomes of
recent U.S. elections explained that “claiming the media are liberally
biased perhaps has become a core rhetorical strategy” used by conserva-
tives, qtd. in Alterman 14.
5. Some progressive groups (including Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting
(FAIR)) keep track of media coverage of political issues.

45c¢ Using dashes

ss
Use dashes to insert a comment or to highlight material in a sentence.

> The pleasures of reading itself—who doesn’t remember?—were

like those of Christmas cake, a sweet devouring.
—Eudora Welty, “A Sweet Devouring”

A single dash can be used to emphasize material at the end of a

sentence, to mark a sudden change in tone, to indicate hesitation in
speech, or to introduce a summary or an explanation.
380 Other Punctuation

> Like you, he’s black and from Harvard. Other than that, you
know nothing—just the name, and it’s an odd one.
—Michelle Obama, Becoming

> In walking, the average adult person employs a motor mechanism

that weighs about eighty pounds—sixty pounds of muscle and
twenty pounds of bone. —Edwin Way Teale

Dashes give more emphasis than parentheses to the material they

enclose or set off. Many word-processing programs automatically
convert two typed hyphens with no spaces before or after into a
solid dash.

Revise the following sentences so that dashes are used cor-

EXERCISE 45.2
rectly. Example:

In some states California, for example banks are no longer allowed

“A “a
to charge ATM users an additional fee for withdrawing money.

Many consumers accept that they have to pay additional fees for ser-
vices like bank machines if they don’t want to pay, they don’t have to
use the service.
Nevertheless—extra charges seem to be added to more and mote ser-
vices all the time.
Some of the charges are ridiculous why should hotels charge guests a
fee for making a toll-free telephone call?
. The hidden costs of service fees are irritating people feel that their bank
accounts are being nibbled to death.
But some of the fees consumers are asked to pay—are more than simply
irritating.

45d Using colons

ER
Use a colon to introduce an explanation, an example, an apposi-
tive, a series, a list, or a quotation.

» At the baby’s one-month birthday party, Ah Po gave him the Four

Valuable Things: ink, inkslab, paper, and brush.
—Maxine Hong Kingston, China Men
 Using colons 381

Use a colon rather than a comma to introduce a quotation when the

lead-in is a complete sentence on its own.

> In his presentation, Tristan Harris made a stark claim: “Never

before in history have the decisions of a handful of designers
(mostly men, white, living in San Francisco, aged 25-30)
working at three companies had so much impact on how millions
of people around the world spend their attention.”

Colons are also used after salutations in letters; with numbers indi-
cating hours, minutes, and seconds; with ratios; with biblical chap-
ters and verses; with titles and subtitles; and in bibliographic entries
in some styles.

Dear Dr. Goswami:

4:59 pM
a ratio of 5:1
Ecclesiastes 3:1
The Mamba Mentality: How I Play
¥:
+
GeV
SY:
TY
Ve
Vo Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s

Misused colons Do not put a colon between a verb and its

object or complement (unless the object is a quotation), between
a preposition and its object, or after such expressions as such as,
especially, and including.

> Some natural fibers are/ cotton, wool, silk, and linen.
> In poetry, additional power may come from devices such as/
simile, metaphor, and alliteration.

~~ Insert a colon in each of the following sentences that needs

ERCISE 45.3 j 9 f
one. Remove any misused colons. Example:

I love books except/ sappy romances, horror stories, and westerns.

1. During the eulogy, former President George W. Bush quoted from Mat-
thew 22, 36-40.
2. Looking around at cardboard cutout fans filling the arena, LeBron
James laughed “I can’t hear you!”
3. All we could do was watch as the other boats reeled in fish after fish,
bass, pike, trout, and perch.
382 Other Punctuation

4. Rose has trophies for several different sports, including: basketball,

lacrosse, softball, and soccer.
5. My roommate’s annoying habits include: forgetting to lock the door,
leaving dirty dishes in the sink, and playing loud video games late at
night.

45e Using slashes

arama
Use a slash to separate alternatives.

> Then there was Daryl, the cabdriver/bartender.

—John L'Heureux, The Handmaid of Desire

Use a slash, preceded and followed by a space, to divide lines of

poetry quoted within running text.

> The speaker of Sonnet 130 says of his mistress, “I love to hear
her speak, yet well I know / That music hath a far more pleasing
sound.”

Slashes also separate parts of fractions and URLs: 1/3, 15/16,

https://nytimes.com.

45f using ellipses

RR

An ellipsis is three equally spaced dots that indicate that something

has been omitted from a quoted passage. Just as you should care-
fully use quotation marks around any material that you are quoting
directly from a source, so you should carefully use an ellipsis to
indicate that you have left out part of a quotation that otherwise
appears to be a complete sentence. Ellipses have been used in the
following example to indicate two omissions—one in the middle of
the sentence and one at the end:

ORIGINAL TEXT

> The quasi-official division of the population into three economic

classes called high-, middle-, and low-income groups rather
misses the point, because as a class indicator the amount of
money is not as important as the source.
—Paul Fussell, “Notes on Class”
 Using ellipses 383

WITH ELLIPSES

> As Paul Fussell argues, “The quasi-official division of the

population into three classes . . . rather misses the point... .”

When you omit the last part of a quoted sentence, add a period
before the ellipsis—for a total of four dots. Be sure a complete sen-
tence comes before the four dots. If your shortened quotation ends
with a source citation (such as a page number, a name, or a title),
place the documentation source in parentheses after the three ellip-
sis points and the closing quotation mark but before the period.

> Packer argues, “The Administration is right to reconsider its

strategy...” (34).

You can also use an ellipsis to indicate a pause or a hesitation in

speech in the same way that you can use a dash for that purpose.
(For more uses of ellipses in informal writing, see 42d.)

> Then the voice, husky and familiar, came to wash over us—“The
winnah, and still heavyweight champeen of the world . . . Joe
Louis.” —Maya Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings

You are probably used to seeing ellipses everywhere on social media.

Author Clay Shirkey thinks the “ellipsis explosion” results from
people trying to emulate speaking, with ellipses used to indicate a
pause in the way that “ah” or “uh” does in speech. But overuse can
get out of hand and lead to sloppy writing. When you use ellipses,
make sure you use them to good effect.

Read the following passage. Then assume that the under-

EXERCISE 45.4
lined portions have been left out in a reprinting of the pas-
sage. Indicate how you would use ellipses to indicate those deletions. Example:

Saving money is difficult fer-yeung-peeplein-entrytevel

positions
“a
but it is important.

Should people who are just getting started in their careers think about
saving for retirement? Those who begin to save in their twenties are making
a wise financial decision. They are putting away money that can earn com-
pound interest for decades. Even if they save only a hundred dollars a month,
384 Capital Letters

and even if they stop saving when they hit age thirty-five, the total forty years
later will be impressive. On the other hand, people who wait until they are
fifty to begin saving will have far less money put aside at the age of sixty-five.

46 Capital Letters >

Capital letters are a key signal in everyday life. Look around any store
to see their importance: you can shop for Levi’s or any blue jeans,
for Pepsi or any cola, for Kleenex or any tissue. In each of these
instances, the capital letter indicates the name of a particular brand.

46a Capitalizing the first word of a sentence

Gee

With very few exceptions, capitalize the first word of a sentence. If

you are quoting a full sentence, capitalize its first word.

> President John F. Kennedy said, “Let us never negotiate out of fear.”

Capitalization of anonquoted sentence following a colon is optional.

> Gould cites the work of Darwin: The [or the] theory of natural
selection incorporates the principle of evolutionary ties among
all animals.

Capitalize a sentence within parentheses unless the parenthetical

sentence is inserted into another sentence.

> Gould cites the work of Darwin. (Other researchers cite more
recent evolutionary theorists.)
> Gould cites the work of Darwin (see p. 150).

When citing poetry, follow the capitalization of the original poem.

Though most poets capitalize the first word of each line in a poem,
some do not.
> Morning sun heats up the young beech tree
leaves and almost lights them into fireflies
—June Jordan, “Aftermath”
 Capitalizing titles before proper names acc 385

46b Capitalizing proper nouns and proper

Gam=p adjectives

Capitalize proper nouns (those naming specific persons, places,

and things) and most adjectives formed from proper nouns. All
other nouns are common nouns and are not capitalized unless they
are used as part of a proper noun: a street, but Elm Street.
Capitalized nouns and adjectives include personal names; nations,
nationalities, and languages; months, days of the week, and holidays
(but not seasons of the year); geographical names; structures and
monuments; ships, trains, aircraft, and spacecraft; organizations,
businesses, and government institutions; academic institutions and
courses; historical events and eras; and religions, with their deities,
followers, and sacred writings. For trade names, follow the capital-
ization you see in company advertising or on the product itself.

PROPER COMMON

Ryan Coogler a director

Brazil, Brazilian a nation, a language
Pacific Ocean an ocean
Environmental Protection Agency a federal agency
Political Science 102 a political science course
the Qur’an a holy book
Catholicism a religion
Cheerios, iPhone cereal, a smartphone
Halloween a holiday in the fall

46c Capitalizing titles before proper names

SERS
When used alone or following a proper name, most titles are not
capitalized. One common exception is the word president, which
many writers capitalize whenever it refers to the President of the
United States.

Professor Gordon Chang my history professor

Dr. Teresa Ramirez Teresa Ramirez, our doctor
386 | Capital Letters

46d Capitalizing titles of works

SSS
Capitalize most words in titles of books, articles, speeches, stories,
essays, plays, poems, documents, films, paintings, and musical
compositions. Do not capitalize articles (a, an, the), prepositions,
conjunctions, and the to in an infinitive unless they are the first
or last words in a title or subtitle.

Walt Whitman: A Life Declaration of Independence

Black Is King “Letter from Birmingham Jail”
“T Just Wanna Love U” The Living Dead

4G6e Revising unnecessary capitalization

Ee)
Capitalize compass directions only if the word designates a specific
geographical region.

> John Muir headed west, motivated by the desire to explore.

> Water rights are an increasingly contentious issue in the West.

Capitalize family relationships only if the word is used as part of a

name or as a substitute for the name.

> When she was a child, my mother shared a room with my aunt.
> I could always tell when Mother was annoyed with Aunt Rose.

Capitalize words as needed in each of the following sen-

EXERCISE 46.1. ;
; tences. Example:

ene T W L IF F
f. $. fliot, who wrote fhe waste Jand, was an editor at faber and faber.

1. the late chadwick boseman, star of marshall and black panther, was born
in 1977 in south carolina.
. the battle of lexington and concord was fought in april 1775.
i will cite the novels of julia alvarez, in particular in the time of butterflies.
i wondered if my new levi’s were faded enough.
N. We drove east over the east river on the williamsburg bridge.
uw
FW
 Using abbreviations 387

a 47 Abbreviations and Numbers

Anytime you look up an address, you see an abundance of abbrevia-
tions and numbers, as in the following listing from a Google map:

Tarrytown Music Hall 13 Main St Tarrytown, NY

Abbreviations and numbers allow writers to present detailed infor-

mation in a small amount of space.

47a Using abbreviations

ASD
Certain titles are normally abbreviated.

Ms. Lisa Ede Henry Louis Gates Jr.

Mr. Mark Otuteye Afsoon Foorohar, MD

Religious, academic, and government titles should be spelled out in

academic writing but can be abbreviated in other writing when they
appear before a full name.

Rev. Fleming Rutledge Reverend Rutledge

Prof. Jaime Mejia Professor Mejia
Sen. Tammy Duckworth Senator Duckworth

Business, government, and science terms As long as you can

be sure your readers will understand them, use common abbrevia-
tions such as PBS, NASA, and DNA. If an abbreviation may be unfa-
miliar, spell out the full term the first time you use it, and give the
abbreviation in parentheses; after that, you can use the abbreviation
by itself. Use abbreviations such as Co., Inc., Corp., and & only if
they are part of a company’s official name.

> The Comprehensive Test Ban (CTB) Treaty was first proposed in
the 1950s. For those nations signing it, the CITB would bring to a
halt all nuclear weapons testing.
corporation
> Years ago, Sears, Roebuck & Co. was the only large corp in town.
388 Abbreviations and Numbers

With numbers The following abbreviations are acceptable with

specific years and times:
399 BcE (“before the Common Era”)
49 cE (“Common Era”)
11:15 aM (or a.m.)
9:00 Pm (or p.m.)

Symbols such as % and § are acceptable with figures ($11) in aca-

demic writing, but not with words (eleven dollars). Units of mea-
surement can be abbreviated in charts and graphs (4 in.) but not in
the body of a paper (four inches).

In notes and source citations Some Latin abbreviations required in

notes and in source citations are not appropriate in the body of a paper.

Git. compare (confer)

e.g. for example (exempli gratia)
et al. and others (et alii/et aliae)
etc. and so forth (et cetera)
ike that is (id est)
N.B. note well (nota bene)

In addition, except in notes and source citations, do not abbre-

viate such terms as chapter, page, and volume or the names of
months, states, cities, or countries. Two exceptions are Wash-
ington, D.C., and U.S. The latter abbreviation is acceptable as
an adjective but not as a noun: U.S. borders but in the United
States.

») Revise each of the following sentences to eliminate any

_ abbreviations that would be inappropriate in academic writ-
ing. If a sentence is correct, write Correct. Example:
international
The éntk sport of belt sander racing began in a hardware store.
A

1. Nielson Hardware in Point Roberts, WA, was the site of the world’s first
belt sander race in 1989.
2. The power tools are placed on a thirty-ft. track and plugged in; the
sander to reach the end first wins.
 Using numbers 389

3. Today, the International Belt Sander Drag Race Association (IBSDRA)

sponsors tours of winning sanders, an international championship,
and a website that sells IBSDRA T-shirts.
4. An average race lasts two seconds, but the world champion modified
sander raced the track in 1.52 secs.
5. The fastest sanders run on very coarse sandpaper—a no. sixteen grit is
an excellent choice if it’s available.

47b Using numbers

GSTep
If you can write out a number in one or two words, do so. Use fig-
ures for longer numbers.
thirty-eight
> The petition was ignored by 38 people.
“a

216
> A baseball is held together by #we-hundred-sixteen red stitches.
“a

If one of several numbers of the same kind in the same sentence requires
a figure, you should use figures for all the numbers in that sentence.
$100
> A starter audio system can range in cost from
dollarsto $2,599. if

When a sentence begins with a number, either spell out the number
or rewrite the sentence.

Taxpayers spent sixteen million dollars for

> 119 years of CIA labor,
a tay

In general, use figures for the following:

ADDRESSES 23 Main Street; 175 Fifth Avenue

DATES September 11, 2001; 30 August
2007; 4 BcE; the 1860s
DECIMALS AND FRACTIONS 65.34; 8%
EXACT AMOUNTS OF MONEY $7,348; $1.46 trillion; $2.50;
thirty-five (or 35) cents
PERCENTAGES 77 percent (or 77%)
SCORES AND STATISTICS an 8-3 Red Sox victory; an
average age of 22
TIME OF DAY 6:00 AM (or a.m.)
390 Italics and Hyphens

Revise the numbers in the following sentences as necessary

EXERCISE 47.2
for correctness and consistency. If a sentence is correct, write
Correct. Example:

365
There are three-hundred-sixtyfive days in a year, except for leap
“A 366
years, which have three-hundred-sixty—six days.
“a

1. The Simpsons has been on the air for more than 28 seasons, making it
the longest-running prime-time series ever in American television.
2. After 4 years of college, I expect to graduate on May ten, 2024.
The hotel is located at three-zero-one Dauphin Street, New Orleans,
Louisiana.
4. The last time she checked, Kira had 3,457 followers on Instagram; I
have only eighty-two, and I like it that way!
5. 248 new members joined the public radio station during this year’s
pledge drive, compared with just 92 new members last year.

| 4$ italics and Hyphens >

Italics and hyphens are useful in clarifying meaning. In the sentence
“Many people read People on the subway every day,” the italics (and
the capital letter) make it clear to us that People is a publication.
And in the sentence “Transactions in a web-enabled environment
are secure,” the hyphen makes it clear that “enabled” is not the verb
in the sentence.

48a _italicizing titles

See

In general, use italics for titles and subtitles of long works; use quo-
tation marks for shorter works.

BOOKS March
FILMS AND VIDEOS Parasite
 Italicizing non-English words 391

LONG MUSICAL WORKS Metropolis: Suite 1

LONG POEMS Bhagavad Gita
MAGAZINES AND JOURNALS Ebony; Journal of Media Ethics
NEWSPAPERS the Cleveland Plain Dealer
PAINTINGS AND SCULPTURE Kehinde Wiley’s Hunger
PODCASTS Michael Barbaro’s The Daily
PLAYS West Side Story
RADIO SERIES Marketplace
ALBUM-LENGTH RECORDINGS Kendrick Lamar’s Damn
SOFTWARE Quicken
TELEVISION SERIES GLOW

Do not italicize titles of sacred books, such as the Bible and the
Qur’an; public documents, such as the Constitution and the Magna
Carta; or your own papers.

4Sia Italicizing words, letters, and numbers used

@=um=e as terms
On the back of LeBron James’s jersey was the famous 23.
One characteristic of some New York speech is the absence
of postvocalic r—for example, pronouncing the word four as
“fouh.”

48c Italicizing non-English words

ean
Italicize words from other languages unless they have become part
of English—like the Italian “pasta,” for example. If a word is in an
English dictionary, it does not need italics.

> At last one of the phantom sleighs gliding along the street would
come to a stop, and with gawky haste Mr. Burness in his fox-
furred shapka would make for our door.
—Vladimir Nabokov, Speak, Memory
 Italics and Hyphens

48d _ Using italics for emphasis

CRD
Italics can help create emphasis in writing, but it is usually better to
do so with sentence structure and word choice.

> Great literature and a class of literate readers are nothing new
in India. What is new is the emergence of a gifted generation of
Indian writers working in English. —Salman Rushdie

In each of the following sentences, underline any words

EXERCISE 48.1
that should be italicized, and circle any italicized words that
should not be. If a title requires quotation marks instead of italicization, add
them. Example:

TheUnited States still abounds with regional speech —for example,

many people in the Appalachians still use local words such as crick
and holler.

1. Regionalism, a nineteenth-century literary movement, focused on the

language and customs of people in areas of the country not yet affected
by industrialization.
2. Regional writers produced some American classics, such as Mark Twain’s
Huckleberry Finn and James Fenimore Cooper’s Last of the Mohicans.
3. Twain, not an admirer of Cooper’s work, wrote a scathing essay about
his predecessor called The Literary Offenses of James Fenimore Cooper.
4. Some of the most prolific regional writers were women like Kate Cho-
pin, who wrote her first collection of short stories, Bayou Folk, to help
support her family.
5. The stories in Bayou Folk, such as the famous Désirée’s Baby, focus on
the natives of rural Louisiana.

4S8e Using hyphens with compound words

eee)
Compound nouns Some are one word (rowboat), some are sepa-
rate words (hard drive), and some require hyphens (sister-in-law).
You should consult a dictionary to be sure.

Compound adjectives Hyphenate most compound adjectives

that precede a noun, but not those that follow a noun.
a well-liked boss My boss is well liked.
 Avoiding unnecessary hyphens

Never hyphenate an -ly adverb and an adjective.

> They used a widely/distributed mailing list.

Fractions and compound numbers Use a hyphen to write out

fractions and to spell out compound numbers from twenty-one to
ninety-nine.

one-seventh fifty-four thousand

43f Avoiding unnecessary hyphens

enum
Do not hyphenate the parts of a two-word verb such as depend on,
turn off, or tune out (37b).

> Each player must pick/up a medical form before tryouts.

The words pick up act as a verb and should not be hyphenated.

Be sure that the two words indeed function as a verb in the sen-
tence; if they function as an adjective, a hyphen may be needed.

> Let’s sign up for the early class.

> Where is the sign-up sheet?
The adjective sign-up, which modifies the noun sheet, needs a hyphen.

Do not hyphenate a subject complement—a word group that follows

a linking verb and describes the subject.

> Audrey is almost seventeen years old.

Insert hyphens as needed. A dictionary will help you with

"7 some of these items. If an item does not require a hyphen,
write Correct. Example:

full bodied wine

A

a thirty nine year old woman

a long time customer
his father in law
devil may care attitude
itwidely known poet
GG
 tiie YUIG: wit tot 1) 72a - >

Uiporg qu-rmgia Titel ors)

trorlgud? & dhaeuts Agel irent ast zjillbours Faaitee spuritahe avai he ali
- ae
MING) side
5Ses eo cal Beam
on 1]
Alspesty Teo i i 4
 Glossary of
Conventions of usage are not carved in stone; rather, they vary from
time to time and culture to culture. Like other language choices you
must make, matters of usage depend on what your purpose is and
on what is appropriate for a particular audience at a particular time.
a, an Use a with a word that begins with a consonant (a book),
a consonant sound such as “y” or “w” (a euphoric moment, a one-
sided match), or a sounded h (a hemisphere). Use an with a word
that begins with a vowel (an umbrella), a vowel sound (an X-ray),
or a silent h (an honor).
accept, except The verb accept means “receive” or “agree to.”
Except is usually a preposition that means “aside from” or “exclud-
ing.” All the plaintiffs except Mr. Kim decided to accept the settlement.
advice, advise The noun advice means “opinion” or “suggestion”;
the verb advise means “offer advice.” Doctors advise everyone to get
vaccinated, but some people ignore the advice.
affect, effect As a verb, affect means “influence” or “move the
emotions of”; as a noun, it means “emotions” or “feelings.” Effect
is anoun meaning “result”; less commonly, it is a verb meaning
“bring about.” The storm affected a large area. Its effects included
widespread power failures. The drug effected a major change in the
patient’s affect.
all ready, already All ready means “fully prepared.” Already means
“previously.” We were all ready for Lucy’s party when we learned that
she had already left.
all right, alright Avoid the spelling alright.
all together, altogether All together means “all in a group” or
“gathered in one place.” Altogether means “completely” or “every-
thing considered.” When the board members were all together, their
mutual distrust was altogether obvious.
allude, elude Allude means “refer indirectly.” Elude means “avoid”
or “escape from.” The candidate did not even allude to her opponent.
The suspect eluded the police for several days.
allusion, illusion An allusion is an indirect reference. An illusion is
a false or misleading appearance. The speaker’s allusion to the Bible
created an illusion of piety.
She
396 Glossary of Usage

alot Avoid the spelling alot.

already See all ready, already.
alright See all right, alright.
altogether See all together, altogether.
among, between In referring to two things or people, use
between. In referring to three or more, use among. The relationship
between the twins is different from that among the other three
children.
amount, number Use amount with quantities you cannot count;
use number for quantities you can count. A small number of
volunteers cleared a large amount of brush.
an See a, an.
and/or Avoid this term except in business or legal writing. Instead
of fat and/or protein, write fat, protein, or both.
any body, anybody, any one, anyone Anybody and anyone are
pronouns meaning “any person.” Anyone [or anybody] would enjoy
this film. Any body is an adjective modifying a noun. Any body of
water has its own ecology. Any one is two adjectives or a pronoun
modified by an adjective. Customers could buy only two sale items at
any one time. The winner could choose any one of the prizes.
anyway, anyways In writing, use anyway, not anyways.
as, as if, like In academic and professional writing, use as or as if
instead of like to introduce a clause. The dog howled as if [not like]
it were in pain. She did as [not like] I suggested.
assure, ensure, insure Assure means “convince” or “promise”;
its direct object is usually a person or persons. She assured voters
she would not raise taxes. Ensure and insure both mean “make
certain,” but insure usually refers specifically to protection against
financial loss. When the city rationed water to ensure that the supply
would last, the Browns could no longer afford to insure their car-wash
business.
as to Do not use as to as a substitute for about. Karen was unsure
about [not as to] Bruce’s intentions.
at, where See where.
awhile, a while Always use a while after a preposition such as for,
in, or after. We drove awhile and then stopped for a while.
 Glossary of Usage ees 397

bad, badly Use bad after a linking verb such as be, feel, or seem.
Use badly to modify an action verb, an adjective, or another verb.
The server felt bad because the dinner was badly prepared.
beside, besides Beside is a preposition meaning “next to.” Besides
can be a preposition meaning “other than” or an adverb meaning
“in addition.” No one besides Francesca would sit beside the barking
dog.
between See among, between.
can, may Can refers to ability and may to possibility or permis-
sion. Since I can sing gospel music, I may be chosen as a soloist.
compare to, compare with Compare to means “regard as simi-
lar.” Jamie compared the loss to a heartbreak. Compare with means
“examine to find differences or similarities.” Compare Spike Lee’s
films with Jordan Peele’s.
complement, compliment Complement means “go well with.”
Compliment means “praise.” Guests complimented her on how her
earrings complemented her gown.
comprise, compose Comprise means “contain.” Compose means
“make up.” The class comprises twenty students. Twenty students
compose the class.
conscience, conscious Conscience means “a sense of right and
wrong.” Conscious means “awake” or “aware.” Lisa was conscious of
a guilty conscience.
consequently, subsequently Consequently means “as a result”;
subsequently means “then.” He quit, and subsequently his wife lost
her job; consequently, they had to sell their house.
continual, continuous Continual means “repeated at regular or
frequent intervals.” Continuous means “continuing or connected
without a break.” The damage done by continuous erosion was
increased by the continual storms.
could of Have, not of, should follow could, would, should, or might.
We could have [not of | invited them.
criteria, criterion Criterion means “standard of judgment” or
“necessary qualification.” Criteria is the plural form. Image is the
wrong criterion for choosing a president.
data Data is the plural form of the Latin word datum, meaning
“fact.” Although data is used informally as either singular
398 Glossary of Usage

or plural, in academic or professional writing, treat data as

plural. These data indicate that fewer people are testing positive for
COVID-19.
different from, different than Different from is generally preferred
in academic and professional writing, although both of these
phrases are widely used. Her lab results were no different from [not
than| his.
disinterested, uninterested Disinterested means “unbiased.”
Uninterested means “indifferent.” Finding disinterested jurors was
difficult. She was uninterested in the verdict.
distinct, distinctive Distinct means “separate” or “well defined.”
Distinctive means “characteristic.” Germany includes many distinct
regions, each with a distinctive accent.
doesn’t, don’t Doesn’t is the contraction for does not. Use it with
he, she, it, and singular nouns. Don’t stands for do not; use it with
I, you, we, they, and plural nouns.
each other, one another Use each other in sentences involving
two subjects and one another in sentences involving more than
two.
effect See affect, effect.
elude See allude, elude.
emigrate from, immigrate to Emigrate from means “move away
from one’s country.” Immigrate to means “move to another
country.” We emigrated from Brazil in 1999. We immigrated to the
United States.
ensure See assure, ensure, insure.
every day, everyday Everyday is an adjective meaning “ordinary.”
Every day is an adjective and a noun, meaning “each day.” I wore
everyday clothes almost every day.
every one, everyone Everyone is a pronoun. Every one is an
adjective and a pronoun, referring to each member of a group.
Because he began after everyone else, David could not finish every one
of the problems.
except See accept, except.
explicit, implicit Explicit means “directly or openly expressed.”
Implicit means “indirectly expressed or implied.” The explicit
 Glossary of Usage

message of the ad urged consumers to buy the product, while the

implicit message promised popularity if they did so.
farther, further Farther refers to physical distance. How much
farther is it to Munich? Further refers to time or degree. I want to
avoid further delays.
fewer, less Use fewer with nouns that can be counted. Use less
with general amounts that you cannot count. The world needs fewer
bombs and less hostility.
firstly, secondly, etc. First, second, etc., are more common in U.S.
English.
former, latter Former refers to the first and latter to the second of
two things previously mentioned. Kathy and Ana are athletes; the
former plays tennis, and the latter runs.
further See farther, further.
good, well Good is an adjective and should not be used as a
substitute for the adverb well. Gabriel is a good host who cooks well.
hanged, hung Hanged refers to executions; hung is used for all
other meanings.
herself, himself, myself, yourself In general, do not use these
reflexive pronouns as subjects or as objects. Jane and I [not myself]
agree. They invited John and me [not myself].
hopefully Hopefully is often used informally to mean “it is
hoped,” but its formal meaning is “with hope.” Sam watched the
roulette wheel hopefully [not Hopefully, Sam will win].
hung See hanged, hung.
illusion See allusion, illusion.
immigrate to See emigrate from, immigrate to.
implicit See explicit, implicit.
imply, infer To imply is to suggest indirectly. To infer is to guess
or conclude on the basis of indirect suggestion. The note implied
they were planning a small wedding; we inferred we would not be
invited.
inside of, outside of Use inside and outside instead. The class
regularly met outside [not outside of] the building.
insure See assure, ensure, insure.
400 gol Glossary of Usage

irregardless, regardless Irregardless is a double negative. Use

regardless.
is when, is where These vague expressions are often incorrectly
used in definitions. Schizophrenia is a psychotic condition in which
[not is when or is where] a person withdraws from reality.
its, it's Its is the possessive form of it. It’s is a contraction for it is
or it has. It’s important to observe the rat before it eats its meal.
know, no Use know to mean “understand.” No is the opposite
of yes.
later, latter Later means “after some time.” Latter refers to the
second of two items named. Juan and Chad won all their early
matches, but the latter was injured later in the season.
latter See former, latter and later, latter.
lay, lie Lay means “place” or “put.” Its main forms are lay, laid,
laid. It generally has a direct object, specifying what has been
placed. She laid her books on the desk. Lie means “recline” or “be
positioned” and does not take a direct object. Its main forms are
lie, lay, lain. She lay awake until two.
leave, let Leave means “go away.” Let means “allow.” Leave alone
and let alone are interchangeable. Let me leave now, and leave [or
let] me alone from now on!
less See fewer, less.
let See leave, let.
lie See lay, lie.
like See as, as if, like.
literally Literally means “actually” or “exactly as stated.” Use it to
stress the truth of a statement that might otherwise be understood
as figurative. Do not use literally as an intensifier in a figurative
statement. Mirna was literally at the edge of her seat may be accurate,
but Mirna is so hungry that she could literally eat a horse is not.
loose, lose Lose is a verb meaning “misplace.” Loose is an adjective
that means “not securely attached.” Sew on that loose button before
you lose it.
lots, lots of Avoid these informal expressions meaning “much” or
“many” in academic or professional discourse.
may See can, may.
 Glossary of Usage 401

may be, maybe May be is a verb phrase. Maybe is an adverb that

means “perhaps.” He may be the head of the organization, but maybe
someone else would handle a crisis better.
might of See could of.
moral, morale A moral is a succinct lesson. The moral ofthe story
is that generosity is rewarded. Morale means “spirit” or “mood.”
Campus morale was low.
myself See herself, himself, myself, yourself.
no See know, no.
nor, or Use either with or and neither with nor.
number See amount, number.
off, of Use off without of. The spaghetti slipped off [not off of | the
plate.
one another See each other, one another.
or See nor, or.
outside of See inside of, outside of.
passed, past Use passed to mean “went by” or “received a passing
grade.” The marching band passed the reviewing stand. Use past to
refer to a time before the present. Historians study the past.
per In formal writing, use the Latin per only in standard technical
phrases such as miles per hour. Otherwise, find English equivalents.
As mentioned in [not As per] the latest report, food insecurity among
college students is at an all-time high.
percent, percentage Use percent with a specific number; use
percentage with an adjective such as large or small. Last year, 80
percent of the members were female. A large percentage of the members
are women.
precede, proceed Precede means “come before”; proceed means
“go forward.” Despite the storm that preceded the ceremony, the
wedding proceeded on schedule.
principal, principle When used as a noun, principal refers to a
head official or an amount of money; when used as an adjective,
it means “most significant.” Principle means “fundamental law
or belief.” Albert went to the principal and defended himself with the
principle of free speech.
proceed See precede, proceed.
402 Glossary of Usage

quotation, quote Quote is a verb, and quotation is a noun. He

quoted the president, and the quotation [not quote] was preserved in
history books.
raise, rise Raise means “lift” or “move upward.” (Referring to
children, it means “bring up.”) It takes a direct object; someone
raises something. The guests raised their glasses to toast. Rise means
“go upward.” It does not take a direct object; something rises by
itself. She saw the steam rise from the pan.
real, really Real is an adjective, and really is an adverb. Do not
substitute real for really. In academic and professional writing, do
not use real or really to mean “very.” The old man walked very [not
real or really] slowly.
reason is because Use either the reason is that or because—not
both. The reason the copier stopped is that [not is because] the paper
jammed.
reason why Avoid this expression in formal writing. The reason
[not reason why] this book is short is market demand.
regardless See irregardless, regardless.
respectfully, respectively Respectfully means “with respect.”
Respectively means “in the order given.” Zara and Felix are,
respectively, a juggler and an acrobat. The children treated their
grandparents respectfully.
rise See raise, rise.
set, sit Set usually means “put” or “place” and takes a direct
object. Sit refers to taking a seat and does not take an object. Set
your cup on the table, and sit down.
should of See could of.
since Be careful not to use since ambiguously. In Since I broke my
leg, I’ve stayed home, the word since might be understood to mean
either “because” or “ever since.”
sit See set, sit.
so In academic and professional writing, avoid using so alone
to mean “very.” Instead, follow so with that to show how the
intensified condition leads to a result. Aaron was so tired that he fell
asleep at the wheel.
 Glossary of Usage eee 403

some time, sometime, sometimes Some time refers to a length of

time. Please leave me some time to dress. Sometime means “at some
indefinite later time.” Sometime I will take you to London. Sometimes
means “occasionally.” Sometimes I eat sushi.
subsequently See consequently, subsequently.
supposed to, used to Be careful to include the final -d in these
expressions. He is supposed to attend.
sure, surely Avoid using sure as an intensifier. Instead, use
certainly. I was certainly glad to see you.
than, then Use than in comparative statements. The cat was bigger
than the dog. Use then when referring to a sequence of events. I
won, and then I cried.
that, which A clause beginning with that singles out the
item being described. The book that is on the table is a good
one specifies the book on the table as opposed to some other
book. A clause beginning with which may or may not single
out the item, although some writers use which clauses only
to add more information about an item being described. The
book, which is on the table, is a good one contains a which clause
between the commas. The clause simply adds extra, nones-
sential information about the book; it does not specify which
book.
then See than, then.
they, them The pronouns they and them have traditionally been
used to refer to plural antecedents. However, when the gender
of a singular antecedent is not known or is nonspecific, they or
them is an acceptable and appropriate choice over singular pro-
nouns such as him or her or combinations such as he or she and
his or her. Someone left their jacket on the bus. Also, an individual
may choose they/them/their as pronouns for themself. Lise was
prepared for the speech, but they looked nervous when the cameras
turned on.
thorough, threw, through Thorough means “complete.” After a
thorough inspection, the restaurant reopened. Threw is the past tense
of throw, and through means “in one side and out the other.” He
threw the ball through a window.
404 Glossary of Usage

to, too, two To generally shows direction. Too means “also.” Two
is a number. We, too, are going to the meeting in two hours. Avoid
using to after where. Where are you flying [not flying to]?
two See to, too, two.
uninterested See disinterested, uninterested.
unique Some people argue that unique means “one and only” and
object to usage that suggests it means merely “unusual.” In formal
writing, avoid constructions such as quite unique.
used to See supposed to, used to.
very Avoid using very to intensify a weak adjective or adverb;
instead, replace the adjective or adverb with a stronger, more
precise, or more colorful word. Instead of very nice, for example,
use kind, warm, sensitive, endearing, or friendly.
well See good, well.
where In formal writing, use where alone, not with words such as
at and to. Where are you going [not going to]?
which See that, which.
who, whom In formal writing, use who if the word is the subject
of the clause and whom if the word is the object of the clause.
Monica, who lives in Tucson, is my godmother. (Who is the subject of
the clause; the verb is lives.) Monica, whom I saw last winter, lives
in Tucson. (Whom is the object of the verb saw.) Because whom can
seem excessively formal, some writers rephrase sentences to avoid it.
who’s, whose Who’s is a contraction for who is or who has. Who’s
on the patio? Whose is a possessive form. Whose sculpture is in the
garden? Whose is on the patio?
would of See could of.
your, you’re Your shows possession. Bring your sleeping bag along.
You’re is the contraction for you are. You’re in the wrong sleeping
bag.
yourself See herself, himself, myself, yourself.
 with Glossary of Terms

Words in blue are followed by writer positioned for, 3-6

a definition. Boldface terms in See also writing projects
definitions are themselves defined accept, except, 395
elsewhere in this index. accessibility of presentations,
259-60
acknowledgments of sources, 117
A active listening, 5-6
a, an, 315, 316-17, 395, 396 active voice, 289, 294 The form of
abbreviations, 368, 387-89 a verb when the subject performs
abilities and disabilities, 259-60 the action: Lata sang the chorus.
“about” page, evaluating, 98, 102 Contrast with passive voice.
absolute concepts, 329 for conciseness, 289
abstract passive voice vs., 289, 302
citing shifts to passive voice, 294, 302
in APA style, 195 AD, CE, 388
in CSE style, 235, 240 addresses and place names
evaluating, 104 abbreviations, 362, 363
abstract language, 273 commas for, 345
Academic Search Premier, numbers in, 363
126, 148 adjective, 35, 325-29, 357, 388,
academic writing 393 A word that modifies, quanti-
active, respectful reading and fies, identifies, or describes a noun
listening, 5-6 or words acting as a noun.
authority in, 4 abbreviation as, 388
claim, 5 absolute concepts, 329
design decisions, 17, 18, 19-20 after linking verb, 326-28
directness and clarity, 5 capitalization, 32, 385
editing, Twenty Tips for, 27-36 clause, commas with, 345
expectations for, 4, 67-69 comparatives and superlatives,
genres of, 67-80 328-29
rhetorical analysis, 48-51 compound, 33, 371
sharing and reflecting, 38-40 coordinate, 360
standardized English for, hyphens with, 35, 392
262-65 place names, abbreviated, 363
subjunctive mood, 310 with plural nouns, 327
thesis, 5 proper, 32, 385
who, whom, 404 See also modifier

405
406 Index

adverb, 325-29, 346 A word that alternative (“alt”) text, 259

qualifies, modifies, limits, or defines altogether, all together, 395
a verb, an adjective, another adverb, AM, a.m., 388
or a clause, frequently answering AmericanPressInstitute.org
the question where? when? how?
(fact-checker site), 97
why? to what extent? or under what
American Psychological Association
conditions?
(APA) style. See APA style
absolute concepts, 329 Americans with Disabilities Act,
after linking verbs, 326-28 259
clause, commas with, 345
among, between, 396
comparatives and superlatives,
amount, number, 396
328-29
igh, Oh, BilS., Siley. GIS), Xe
conjunctive, 346, 361, 365
analogies, 57, 274
hyphens with, 392
analysis, 7-9, 47-48. See also
See also modifier
critical reading and listening;
adverbial particle, 344
evaluating sources; synthesis
advertisements, citing
and, 283, 322. See also coordinating
in APA style, 201
conjunctions
in MLA style, 160
and/or, 396
advice, advise, 395
Angelou, Maya, 284-85, 383
affect, effect, 395
annotated bibliography, 111-12.
afterwords, citing
See also working bibliography
in Chicago style, 220
annotating, 45-46, 111
in MLA style, 144
antecedent, 30, 323, 333, 338 The
agreement, 319 The correspond-
noun or noun phrase that a pronoun
ence between a pronoun and its replaces.
antecedent in person, number, and
gender (Mr. Fox and his sister) or agreement with pronouns, 34,
between a verb and its subject in 323. BSS)
person and number (She and Moe agreement with verbs, 323-24
are friends). ambiguous, 340
pronoun-antecedent, 34-35, collective-noun, 338
333, 339 compound, 338
subject-verb, 319-21 implied, 341
alignment, in design, 18 indefinite pronoun, 34, 339
all. See indefinite pronoun pronoun reference to, 30, 333,
all ready, already, 395 340-41
all right, alright, 395 anthologies, works in, citing
all together, altogether, 395 in Chicago style, 220
allude, elude, 395 in MLA style, 133, 142
allusion, illusion, 395 any. See indefinite pronoun
along with, 319 any, some, 315
a lot, 396 any body, anybody, any one, anyone,
already, all ready, 395 396
alright, all right, 395 anyway, anyways, 396
 Index 407

Anzaldta, Gloria, 249, 261 appositive, 359, 380 A noun or

APA style, 115, 174-211 The noun phrase that adds identifying
citation style guidelines issued by the information to a preceding noun
American Psychological Association. or noun phrase: Zimbardo, an
innovative researcher, designed the
authors, 179-80, 183, 185-86 experiment.
books, 186-89, 197
arguable statements, 55
combining parts of models, 184
content notes, 176 argument, 51-67 A text that
database sources, 174-75 makes and supports a claim.
digital sources, 180-81, 192-98 alternative, 56, 58, 61, 63
format, 176-77 appeals, 52-53, 55-57, 62-63
in-text citations, 175, 177-82, Classical, 57, 58
183, 378 elements of, 53
list of examples, 178 evidence in, 53, 55, 56, 252-53
parts of, 175 invitational, 54, 59
long quotations, 177, 178, 374 listening and reading purpose-
other sources, 198-201 fully and openly, 52
parts of citations, 175 making an, 54-57
print periodicals, 189-91 organizing, 57-59
references, 182-201 purpose of writing, 53-54
formatting, 184 Rogerian, 54, 57, 59
list of examples, 182-83 sample student essay, 60-67,
models for, 185-201 162-73
sample, 210-11 stance and tone, 9
sample student writing, 201-11 statements making, 54-55
signal phrases in, 115, 177-78, 183 thesis or claim, 55, 60-65
source maps Toulmin, 53, 57
articles from databases, 194 articles (a, an, the), 315, 316, 395,
articles from print periodicals, 396
190 articles from databases
books, 187 citing
works from websites, 196 in APA style, 174-75, 193-94
sources without models, 192 in Chicago style, 212-13,
types of sources, 174-75 222-25
understanding, 174-76 in CSE style, 242
verb tense in, 115, 177, 308 in MLA style, 148-49
visuals and media, 177, 181-82, searching for, 93
197, 199-201 articles in periodicals
apostrophes, 33, 370-73 capitalizing titles, 386
appeals, in argument citing
emotional, 52, 57, 62 in APA style, 189-91, 192-93
ethical, 52, 55-56 in Chicago style, 221-25
identifying, 52-53 in CSE style, 240-41, 242
logical, 52-53, 56-57, 63 in MLA style, 145-47, 150
408 Index

articles in periodicals (continued) audio clips

evaluating, 104-5 citing
online, 92 in APA style, 200, 201
popular and scholarly, 91 in Chicago style, 229-30
artwork in MLA style, 158
capitalization of titles, 386 italics for titles, 389
citing as visuals and media, 20, 23,
in Chicago style, 230-31 117. See also visuals and
in MLA style, 159 media
italics for titles, 390 Austen, Jane, 373
as, as if, like, 274, 396 authority
assignments. See writing projects in academic writing, 4
assumptions in argument, 57
about abilities and disabilities, audience expectations, 252
259-60 in sources, 91, 92, 98, 104
about gender and pronoun See also credibility
preferences, 255-57 authors
about race and ethnicity, 257-59 citing
for arguments, 53, 55 in APA style, 179-80, 183,
audience and, 89, 252, 259-60 185-86
in conditional sentences, 312 in Chicago style, 218-19
cultural, 251 in CSE style, 237, 238-39, 241
examining, 9, 252, 254-59 in MLA style, 125, 129-30,
assure, ensure, insure, 396 131-33, 138-40
as to, 396 credentials, evaluating, 98, 100,
as well as, 319 104
attention, 44 auxiliary verb, 300-301. See also
attitude. See stance helping verb
audience awhile, a while, 396
analyzing, 8-9, 89, 252, 259-60
appeals to, 52-53, 55-57, 62-63
expectations of, meeting, 252-53
informal vs. formal writing for. B
See formal writing; informal bad, badly, 326, 397
writing bar and line graphs, 21
for presentations, 81 base form, 298, 301, 319 The form
public writing for specific, 72 of a verb listed in a dictionary (go).
for research projects, 89, 117 conditional sentences, 312
sharing and reflecting with, 36 forming auxiliary verbs, 300,
of sources, 98 303
stance and tone for. See stance; infinitive from to with, 303
tone present subjunctive with, 311
varieties of English language, -s, -es added to, 319
262-68 BC, BCE, 388
 Index 409

been as auxiliary verb, 301 in Chicago style, 218-19

Bell, Martha (student writer), 75, in CSE style, 238-40, 243
201-9 in MLA style, 140-45, 150
beside, besides, 397 italics for titles, 390
between, among, 396 both... and, 291. See also correla-
be verbs tive conjunctions
agreement with subjects, 298, brackets, 107, 116, 378-79
BlOMs25 brainstorming, 11, 96
as helping verbs, 301 brochures, citing. See pamphlets,
as irregular verbs, 298, 319 citing
as linking verbs, 326, 397 Brown, Eugene, 290
and passive voice, 301, 302 Bryan, L.J. (student writer), 60-66
subjunctive mood, 310 business terms, abbreviations, 387
in varieties of English, 325 but, 275. See also coordinating
wordiness and, 289 conjunctions
lye. OF Oke WO) alals
bibliographies
annotated, 111-12 C
in APA style, 182. See also APA can, may, 397
style: references capitalization, 32, 137, 374, 384
in Chicago style, 213, 215-31, captions for visuals, 20-21, 117,
234 EY 11335)
colons in, 381 case, 334 The form of a noun or
evaluating, 104 pronoun that reflects its grammatical
as library resources, 94 role: He ate (subjective). His food
in MLA style, 127-28. See also was cold (possessive). | saw him
MLA style: works cited (objective).
research project, 94, 106, 107, catalogs, library, 92-93
111-13, 118, 121 CE, AD, 388
working, 106, 107, 111, 121 cf., compare (confer), 388
block quotations. See quotations: charts
long citing
blogs or discussion groups in APA style, 198
citing in MLA style, 160
in APA style, 197 as visuals or media, 20. See also
in Chicago style, 227 visuals and media
in MLA style, 155 checklists
low-stakes writing, 42-44 analyzing and fact-checking
reflective, 39 texts, 47-48
sharing writing, 38 citing digital sources
books in APA style, 192
capitalizing titles, 386 in MLA style, 151
citing citing sources without models
in APA style, 186-89, 197 in APA style, 192
Index

checklists (continued) parts of citations, 213

citing sources without models print and digital periodicals,
(continued) 221-25
in Chicago style, 217 sample student writing, excerpts
in MLA style, 138 from, 231-34
class blogs, wikis, and forums signal phrases in, 115, 215
participation, 43 source maps
commas, 355 articles from databases, 224
drafting, 14 works from websites, 228
editing sources without models, 217
for commas, 355 types of sources, 212-13
pronouns, 336 understanding, 212-13
subject-verb agreement, 322 Verbitenseiad i> .e2a15
Top Twenty Tips, 28 visuals and media, 214, 229-31
verbs, 302 citation-name format, CSE style,
formatting references, 184 236, 237, 238-42
paragraphs, strong, 17 citations. See documentation;
presentations, 83 in-text citations
pronouns, 336 citation-sequence format, CSE
reference models, combining style, 236, 237, 238-41
parts of, 184 claim, 5, 53, 55, 100 An arguable
search techniques, 93 statement.
subject-verb agreement, 322 clarity
Top Twenty Tips for Editing, 28 in academic writing, 5
U.S. academic writing expecta- of language meaning, 251-52
tions, 4 necessary words for, 292
verbs, 302 class discussion forums, 42, 44
visuals and media, 23 classroom materials, citing in MLA
chemistry lab report, 72-74 style, 161
Chicago style, 115, 212-34 clause, 34, 310, 313, 332, 345 A
Citation guidelines based group of words containing a subject
on The Chicago Manual of Style. and a predicate. An independent
authors, 218-19 clause can stand alone as a sentence ,

books, 218-21 while a dependent clause must be

digital sources, 212-13, 218-30 attached to an independent clause.
format, 213-16 adjective and adverb, 357-58
in-text citations, 213, 214-15 in comma splices, 34, 345-48
notes and bibliographic entries, commas with, 29, 33, 346, 347,
214-31 354
formatting, 214-16 dangling modifier, 332-33
list of examples, 216-17 dashes linking, 347-48
models for, 217-31 fragments, 351
parts of, 213 fused sentences, revising, 34,
sample, 233-34 345-46
other sources, 230-31 if clause, 311
 Index 411

introductory elements, 29, with tag questions, 361

354-55 unnecessary, 31-32, 363-64
subjunctive mood, 310 comma Splice, 34, 345-48 An
Ehaticlauseoddss> 5 error in formal writing resulting
truths and facts, and present from joining two independent
tense, 308 clauses with only a comma.
clichés, 274 comment on topic
close reading of poems, 72-80 dashes setting off, 377
clustering, 11 in paragraph, 15
coherence, 15-16 Also called in thesis statement, 11
“flow,” the quality that makes a text common errors. See Top Twenty
seem unified. Tips for Editing
collaboration, 6, 45 common ground, building, 254-59
collections, works in, citing in common knowledge, 117
MLA style, 133 communication, cross-cultural,
collective nouns, 313, 327 250-53
colloquial language, 260, 269, 377 communities
colon, 31, 367, 377, 380-81, 384 connecting with, 264
color evoking sense of place or, 263
in design, 17, 18 writing across, 250-53
perceptions of, 259 comparative, 328-29 The -er
in storyboarding, 14 or more form of an adjective or
comics. See graphic narratives or adverb used to compare two things
comics; web comic (happier, more quickly).
commas, 354-64 compare to, compare with, 397
with adjective clauses, 345 comparisons, complete, 282-83
with adverb clauses, 345 complement, compliment, 397
with appositives, 359 complements. See object comple-
with contrasting elements, ments; subject complements
361-62 complete sentences, 280
with dates and addresses, 362 compliment, complement, 397
in direct address, 361 compose, comprise, 397
editing for, 29-36, 355 compound adjectives, 34-35, 392
with independent clauses, 355 compound antecedents, 338
with interjections, 361 compound constructions, 30, 364
with introductory elements, compound nouns, 371, 392
29-30, 354 compound numbers, 393
with items in a series, 32, compound predicates, 351, 364
359-60, 366 compound sentences, 32-33,
with nonrestrictive elements, 355-56
33, 356-59 compound structures
with parenthetical and transi- avoiding unneeded commas,
tional expressions, 361, 378 363-64
with quotation marks, 31, 376 commas with, 355
splices, 34, 345-48 and pronouns, 335
412 Index

compound subjects, 320, 364 context

compound words, 31, 392 for argument, 51-67
comprise, compose, 397 correctness dependence on, 27
conciseness, 287-89 Using the cultural, 47, 251
fewest possible words to make a discipline as, 67-80
point effectively. genre appropriate to, 67-80
of poster message, 78 for presentations, 81-85
in sentences, 287-89 reading and listening, 44-51
in summarizing, 46-47 in research, 89
conclusions of sources, MLA style,
of arguments, 54, 64 124-28
planning and drafting, 13, 121 for writing, 42-44, 67-80
of presentations, 81 See also Language, Culture,
of research projects, 121 and Context; rhetorical
concrete language, 273 situation
conditional sentences, 312 continual, continuous, 397
conference proceedings, citing contractions, 372
in APA style, 199 contrast, in design, 17-18
in CSE style, 240 contrasting elements, commas
in MLA style, 161 with, 361
confirmation bias, 9 convince, arguing to, 54
coordinate adjectives, 392
conjunction, 386 A word or words
joining words, phrases, or clauses. coordinating conjunctions, 32,
See also coordinating conjunctions; 283, 346, 355, 365 The words and,
correlative conjunctions; subordinat- but, for, nor, or, so, and yet, which
ing conjunction give the same emphasis to both the
elements they join: Restaurants are
conjunctive adverb, 346, 361, expensive, so | cook.
365 A word (such as moreover
or nevertheless) that modifies an commas unnecessary with, 32,
independent clause following 355
another independent clause. A commas with, 33, 355-56
conjunctive adverb generally follows to fix fused sentences,
a semicolon and is followed by a 34, 346
comma: Thoreau lived simply at to link clauses, 346
Walden; however, he regularly parallel ideas, 291
Joined his aunt for tea in Concord.
semicolons with, 366-67
connotation, 271 coordination and subordination,
conscience, conscious, 397 283-87
consequently, subsequently, 397 copyrighted materials, 114, 117.
consistency, in sentences, 281 See also intellectual property
containers, in MLA style, 125-26 rights
content notes. See endnotes; corporate authors. See organiza-
footnotes tions as authors, citing
 Index 413

correlative conjunctions, 32, 291 “normal” in, 251

Paired conjunctions (both... and, openness to, 2
either... or, neither... nor, not writing across, 250-53
only... but also) used to connect See also Language, Culture, and
equivalent elements.
Context
could of, would of, should of, might currency, of source, 98, 104
Or, SO
Council of Science Editors (CSE)
style. See CSE style
counterarguments, 56 D
-d, -ed endings, 298
count noun, 314, 316 A noun
dangling modifiers, 332-33
referring to something that can
be directly counted: women, trees. Dart, Justin, 79
Contrast with noncount noun. dashes, 347, 377, 379-80
data, 397
court cases, citing in MLA style, 162
databases, 92, 93-94, 174-75,
Creative Commons license, 114
212-13. See also articles from
credibility, 13, 97, 264, 280. See
databases
also evaluating sources
dates
criteria, criterion, 397
commas in, 362
critical reading and listening, 5-6,
numbers in, 389
44-51, 97-100
of source publication, 98
CSE style, 115, 235-45 The citation
deadlines
style guidelines issued by the Council
of Science Editors. for collaborating, 7
for research projects, 120
authors, 237, 238-39, 241
defensive reading strategies, 44, 88
books, 238-40, 243
definite article, 317, 318
digital sources, 241-43
definitions and quotation marks,
format, 235
373
in-text citations, 236
delivering a presentation, 84
periodicals, 240-41, 242
denotation, 271-72
references, 237-43
formatting, 235 dependent clause, 279, 281, 310,
335, 347, 351, 366 Sometimes
list of examples, 238
called a “subordinate clause,” a
models for, 238-43 word group that contains a subject
sample, 245 and a predicate but can’t stand alone
sample student writing, as a sentence because it begins with
243-44 either a subordinating conjunction
signal phrases in, 115-16 (because, although) or a relative
cultures pronoun (that, which).
academic writing styles, 5 commas with, 366
cultural context, 47, 251 fixing clause fragments, 351
interviews appropriate to, 94 fixing comma splices, 347
listening to and reading from, 6 in sentence openings, 279
414 Index

dependent clause (continued) diversity of audience, 8

subjunctive mood and, 310 documentation
subordination of, 284 in academic writing, 5, 30
with who, whom, 335 APA style, 117, 174-209
design decisions, 17-23. See also Chicago style, 115, 212-34
formatting; visuals and media complete, 30
details, in paragraphs, 15 considering, 10
determiners, 315-16. See also CSE style, 115-16, 235-45
articles MLA style, 115, 124-73
development in paragraph, 15 plagiarism, avoiding with, 30, 117
diagrams, 21 of visuals and media, 20. See also
dialects, regional, 261 under specific styles
diction. See word choice doesn’t, don’t, 398
dictionary entries, citing in MLA DOI (digital object identifier)
style, 134 in APA style, 192, 193
different from, different than, 398 in Chicago style, 222-23
digital and nonprint sources in MLA style, 148, 150, 151
citing dots. See ellipses
in APA style, 180-81, 192-98 double comparatives and
in Chicago style, 212-13, superlatives, 328
218-30 doublespeak, 271
in CSE style, 241-43 drafting, 10-17
in MLA style, 131, 148-56 checklist for, 14
evaluating, 96-113 paragraphs, 15-16
keeping track of, 106-7 planning and, 13-14
for research projects, 90-91, research project, 120-21
96-113 working thesis, 11-12
digital object identifier. See DOI
(digital object identifier)
direct address, 361
direct discourse, 295 each. See determiners; indefinite
directness, in academic writing, 5 pronoun
direct questions, 94, 368 each other, one another, 398
direct quotations, 106, 116, 340, e-book, citing
373-77 in APA style, 197
disabilities and abilities, 259-60 in Chicago style, 219
disciplinary style, studying, 68 in MLA style, 150
disciplines, writing in, 67-80 -ed, -d endings, 298
disinterested, uninterested, 398 editing
disruptive modifiers, 331 commas, 28, 29-30, 31-32, 354
dissertations, citing pronouns, 336
in APA style, 198-99 proofreading and, 25-26, 31,
in MLA style, 161 32, 121-22
distinct, distinctive, 398 subject-verb agreement, 322
 Index 415

Top Twenty Tips, 28-36 encyclopedia entries, citing

verbs, 302 in APA style, 188
editions other than first, citing in MLA style, 134, 144
in APA style, 188 endnotes
in Chicago style, 220 in APA style, 176
in MLA style, 143 in Chicago style, 213, 214-15,
editorials or letters to the editor, 217-31, 233
citing in MLA style, 128
in APA style, 191 end punctuation, 367-70
in MLA style, 147, 152 English language, varieties of, 260-68
editors, citing abbreviations in, 387-90
in APA style, 186, 188 academic expectations, 67-69
in Chicago style, 219-20 African American or Black, 249,
in CSE style, 239 262, 264, 293, 325
in MLA style, 142 editing, 27
effect, affect, 395 evoking place or community, 263
e.g. (for example), 388 formal vs. informal, 268
either... or, 291, 401. See also forms of be, 325
correlative conjunctions global varieties, 266
electronic sources. See digital and identity and, 248-50, 261
nonprint sources illustrating a point, 264-65
ellipses language awareness and, 261-62
in APA references, 185 other languages, bringing in,
informal writing, 366, 383 265-67
in quotations, 107, 116, 377, shifts in, 260-68, 293
382-83 standardized, 68, 250, 262-65,
elliptical constructions, 335 268, 293, 368
elude, allude, 395 enough, some, 315
emails or messages ensure, assure, insure, 396
citing equal ideas, relating, 283-84
in APA style, 180, 197 -er, -est ending, 328
in Chicago style, 229 errors, common. See Top Twenty
in MLA style, 156 Tips for Editing
informal writing, 268 -es, -s ending, 319
emigrate from, immigrate to, 398 essays. See sample student writing
emotional appeals, 52, 57, 62 et al. (and others), 388
emphasis etc., 388
dashes for, 379 ethical appeals, 55-56
double comparatives and ethics
superlatives, 328-29 argument with, 51-67
italics for, 392 research, 88
quotation marks for, avoiding, 376 social media usage, 3
sentence structure for, 349 source usage, 114
empty words, eliminating, 287-88 visuals and media usage, 22-23
Index

euphemisms, 270 and use of gerunds, 304-5

evaluating sources, 96-113 verb tense with, 308
annotated bibliography, 107-9 widely known, 118
for argument, 53 = faleuses «lial/
fact-checking, 97, 99, 100 fake news, 44, 88
keeping track of sources, 106-7 farther, further, 399
quoting, paraphrasing, and faulty predication, 281
summarizing, 107-10 a few, many, 315
reading and analyzing, 100-101 fewer, less, 399
source maps, 104-5 field research, 94-96, 118
synthesizing, 101 figurative language, 26, 57, 274-75
every day, everyday, 398 figures (images). See visuals and
every one, everyone, 398 media
evidence, 13, 53 Support for an figures (numerical). See numbers
argument'’s claim. films
in academic writing, 5, 69 capitalization of titles, 374
analysis of, 48, 53, 58, 69 citing
in argument, 53, 55, 56, 252-53 in APA style, 201
audience and, 8 in Chicago style, 231
in the disciplines, 69 in MLA style, 162
fact-checking, 47-48 italics for titles, 390
firsthand and secondhand, 53 See also video clips
gathering and researching, 13, firstly, secondly, 399
55, 106 first person (I, we, us), 294
in paragraphs, 15-16 fonts, 19, 26
persuasive, 252-53 footnotes
planning and drafting, 13-14 in APA style, 176
in research projects, 13, 88, 106 in Chicago style, 213, 214-15,
Toulmin argument, 53 217-31, 233
See also sources in MLA style, 128
except, accept, 395 numbers of, with quotation
exclamation points, 369, 376 marks, 376
explanatory notes, in MLA style, 128 for, 283. See also coordinating
explanatory words, in brackets, 378 conjunctions
expletives, 289 foreign words/language, 265-68, 391
explicit, implicit, 398 forewords, citing
exploring a topic, 10-11 in Chicago style, 220
in MLA style, 144
formal writing
F word choice and, 268-71
Facebook, 44 in writing process, 253
FactCheck.org, 97 formatting
facts in APA style, 176-77
fact-checking, 47-48, 88, 97, references, 184
99, 100 in Chicago style, 213-16
 Index 417

in CSE style, 235 refers to plural antecedents and can

for genre, 70 also be used as an alternative to
IMRAD organization, 70 he/she in third-person singular.
in MLA style, 128-29, agreement with antecedents,
S537 34-35, 339
for writing projects, 10, sexist language, 255
18-20 generalizations, no article for,
former, latter, 399 317-18
forums, class discussion, 43, 44 general vs. specific language, 273
fragment, 36, 281, 349-52 A genre, 10, 70 A form of communi-
group of words that is not a cation used for a particular purpose
complete sentence but is punctuated and incorporating certain conven-
as one. Usually a fragment lacks a tional features. Some common exam-
subject, a verb, or both, or it is a ples include lab reports, researched
dependent clause. essays, brochures, invitations, etc.
freewriting, 11, 43 academic writing, 67-80
further, farther, 399 considering, 10
fused (run-on) sentence, 34, formatting for, 70
345-48 Sometimes called a headings in, standard, 19-20
“run-on,” a sentence in which organization for, 70
two independent clauses are run in public writing, 72, 78-80
together without a conjunction or sample student writing,
punctuation between them: My dog 72-80
barked he woke me up.
understanding and using, 70
future perfect, 307 gerund, 304, 334 A verbal form that
future perfect progressive, 307 ends in -ing and functions as a noun:
future progressive, 307 Sleeping is a bore.
future tense, 307 The tense of infinitives and, 304-6
a verb that indicates an action or pronouns and possessive case,
condition has not yet happened:
334
They will arrive next week.
good, well, 326, 399
Google Drive, 7, 45
Google Images, 23
G Google Scholar, 92
Garcia-Muniz, Paola (student Google searches, 93
writer), 266 Google Slides, 82
gathering evidence, 13, 55, 106 government sources
gender citing
gender-related terms, 257-58 in APA style, 179, 198
pronoun-antecedent agreement, in Chicago style, 231
338-40 in CSE style, 243
gender-neutral pronouns, 26, 256 in MLA style, 134,
Alternatives to gendered third- 160-61
person pronouns. For example, they for research projects,
is a gender-neutral pronoun that 92, 102
Index

government terms, abbreviations he/she, his, her, 256-57

for, 387 high-stakes writing, 42
grammar himself, herself, myself, yourself, 399
adjectives and adverbs, 326-28 historical sources, 91
comma splices and fused homonyms, overlooked by spell
sentences, 345-48 checkers, 31
modifier placement, 329-33 hopefully, 399
nouns and noun phrases, however, therefore, 346, 358, 365
313-17 hung, hanged, 399
prepositions and prepositional hyphens, 35, 390-93
phrases, 342-45 hypothesis, 89-90, 96
pronouns, 333-41
sentence fragments, 349-52
subject-verb agreement, 319-25 I
verbs and verb phrases, 298-313 I, me, my, 334-35
See also specific parts of speech ideas, main. See main ideas,
graphic narratives or comics, citing distinguishing
in MLA style, 143, 160 identities
language and, 248-50, 261
writing across, 250-53
H i.e. (that is), 388
habits of mind, 2 if clauses, 311-12
handouts, for presentations, 83 illusion, allusion, 395
hanged, hung, 399 illustrations. See visuals and media
Hauer, Cameron (student writer), immigrate to, emigrate from, 398
49-51 imperative mood, 310
have implicit, explicit, 398
agreement with subject, 319 implied antecedents, 341
as auxiliary verb, 300-304 imply, infer, 399
Hays, Joanna (student writer), in, on, 342-43
243-45 in addition to, 319
headings inclusive pronouns, 339
in APA style, 177 in contrast, 279
in Chicago style, 214 indefinite articles, 316-17
in CSE style, 235 indefinite pronoun, 34, 322, 339,
formatting, 19-20 370 A word such as each, everyone,
in MLA style, 129 or nobody that does not refer to a
organization (IMRAD), 70 specific person or thing.
parallelism in, 291 possessive case, 370
helping verb, 300-303 A verb pronoun-antecedent agreement,
such as a form of be, do, or have or a 34-35, 339
modal combined with a main verb. subject-verb agreement, 322
herself, himself, myself, yourself, 399 you, it, and they, 341
 Index 419

indenting informal outlines, 13-14

in APA style, 176, 177, 183 informal writing
in Chicago style, 214-15 ellipses with, 369-70, 383
in CSE style, 237 end punctuation, 369-70
long quotations fragments in, 349
in APA style, 176 letters or emails, 268
in Chicago style, 214 low-stakes writing as, 42-44
in MLA style, 129, 374 slang and colloquial language,
in MLA style, 128 263, 269
in MLA works cited, 135 subjunctive mood, 310-11
poetry quotations, 374 word choice and, 268-71
independent clause, 281, 284, in writing process, 253
345, 365 A word group containing -ing words, 298, 301, 303, 305
a subject and a predicate that can inside of, outside of, 399
stand alone as a sentence. Instagram, 38, 56
commas used with, 33-34, insure, assure, ensure, 396
355-56 integrating sources, 113-20
fused sentences and, 34, 345-47 acknowledgments, 117-18
semicolons used with, 34, ethical use of sources, 114
346-47, 356, 365-66 quotations, paraphrases, and
in sentence structure, confus- summaries, 114-16
ing, 281 visuals and media, 117
subordination to, 284-86 intellectual property rights, 114,
indexes, for research, 93-94 124, 174, 212
indicative mood, 310 intentions and infinitives, 304-5
indirect discourse, 295 interjection, 361
indirect questions, 368, 369 Internet sources. See digital and
indirect quotations, 295, 376 nonprint sources; web
indirect sources, citing sources
in APA style, 180 interviews
in Chicago style, 221 citing
in MLA style, 134 in APA style, 180, 191
infer, imply, 399 in Chicago style, 229, 230
in MLA style, 156, 157-58
infinitive, 303, 304, 331, 386
To plus the base form of a verb (to
in field research, 94-95, 118
go, to run, to hit), which can serve as in-text citations
a noun, an adverb, or an adjective: abbreviations in, 388-85
One option is to leave (noun). We in APA style, 175, 177-83, 378
stopped to rest (adverb). He needs in Chicago style, 214-17
time to adjust (adjective). in CSE style, 236
gerunds and, 304-6 ellipses and periods with, 383
split, 331 in MLA style, 124, 126-35,
to preceding, not capitalized, 382 138
420 Index

in-text citations (continued) K

parentheses for, 129-30, 138, Karas, Zack (student writer), 80
378 key words and phrases
reasons for, 124 annotating, 45-46, 111, 112
signal phrases, 129-30, 138 in disciplinary vocabularies, 68
intransitive verbs, 306 for paragraph coherence, 15-16
introductions in presentations, 82
in arguments, 58 repetition of, 15-16, 18, 83
to chemistry reports, 75 keyword searches, 93, 94
citing know, no, 400
in Chicago style, 220 Kung, James (student writer), 40
in MLA style, 144
in IMRAD organization, 70
planning and drafting, L
13 Zo labels
in presentations, 81 identity and, 248-49
in research projects, 120 stereotypes and, 254, 255
introductory elements, commas for visuals and media, 22-23,
with, 29-30, 354 WI, NAO) GT NE
invitational argument, 54, 59 lab report, 70, 75-77
irregardless, regardless, 400 language
irregular verb, 298-300, 319 A on abilities and disabilities,
verb that does not form the past 259-60
tense and past participle by adding audience and, 8
-ed or -d to the base form. avoiding stereotypes, 254, 255,
is, are, was, were, been (be verbs). ASV
See be verbs awareness of, practicing, 261-63
is when, is where, 282, 400 building common ground,
it, this, that, and which, vague use 254-60
of, 340-41 cross-cultural communication
it, you, they, indefinite use of, 341 and, 250-53
italics, 31, 137, 390-93 doublespeak, 270-71
items in a series. See series of euphemisms, 270
items examining assumptions, 252,
its, it’s, 33-34, 372, 400 254-59
figurative, 57, 274-75
formal vs. informal. See formal
J writing; informal writing
jargon, 68, 269-70 gender and pronoun prefer-
journals. See articles in periodicals ences, 255-57
JSTOR, 148 general and specific, 273
just as... so, 291. See also correla- identity and, 248-50, 261
tive conjunctions jargon, 68, 269-70
 Index 421

meaning of, clarifying, 251-52 letters

other (non-English), 265-67, citing
391 in APA style, 191
pompous, 270 in Chicago style, 229
of power, 27, 250, 262-63 in MLA style, 162
on race and ethnicity, 257-59 colons after salutations, 381
sexist, 255 informal and formal, 268-69
signpost, 81-82 in portfolio, 38, 39
slang and colloquial, 263, 269, See also editorials or letters to
377 the editor, citing; newsletter
topic exploration in familiar or letters (alphabetical), as terms,
useful, 10-11, 43 391
varieties of, 27, 67-68, 260-68, librarians, reference, 92
266, 325 Library of Congress, 92, 93
See also word choice library research, 92-94
Language, Culture, and Context lie, lay, 302, 400
adjectives with plural nouns, like, as, as if, as though, 274, 396
327 limiting modifier, 330
Black language, 262 line and bar graphs, 21
English, global varieties, 266 line spacing. See margins and
fancy language, avoiding, 270 spacing
grammar flexibility, 301 linguicism, 262
plagiarism, 119 linking verb, 323, 326, 393 A verb
sentence length, 346 that suggests a state of being, not
sources, identifying, 111 an action.
thesis, review by peers, 121 adjectives and adverbs after,
thesis, stating a, 12 326-28
verb usage, checking with search subject agreement with, 323
engines, 305 subject complement following,
visuals, using, 22 not hyphenated, 393
See also the directory of boxed tips links to audio and visual sources,
on p. 444 AQUI), Ths
later, latter, 400 list
lateral reading, 47, 99-100, 102 colon introducing, 367, 380
Latin terms, abbreviations for, 388 numbers in, parenthetical, 378
latter, former, 399 parallel form, 290
latter, later, 400 See also series of items
lay, lie, 302, 306-7, 400 listening
leave, let, 400 active and respectful, 5-6
lectures. See presentations analytically, critically, and
length of sentences, 278, 346 respectfully, 44-51
less, fewer, 399 beginnings and endings of
let, leave, 400 presentations, 81
422 Index

listening (continued) maps

and collaboration, 6-7 citing, in MLA style, 160
and reading purposefully and as visuals or media, 22
openly, 52 margins and spacing
list of references. See APA style; in APA style, 176
CSE style in Chicago style, 214
list of works cited. See MLA style: in CSE style, 235
works cited design decisions, 18. See also
literacy narrative, 265-66 formatting
literally, 400 in MLA style, 128
literary present tense, 308 in poetry, 374
literary works may, can, 397
citing, in MLA style, 133 may as modal verb, 301
verb tense, 302 may be, maybe, 401
See also books; plays; poetry me, my, I, 334-35
literature review, excerpts from, meaning, clarifying, 251-52
243-45 measurement, units of, 388
a little, much, 315 medium, 10. See also visuals and
live performances, citing in media
MLA style, 159. See also metaphors, 57, 61, 274
presentations might of, could of, would of, should
logical appeals, 52-53, 56-57, 63 Of Iz
long quotations. See quotations: misinformation, 44, 88
long misplaced modifiers, 330-31
loose, lose, 400 missing words, 32
lots, lots of, 400 mixed metaphors, 274
low-stakes writing, 42-44 mixed structure, 280-81 A
-ly adverbs, 325, 393 common writing problem in which
a sentence begins with one gram-
matical pattern and switches to
another.
magazines. See articles in MLA style, 115, 124-71 The
periodicals citation style guidelines issued by the
main clause. See independent Modern Language Association.
clause authors, 125-27, 129, 131-32,
main ideas, distinguishing, 138-40
284-87. See also thesis; topic books, 140-45, 150
sentence context of sources, 124-28
main verbs, 300. See also verb digital written-word sources,
manuscript format. See formatting 128, 148-56
manuscripts or unpublished works, elements of citations, 125-26
citing in MLA style, 162 explanatory notes, 128
many, a few, 315 format, 128-29
 Index 423

in-text citations, 126-27, limiting, 330

129-35, 138 misplaced, 330
list of examples, 130 placement of, 329-33
parts of, 126-27 and split infinitives, 331
long quotations, 129, 374 squinting, 330
other sources, 160-62 vague, 287
parts of citations, 126-27 See also adjective; adverb
print periodicals, 145-47 mood, 310-11 The form of a
sample student writing, 49-51, verb that indicates the writer's
62-65, 72-74, 126, 163-71 attitude toward the idea expressed.
signal phrases in, 115, 130-31, 138 The indicative mood states fact or
source maps opinion (/ am happy); the imperative
articles from databases, 149 gives commands (Keep calm);
articles in print periodicals, 146 and the subjunctive refers to a
condition that does not exist (/f/
books, 141
were rich... ).
works from websites, 154
types of sources, 126 moral, morale, 401
understanding, 124 more. See indefinite pronoun
verb tense in, 115 most. See indefinite pronoun
visual, audio, media, and live much. See indefinite pronoun
sources, 129, 135, 156-62 much, a little, 315
works cited, 135-62 multimedia presentations, 81-85.
formatting, 135, 137 See also presentations
in-text citations and, 126-27, multimodal text, 67 A text that
138 may include oral, visual, or audio
list of examples, 136-37 elements in addition to (or instead
models for, 139-62 of) words on a printed page. See also
sample, 51, 74, 170-71 visuals and media

modal, 301-3 A kind of helping multivolume works, citing

verb that has only one form and in APA style, 188
shows possibility, necessity, or in Chicago style, 220
obligation: can, could, may, might, in MLA style, 132-33,
must, shall, should, will, would,
143-44
ought to.
musical compositions
Modern Language Association capitalization of titles,
(MLA). See MLA style 386
modifier, 287, 325 A word, phrase, citing, in MLA style, 158
or clause that acts as an adjective italics for titles, 390-91
or an adverb, qualifying the my, me, I, 334-35
meaning of another word, phrase, my, our, your, his, her, its, their,
or clause. 315
dangling, 332-33 myself, yourself, himself, herself,
disruptive, 331 BOD)
424 Index

N “normal,” judgments about, 251

name-year format, CSE style, 236, not... but, 291. See also correla-
237-41 tive conjunctions
narratives notes
in argument, 58 abbreviations in, 388-89
literacy, 265-66 in APA style, 176
as sources, 91 in Chicago style, 213, 214-15,
N.B. (note well), 388 217-31
n.d. (no date), in APA style, 181 in MLA style, 128
necessary words, 292 See also footnotes
neither ... nor, 291, 320. See also note-taking
correlative conjunctions annotated bibliography, 111-13
nevertheless, 279 annotating, 45-46, 106
newsletter, 18, 19 in field research, 94
newspapers. See articles in paraphrasing, 108-10
periodicals quoting, 107-8
Nguyen, Thanh (student writer), sources, keeping track of, 106-7
39 summarizing, 110-11
no, know, 400 synthesizing sources, 101
noncount noun, 314, 316-17 A translingual, 266-67
noun referring to a collection of not only... but also, 291. See also
things or to an idea that cannot be correlative conjunctions
directly counted: sand, rain, violence. noun, 31, 287, 290, 313-18, 325,
Contrast with count noun. 333, 359, 370, 385, 388 A word
none. See indefinite pronoun that names a person, place, thing,
or idea.
non-English words/language, 391
nonprint sources. See digital and abbreviation as, avoiding, 388
nonprint sources and adjectives, 325
antecedents for pronouns, 333.
nonrestrictive element, 33,
356-59 A word, phrase, or clause See also antecedent
that provides more information appositives, 359, 380
about, but does not change, the articles with, 316-18
essential meaning of a sentence. capitalization, 32, 385
Nonrestrictive elements are set collective, 321, 338-39
off from the rest of the sentence compound, 371, 392
with commas: My instructor, who is count and noncount,
perceptive, liked my introduction.
314-16
adjective and adverb clauses, determiners, common,
357-58 315-16
appositives, 359 parallelism, 290
commas setting off, 33, 356-59 possessive, 34, 315, 370
nor, or, 283, 346, 355, 401. See also pronouns replacing, 333. See
coordinating conjunctions also pronoun
 Index 425

proper, 31, 32, 385 objective case, 334-35

sexist, 255 observation, in field research,
vague, 287 95-96
we and us before, 336-38 off, of, 401
words between subject and verb, on, in, 342-39
319-20 one another, each other, 398
noun phrases, 313-17, 359 one of the, 323
number (singular or plural) online sources. See digital and
apostrophes and plural forms, nonprint sources
372-73 openings, sentence, 278-80
count and noncount nouns, openness, as habit of mind, 2
314-16 opinion, personal. See stance
determiners, 315-16 opinion surveys, 96
pronoun-antecedent agreement, opposing points of view, 50, 56,
34-35, 323, 338-40 59, 114, 168
subject-verb agreement, 319-25 or, nor, 283, 320, 338, 401. See also
See also plurals coordinating conjunctions
number, amount, 396 oral presentation. See presentations
number of, a vs. the, 321 organization
numbers, 388-89 in academic writing, 5
abbreviations and, 387 of arguments, 57-59
colons with, 381 audience expectations, 253
figures for, 389-90 for genre, 70
hyphens with, 393 IMRAD, 70
in parentheses, 378 of paragraph, 15
plural of, 372-73 planning and drafting, 13-14
slashes in fractions, 382 of presentations, 81
spelling out, 389 of writing project, 10
as terms, italicizing, 391 organizations as authors, citing
in APA style, 179, 185
in Chicago style, 218
oO in CSE style, 239
object, 32, 306, 334, 342, 344, in MLA style, 132, 139
364, 381 A noun or pronoun receiv- outlines, 13-14, 122, 291
ing the action of a verb (We mixed outside of, inside of, 399
paints) or following a preposition
(on the road).
avoid colons, 381 P
avoid commas, 364 page numbers
of preposition, 342 in APA style, 176
pronouns as, 334-36, 344 in Chicago style, 214
transitive verbs, 306, 344 in CSE style, 235
object complements, 32 in MLA style, 128-29, 130
426 Index

paired ideas, 291-92 was hit by a pitch. Contrast with

pamphlets, citing active voice.
in Chicago style, 231 and forms of be, 300-302
in MLA style, 160 shifts from active voice, 289,
paragraphs, 15-17 310
parallelism, 290-91 wordiness of, 289
with conjunctions, 291 past participles, 298-99, 301, 303,
necessary words for clarity, 292 306
paired ideas, 291 past perfect, 307
for paragraph coherence, 15 past perfect progressive, 307
for sentence structure, 32-33, past progressive, 307
290-91 past subjunctive, 311
in series or list, 290 past tense, 115, 177, 298-99,
paraphrasing 306-9, 319 The tense of a verb
citing, in APA style, 178 that indicates an action or condition
integrating, 116 has already happened: They arrived
plagiarism in, 109, 118-19 yesterday.
present tense in, 308 per, 401
of sources, 108-10, 116 percent, percentage, 401
parentheses, 377-78, 383
perfect progressive, 307 The
parenthetical citations. See in-text form used when the perfect tense
citations of a verb shows an ongoing action
parenthetical expressions, completed at some point in the past,
361, 378 present, or future, with the main
participial phrases, 358 verb in the -ing form: The workers
participle, 298 A word formed had been striking for a month
from the base form of a verb. The before the settlement. He has been
present participle always ends in complaining for days. The construc-
tion will have been continuing for a
-ing (going). The past participle ends
in -ed (ruined) unless the verb is
year in May.
irregular. A participle can function perfect tense, 301-3, 308 The
as an adjective (the singing frog, a tense of a verb showing a completed
ruined shirt) or form part of a verb action in the past, present, or future:
phrase (You have ruined my shirt).
They had hoped to see the parade
particles, adverbial, 344 but got stuck in traffic. |have never
parts of speech. See adjective; understood this equation. By then,
adverb; conjunction; interjec- the governor will have vetoed the
bill.
tion; noun; preposition;
pronoun; verb periodicals. See articles in
passed, past, 401 periodicals
passive voice, 289, 310 The form periods
of a verb when the subject is being with abbreviations, 368
acted on, not acting: The batter comma splices, fixing with, 34
 Index 427

with ellipses, 383 participial, 358

end punctuation, 368 prepositional. See prepositional
in informal writing, 369-70 phrases
with parentheses, 377-78 sentence openings, 279
with quotation marks, 376 signal, 115, 129-30, 138,
with source citations, 383 177-78, 183, 215
person, 319, 338 The point of subordination, 284
view of a subject. The first person wordy, replacing, 288, 289
refers to itself (/); the second person pie charts, 21
addresses you; the third person place names. See addresses and
refers to someone else (they). place names
pronoun-antecedent agreement, plagiarism
34-35, 323, 338-40 avoiding, 30, 113-20
pronoun preferences, 256. See deliberate, 119
also singular they documentation to avoid,
shifts in, 294 30, 118
subject-verb agreement, 303, paraphrase, unacceptable, 109,
319-25 118
personal experience, as source, unintentional, 47, 107, 119
il planning
personal opinion. See stance drafting and, 13-15
persuasive writing. See argument for presentations, 82-84
photographs for research, 90
citing plays
in APA style, 201 capitalization of titles, 386
in MLA style, 159 citing in MLA style, 133
as visual or media, 21. See also italics for titles, 391
visuals and media plurals
phrasal verbs, 344 adjectives with, 327
phrase, 29-30, 270, 281, 284, apostrophes, 372-73
288, 290, 314, 332, 350, 354, 358, collective nouns, 321, 339
366 A group of words that lacks a compound. See compound
subject, a verb, or both. entries
appositives, 359 count nouns, 314-17
commas with, 29-30, 354, 354, determiners with, 316
366 gender and pronoun prefer-
dangling modifier, 332-33 ences, 255-56
fragments, 349 nouns, possessive case, 371
introductory elements, 29-30, pronoun-antecedent agreement,
354-55 338-40
noncount nouns with preced- See also number (singular or
ing, 314 plural)
noun, 313-18, 359 PM, p.m., 388
Index

podcasts precede, proceed, 401

citing predicate, 32, 281, 308, 351 The
in APA style, 201 verb and related words in a clause
in Chicago style, 229 or sentence. The predicate expresses
in MLA style, 159 what the subject does, experiences,
italics for titles, 391 or is. The simple predicate is the verb
or verb phrase: We have been living
poetry
in the Atlanta area. The complete
capital letters, use of, 374, 384,
predicate includes the simple
385 predicate and its modifiers, objects,
citing, in MLA style, 133, 151 and complements: We have been
close reading of, 72-75 living in the Atlanta area.
italics for titles, 391
compound, 351, 364
quoting and quotation marks,
matching with subjects, 281-82
374-75, 382 truths and facts, and present
slashes used with, 374, 382
tense, 308
spacing, 374
prefaces, citing
titles of, 375, 386, 391
in Chicago style, 220
point of view
in MLA style, 144
opposing, 50, 56, 114, 168
preposition, 29, 32, 292, 306,
shifts in, 294
342-45, 364, 381, 386 A word
See also stance or word group that indicates the
PolitiFact (fact-checker site), 97 relationship of a noun or pronoun to
pompous language, 270-71 another part of the sentence: From
popular sources, 91 the top of the ladder, we looked
portfolios, 38-39, 40 over the rooftops.
possessive form, 34 The form capitalization, omitting, 386
of a noun or pronoun that shows choosing correct, 342-43
possession. Personal pronouns in the for clarity, 292
possessive case don’t use apostro- colon following, avoiding,
phes (ours, hers), but possessive 381
nouns and indefinite pronouns do commas, unneeded, 32, 364
(Harold's, everyone’s).
gerunds following, 306
apostrophes for, 34, 370 idiomatic use of, 29
indefinite pronouns, 370 object of, 342
its and it’s, 34, 372, 400 omitted, 32
joint possession, 371 phrases. See prepositional
nouns and phrases, 34, 315, 371 phrases
plural nouns, 371 relating to space and time,
pronouns, 34, 334, 370, 372 343
postal abbreviations, 368 two-word verbs with, 344-45
posters wrong, 29
citing, in APA style, 199 prepositional phrases, 342-45
as visuals or media, 78. See also commas with, 358
visuals and media parallelism, 290
 Index 429

in sentence openings, 279 He was snoring during the /ecture.

and sentence structure, 281 The economy is improving. Business
wordy, replacing, 288 schools will be competing for this
presentations student.
accessibility of, tips for, 259 projects. See writing projects
checklist for, 83 pronoun, 30, 323, 325, 333-41,
citing 344, 370, 372 A word used in place
in APA style, 200 of a noun.
in MLA style, 158 and adjectives, 325
creating, 81-85 agreement with antecedents, 34,
delivering, 84 323, 338-40
introduction and conclusion, 81 agreement with verbs, 322
practicing or rehearsing, 83-84 antecedent reference, clear, 30,
sample excerpts, 84-85 333, 340-41
script for, 82 and compound structures, 335
signpost language and structure, and elliptical constructions,
81-82 335
task, purpose, and audience, 81 gender-neutral, 26, 34-35,
visuals, 82-85 256-57, 339-40
present participles, 298-99, 301, gender of, and preferences,
303, 306 257
present perfect progressive, 307 gerunds and possessive case of,
present perfect tense, 115, 308 334
The tense of a verb that indicates inclusive, 339-40
an action or a condition has been indefinite, 34, 322, 339, 341,
completed before the present: The 370
team has worked together well. as object, 334-36, 344
present progressive, 308 possessive, 34, 334, 370, 371
present subjunctive, 311 reference, checking, 30, 333,
present tense, 115, 307-9, 319 339-40
The tense of a verb that indicates a relative, 323
general truth or a current action or role in sentence, 334-38
condition: Things fall apart. We live sexist, 255-56
off campus. singular they, 35, 256, 339, 341,
previewing, 45 403
primary source, 90 A research subject complements, 334-36
source that provides firsthand we and us before nouns,
knowledge of raw information. 336-38
Contrast with secondary source. who, whom, 334-36, 404
principal, principle, 401 pronoun-antecedent agreement,
proceed, precede, 401 34-35, 338-40
progressive, 301-3, 307 The -ing collective-noun antecedents,
form of a verb showing a continuing 338-39
action in the past, present, or future: compound antecedents, 338
430 Index

pronoun-antecedent agreement semicolons, 34, 283, 346, 356,

(continued) 365-67, 376
indefinite pronoun antecedents, slashes, 377, 382
34, 339 purpose for writing
singular they, 35, 339, 341 analysis of, 7
subject-verb agreement, 323-24 for argument, 53-54
proofreading, 25-26, 31, 32, in field research, 94, 96
121-22 listening and reading with, 52
proper adjectives, 32, 385 for presentations, 81
proper names with titles, 385 for public writing, 72, 78-80
proper nouns for research projects, 89, 90, 94,
capitalization, 32, 385 96, 97
spelling, 31 of sources, 101, 102
ProQuest, 148
proximity, in design, 18
pseudonym for author, citing in Q
MLA style, 140 qtd. in, MLA style, 134
psychology research essay, 75 qualifiers, in arguments, 53
publication date, sources, 98 question marks, 363, 367-69
public speaking. See presentations questionnaire, 53, 96, 176, 257
public writing, 72, 78-80, 349 questions
publisher or sponsor for analyzing, 47-48
citing multiple, in MLA style, annotating, 45-46
150 commas with, 362, 363
evaluating, 98, 99-100, 102, direct, 94-95, 368
104 exploring topics, 10-11
punctuation indirect, 368
apostrophes, 33-34, 370-73 in introduction, 120
brackets, 107, 116, 378-79 opinion surveys, 96
colons, 31, 367, 376, 380-82, research, and working hypoth-
384 esis, 89-90, 96
commas, 29-33, 345-48, tag, 361-62
354-64, 376, 378 quotation, quote, 402
dashes, 347-48, 376, 379-80 quotation marks, 373-77
ellipses, 107, 116, 185, 369-70, capital letters, use of, 384
374, 382-84 commas with, 31, 362-63, 376
end, 367-70 conventional use, 31
exclamation points, 369, 376 definitions, 375-76
hyphens, 35, 392-93 long quotations without, 129,
parentheses, 377-78, 387 374
periods, 34, 365, 368, 378, 383 misused, avoiding, 376-77
question marks, 363, 368-69 note-taking including, 107-8
quotation marks, 31, 107, 129, with other punctuation, 376
138, 362, 376-77, 383 poetry, 374-75
 Index 431

single, 373 analytically, critically, and

titles of short works, 31, 137, respectfully, 5-6, 44-51,
375-76 97-101
quotations close, of poetry, 72-75
in arguments, 57 collaboratively, 45
block, 374. See also long subentry defensive strategies, 44, 88
brackets in, 107, 116, 379 and evaluating sources, 96-101
capitalization in, 384 lateral, 47, 99-101
citations purposefully and openly, 52
in APA style, 177-78, 374 vertical, 97-99
in MLA style, 131 See also proofreading
colons before, 381-82 reading responses, 44
commas with, 31, 362-63, 376 real, really, 402
direct, 106, 116, 295, 373 reason is because, 283, 402
ellipses with, 107, 116, 377, reasons, in argument, 53, 55, 56,
382-84 58, 61
emotional appeal, 52 reason why, 402
indirect, 295, 376 rebuttal, 61
integrating, 35, 114-16 redundant words, 287
long references, list of. See APA style;
in APA style, 177, 178, 374-75 CSE style
in Chicago style, 214 reference works
integrating, 115 citing
in MLA style, 129, 374 in APA style, 188, 197-98
missing words, avoiding, 32 in Chicago style, 227
note-taking and, 107-8 in MLA style, 134, 144, 152
plagiarism, avoiding, 118-20 as research source, 94
of poetry, 374-75 reflecting, 39-40, 42
present tense in, 308-9 regardless, irregardless, 400, 402
“selective,” avoiding, 114 regular verb, 298 A verb that
sic (so), use of, 379 forms the past tense and past
signal phrases for, 115, 177-78 participle by adding -d or -ed to the
synthesizing, 101 base form (care, cared, cared; look,
looked, looked).
relative pronouns, 323
R relevance of sources, 97, 99, 101,
race and ethnicity, 257-59 104
radio repetition
citing, in MLA style, 157 in design, 18
italics for series title, 390-91 of key words or phrases, 16,
raise, rise, 306-7, 402 18, 83
readers. See audience reports
reading citing
aloud, 25, 36 in APA style, 195-96, 199
432 Index

reports (continued) quoting and quotation integra-

citing (continued) tion, 107-8, 115
in Chicago style, 231 research question and hypoth-
in MLA style, 160 esis, 89-90, 96
lab, 70, 75-77 reviewing and revising, 121
verb tense in, APA style, 308 sample student writing, 76,
republications, citing 162-71, 201-9, 231-32,
in APA style, 189 243-44
in MLA style, 144 sources, 89-121
research and research projects stance or attitude, 89, 121
acknowledgments, 117-18 summarizing and summary
audience, 89, 117 integration, 110-11, 116
bibliography, 94, 106, 107, synthesizing sources, 101, 106
111-13, 118, 121 LESIS moOyd olen,
challenges to, 88 topic, 89
citing and documenting sources. visuals and media, 89, 117
See also documentation working title and introduction,
APA style, 115, 174-209 120
Chicago style, 115, 212-34 writing, 120-22
CSE style, 115, 235-44 respectfully, respectively, 402
MLA style, 115, 124-71 restrictive element, 32, 357, 363
conclusion, 121 A word, phrase, or clause that
conducting, 88-96 changes the essential meaning of a
context, 89 sentence. A restrictive element is not
determining needed, 13 set off from the rest of the sentence
drafting, 120 with commas or other punctuation:
The tree that | hit was an oak.
editing and proofreading, 121-22
ethical, 88 reviewing and revising, 24-25, 121
evaluating sources, 96-101 reviews
evidence in, 13, 89, 106 citing
fact-checking, 47-48, 88, 97, in APA style, 191
99, 100 in Chicago style, 225
field research, 94-96, 118 in MLA style, 148, 152
integrating sources, 113-20 literature, excerpts from,
library, 92-94 243-45
note-taking, 96-113 peer review of thesis, 121
outline, 122 rhetorical analysis, 48-51
paraphrasing and paraphrase rhetorical situation, 7-10 The
integration, 108-10, 116 whole context for a piece of writing,
plagiarism, 107, 109, including the person communicat-
113-20 ing, the topic and the person's
planning, 90 attitude toward it, and the intended
audience.
process, beginning, 88-90
purpose for, 89, 90, 94, 96, 97 rise, raise, 306-7, 402
 Index 433

Rogerian argument, 54, 57, 59 in CSE style, 243-44

run-on sentences, 34, 345-48 in MLA style, 162-71
rhetorical analysis, 48-51
web comic, 80
S web page, 79
-s, -es ending, 306, 319 scholarly sources, 91
sacred texts sciences, writing in
citing abbreviations for, 387
in Chicago style, 221 lab reports, 70, 75-77
in MLA style, 133, 145 passive voice for, 310
colons with chapters and verses, verb tense for, 115, 307
380-81 See also research and research
titles, not italicized, 391 projects
Sakowitz, Julia (student writer), screen name for authors, citing in
16, 122, 127, 162-71 MLA style, 140
sample student writing searches and search techniques,
annotated bibliography, 112-13 92-94, 305
argument essay, 60-65, 162-71 secondary source, 90 A research
chemistry lab report, 75-77 source that reports information from
close reading of poetry, 72-75 research done by others. Contrast
documentation with primary source.
in APA style, 202-9 second person (you), 294
in Chicago style, 232-34 semicolons, 365-67
in CSE style, 243-44 avoiding misuse of, 366-67
in MLA style, 49-51, 60-65, comma splices, fixing with, 34,
72-74, 126, 162-71 346
literacy narrative, 265-66 equal ideas, relating, 283-84
literature review, excerpts from, independent clauses, 34, 347,
243-45 355, 365-66
outline of a research project, items in a series, 366
122 with quotation marks, 376
paragraph, 16, 17 sentence, 30, 277-95 A group of
poster, 78 words containing a subject anda
presentation, excerpts from, predicate and expressing a complete
84-85 thought.
psychology research essay, 75 capitalization, 32, 384
reflective blog post, 39 comparisons, complete, 282-83
reflective cover letter, 40 compound structures, 33, 364
research-based argument, 162-71 conciseness, 287-90
research-based history essay, conditional, 312-13
excerpts, 231-32 confusing, editing/revising,
research projects 32-33, 281
in APA style, 201-9 consistency and completeness,
in Chicago style, 231-34 280-83.
434 Index

sentence (continued) between general and specific

coordination and subordination, ideas, 15
283-87 in point of view, 294
elliptical construction, 335-36 in style, and plagiarism, 120
equal ideas, relating, 283-84 in varieties of English, 260-68,
fused or run-on, 34, 345-48 293
length, 278, 346 in verb tense, 32, 293
main ideas, distinguishing, in voice, 294, 310
284-86 short works and quotation marks,
openings, 278-80 31, 137, 375-76
parallelism, 33, 290-92 should of, might of, could of, would
pronoun role in, 334-38 of, 402
separating into two, 345 sic (so), 379
shifts, revising, 293 signal phrases, 115, 129-30, 138,
simplifying structure, 289 177-78, 183, 215
topic, 15, 16 signpost language, 81-82
See also sentence structure Sillay, Bonnie (student writer),
sentence fragments. See fragment 72-74
sentence structure similes, 57, 274
adapting to genre, 71-72 simple tenses, 307 Past (/t
compound, 33, 364 happened), present (Things fall
confusing, editing/revising, apart), or future (You will succeed)
32-33, 281 forms of verbs.
consistent and complete, since, 402
280-83 single quotation marks, 373
emphasis with, 349 singular nouns, 338, 370
parallel, 33, 290-92 singular they, 35, 256, 339-40, 403
paraphrasing, 108-10 sit, set, 306, 402
in presentations, 83 slang and colloquial language, 263,
simplifying, 289 269, 377
varying, 278-80 slashes, 377, 382
series, books in, citing in MLA slides, 82-83, 85
style, 144 Snopes.com (fact-checker site), 97
series of items so, 283, 402. See also coordinating
colons preceding, 367, 376 conjunctions
commas with, 32, 356, 360 social media
parallelism and, 290-91 acknowledgments, 117-18
semicolons with, 360 citing
set, sit, 306-7, 402 in APA style, 197
sexist language, 255 in Chicago style, 229
sharing writing, 38 in MLA style, 155-56
shifts, 293-95 cross-cultural communication
in discourse, 295 with, 250
 Index 435

ellipses on, 383 Chicago style, 115, 212-34

low-stakes writing, 44 CSE style, 115, 235-44
sharing writing, 38 MLA style, 115, 124-71
unreliability, 88 date of publication, 98
using wisely, 2-3 in the disciplines, 68
software ethical use of, 114
italics for titles, 390-91 evaluating, 53, 96-101
for presentations, 82 exploring topic, 11
some, any, 317 fact-checking, 47-48, 88, 97,
some, enough, 315 99, 100
some time, sometime, sometimes, 403 field research, 94-96, 118
Song, Shuqiao (student writer), government. See government
84-85 sources
sound recordings. See audio clips historical, 91
source maps identifying, 111
APA style integrating, 113-20
articles from databases, 194 keeping track of, 106-7
articles from print periodi- library, 92-94
cals, 190 list of, preparing, 121
books, 187 note-taking and, 96-113
works from websites, 196 older and current, 91, 98
Chicago style online. See digital and nonprint
articles from databases, 224 sources
works from websites, 228 personal experience and narra-
evaluating articles, 104-5 tives, 91
evaluating web sources, 102-3 popular, 91
MLA style primary, 90
articles from databases, 149 purpose of, 101, 102
articles from print periodi- quoting, paraphrasing, and
cals, 146 summarizing, 107-11,
books, 141 114-16
works from websites, 154 reading and analyzing, 97-101
sources relevance of, 97, 99, 101, 104
acknowledging, 117-18 for research project, 89-120,
audience of, 98 1A
author, sponsor, publisher scholarly, 91
credentials, 98, 100, 102 secondary, 90
browsing, 11 specialization, 98
choosing, 90-91 stance and tone, 97, 98, 102,
citing and documenting. 104
See also bibliographies; synthesizing, 101, 106
documentation web, 92-94, 96-103. See also
APA style, 115, 174-209 digital and nonprint sources
436 Index

spacing. See margins and spacing; compound, 320-21, 364

white space dangling modifier revised with,
specialization, source, 98 332-33
specificity following verb, 324
in paragraphs, 15 fragments without, 35-37,
specific vs. general language, 350-51
273 introductory elements preced-
of working thesis, 11-12 ing, 354-55
speeches. See presentations matching with predicates,
spell checkers and spelling, 29, 31 281-82
split infinitives, 331 pronouns as, 334-36
squinting modifiers, 330 words between verb and,
stance 319-20
considering, 9-10, 68 See also topic
evaluating, of source, 97, 98, subject complements, 35, 323,
102, 104 334-36, 393
research project, 89, 121 subjective case, 334-35
See also point of view subject-verb agreement, 319-25
standardized English, 67-68, 250, with auxiliary verbs, 303
261-65, 268, 293, 368 with be verbs, 303, 319, 325
state names and abbreviations, with collective nouns, 321
368 with compound subjects,
stereotypes, avoiding, 254-55 320-21
storyboarding, 14 with indefinite pronouns, 322
structure. See organization; with linking verbs, 323
sentence structure with relative pronouns, 323
student writing. See sample student with subjects ending in -s,
writing 323-24
subject, 32, 281, 309, 319, 326, with subjects that follow the
332, 334, 335, 336, 350, 351, 354, verb, 324
364 The noun or pronoun and with titles of works, 324-25
related words that indicate who or
with words between subject and
what a sentence is about. The simple
verb, 319-20
subject is the noun or pronoun:
The timid gray mouse ran away. with words used as words,
The complete subject is the simple 324-25
subject and its modifiers: The timid subjunctive mood, 310-13 The
gray mouse ran away. form of a verb used to express a
active and passive voice, 309-10 wish, a suggestion, a request or
adjectives describing, 325 requirement, or a condition that
does not exist: /f /were president, |
agreement with verbs, 303,
would change things.
319-25
comma between verb and, subordinate clause. See dependent
avoiding, 364 clause
 Index 437

subordinating conjunction, 283, in CSE style, 235

285, 347, 351 A word or phrase in MLA style, 129, 135
such as although, because, or even as visuals and media, 20. See also
though that introduces a dependent
visuals and media
clause: Think carefully before you
answer. tag questions, commas with,
361-62
excessive use of, 286 technical language, 68,
linking clauses, 347-48 269-70
list of common conjunctions, 285 television
and sentence fragments, 351 citing
sentence openings, 279 in APA style, 200, 201
subordination and coordination, in MLA style, 157
283-87 italics for series title,
subsequently, consequently, 397 390-91
summarizing texts, 46-47
tense, 33, 298, 302, 307-9 The
present tense in, 308
form of a verb that indicates the
research projects, 110-11, 116 time when an action takes place —
See also paraphrasing; quotations past, present, or future. Each tense
summary, 110 A brief retelling of has simple (/ enjoy), perfect (/ have
the main points of a text. enjoyed), progressive (/ am enjoy-
ing), and perfect progressive
citing, in APA style, 178
(| have been enjoying) forms.
evaluating, 104
integrating, 116 text, 45 Traditionally, words on
note-taking and, 110-11 paper, but now anything that
present tense for, 308 conveys a message.
superlative, 317, 328-29 The alternative, 259
-est or most form of an adjective or genres, 10. See also genre
adverb used to compare three or multimodal, 67
more items (happiest, most quickly). reading analytically, critically,
supposed to, used to, 403 and respectfully, 44-51
sure, surely, 403 than, then, 403
surveys, 96 that, this, it, and which, vague use
symbols, with numbers, 388 of, 340-41
synthesis, 101, 106 Grouping ideas that, this, these, those, 315
and information together in such that, which, 357-58, 403
a way that the relationship among that, who, and which, subject-verb
them is clear. agreement, 323
that clauses, 311, 357
the, a, an, 315-17, 386
T then, than, 403
tables therefore, however, 346, 361, 365
in APA style, 177, 181-82 there is, there are, 289, 324
in Chicago style, 214 these, those, 315
438 Index

thesis, 5, 11-12 A statement that to, too, two, 404

indicates the main idea or claim of together with, 319
a piece of writing. Thesis statements tone, 9-10, 97, 252
should include a topic—the subject topic
matter—and a comment that makes
choosing, 8, 11
an important point.
exploring, 10-11
in academic writing, 5 low-stakes writing on, 42-44
or claim, in arguments, 53, paragraph identifying, 15
60-63 research projects, 89
paragraph coherence by return- stance and tone toward, 9. See
ing to, 15 also stance; tone
peer review of, 121 in working thesis, 11
for research projects, 90, 121, 122 topic sentence, 15, 16
working, 11-12, 90 Top Twenty Tips for Editing,
they, singular pronoun, 35, 256, 27-37
339-40, 403 apostrophes, checking, 33-34
they, them, 403 capitalization, checking for, 32
they, you, it, indefinite use of, 341 commas, unnecessary, 31-32
third person (he, she, it, one, they), commas after introductory
298, 319 element, 29-30
this, that, it, and which, vague use commas in compound sentence,
of, 340-41 33
this, these, that, those, 315 comma splices, 34
thorough, threw, through, 403 commas with nonrestrictive
those, these, 315 elements, 33
titles documentation, confirming
abbreviations of, 387 complete, 30
in APA style, 176 hyphens, unnecessary or miss-
of arguments, 60 ing, 35
capital letters in, 32, 137, 386 missing words, looking for, 32
in Chicago style, 213-14 pronoun-antecedent agreement,
colons in, 381 34-35
in CSE style, 235, 237, 241 pronoun reference, checking, 30
evaluating, 104 quotation marks, conventional
italics for, 31, 137, 390-91 use, 31
in MLA style, 125, 128, 137 quotations, integrating
of poems, 375, 386, 391 smoothly, 35
with proper names, 385 sentence fragments, checking
quotation marks for, 31, 137, 375 for, 35-37
subject-verb agreement, 324-25 sentences, fused (run-on), 34
within title, books or articles sentence structure, confusing,
with, 145, 189, 221 32-33
working, 120 spelling, checking, 31
 Index 439

verb tense, shifts, 33 unknown authors, citing

wrong words, checking for, 29 in APA style, 179, 181, 185
Toulmin argument, 53, 57 in Chicago style, 219
transition, 16, 346, 361, 365 A in MLA style, 132, 139
word or phrase that signals a U.S., as abbreviation, 388
progression from one sentence or U.S. academic writing expecta-
part of a sentence to another for tions, 4
coherence. us and we, 336-38
adapting to genre, 71 used to, supposed to, 403
in arguments, 62
commas with, 361
to fix fused sentences, 346, 347 V
fragments beginning with, varieties of English. See English
350-51 language, varieties of
in paragraphs, 16 verb, 32, 115, 289, 290, 293, 298,
semicolons with, 365 300, 302, 319, 325, 331, 344, 350,
sentence openings, 279 364, 381 A word or phrase, essen-
in summaries, 46 tial to a sentence, that expresses the
transitional expressions, 361 action of a sentence or clause. Verbs
change form to show tense, number,
transitive verb, 306, 344 A verb
voice, and mood.
that acts on an object: / posted my
review online. and adverbs, 325
agreement with subject, 303,
translations, citing
in APA style, 188 319-25
in Chicago style, 220 auxiliary or helping, 300-304
in MLA style, 142-43 colon following, avoiding, 381
truths or scientific facts, and commas, avoiding unneeded, 364
present tense, 308 conditional sentences, 312
tweets, citing in MLA style, 155 editing, checklist for, 302
Twitter, 2-3, 38, 155, 287, 349 fragments without complete,
two, to, too, 404 36, 350
two-word verbs gerunds, 304-6, 334
hyphens, unnecessary, 35, 393 infinitives, 303, 304-6, 331,
idiomatic use, 344-45 386
missing words, 32 linking, 323, 326-28, 393
type size and typeface, 18, 19 mood of, 310-12
parallelism, 290
phrasal, 344
U regular and irregular forms,
understand, arguing to, 54 298-300, 319
uninterested, disinterested, 398 -s form of verbs, 306, 319
unique, 404 signal, 115
unity in paragraph, 15 strong, 289
Index

verb (continued) in Chicago style, 214, 229-31

tenses. See also specific tenses choosing, 20
in APA style, 115, 177, 308 iia CSERshylen 205)
in Chicago style, 115, 215 design decisions, 17-23, 78
in MLA style, 115 diagrams, 21
sequencing, 309 documentation, 20. See also
shifting, 33, 293 under specific styles
of signal verbs, 115 emotional appeal, 57
using, 307-9 ethical appeal, 55-56
transitive and intransitive, 306, ethical use of, 23
344 handouts, 83
two-word integrating, 117
hyphens, unnecessary, 35, 393 labeling, 20, 117, 129, 177, 181
idiomatic use, 344-45 logical appeal, 56-57
missing words, 32 maps, 22
verb phrases, 33, 298-313 in MLA style, 129, 135, 156-60
voice, active and passive. See permission to use, 20, 117
voice photographs, 21
words between subject and, pie charts, 21
319-20 position and identification, 20-22
verb phrase, 33, 298-313 A main on posters, 78
verb and one or more helping verbs, in presentations, 82-84
acting as a single verb. in research projects, 88, 117
vertical reading, 97-99 slides, 82-83, 85
very, 404 storyboarding, 14
ve/ver/vis, 256 tables; 21
video clips tone with, 9
citing voice, 289, 309 The form of a
in APA style, 200 verb that indicates whether the
in Chicago style, 229-30 subject is acting or being acted
in MLA style, 157 on. In the active voice, the subject
performs the action: Parker played
as visuals and media, 20, 22, 78,
the saxophone. In the passive voice,
82, 83. See also visuals and
the subject receives the action: The
media saxophone was played by Parker.
video games, citing in MLA style, 158
active and passive, 289-90, 294,
visuals and media
301-3, 309-10
in APA style, 177, 181-82,
shifts in, 294, 310
198-201
in argument, 55, 63
audience for, 117 Ww
audio or video clips, 20, 22, 78, warrant, 53 An assumption,
82, 83 sometimes unstated, that connects
bar and line graphs, 21 an argument's claim to the reasons
captions, 20, 117, 129, 135 for making the claim.
 Index 441

Warren, Hebron (student writer), denotation and connotation,

78 271-73
we and us, 336-38 doublespeak, 271
web comic, 80 euphemisms, 270-71
web page for fundraising, 79 figurative language, 57, 274-75
websites formal vs. informal, 260,
accessibility of, 259 268-71
citing gender-related terms, 255
in APA style, 195-96 general and specific language, 273
in Chicago style, 226-28 jargon, 68, 269-70
in CSE style, 243 metaphors, similes, and analo-
in MIA style, 151, 152-54 gies, 57, 61, 274
design decisions, 18, 20 mixed metaphors, 274-75
evaluating, 96-113 pompous language, 270
web sources, 92-94, 96-103. See for race and ethnicity, 257-59
also digital and nonprint sexist, 255
sources signpost, for presentations,
well, 326-28, 399 81-82
what, whose, which, 315 slang and colloquial language,
where, 404 263, 269, 377
whether... or, 291. See also cor- standardized English, 67-68,
relative conjunctions 250, 261-65, 268, 293, 368
which, that, 357-58, 403 wrong, 29
which, that, this, and it, vague use See also key words and phrases;
of, 340-41 language
which, whose, what, 315 word pictures, 11
white space, 18 words used as words, 324-25, 391
who, which, and that, subject-verb wordy phrases, replacing, 288
agreement, 323 working bibliography, 106, 107,
who, whom, 334-35, 404 dedi 2a
who’s, whose, 404 working thesis, 11-12, 89, 90
whose, which, what, 315 working title and introduction, 120
Wikipedia, 38, 92, 197 works cited. See MLA style
wikis world audiences, expectations of,
citing D3}
in APA style, 197-98 would, in conditional sentences,
in MLA style, 152 eh
as class discussion forum, 43 would of, should of, might of, could
as research sources, 92 of, 397
sharing writing on, 38 writing process
word choice, 268-75 analyzing the rhetorical situa-
for abilities and disabilities, tion, 7-10
259-60 assignment and purpose
clichés, 274-75 analysis, 7-8
Index

writing process (continued) writing projects

audience, 8-9. See also audience analyzing assignments for, 7-8
choosing a topic, 8, 11 arguments, 51-65
design decisions, 17-23, 78 collaborative, 7
developing a working thesis, in the disciplines, 67-80
11-12 genres and, 67-80
developing paragraphs, 15-17 high-stakes, 42
drafting, 10-17, 120-21 language for. See language
editing and proofreading, 25-26, low-stakes, 42-44
121-22. See also editing presentations, 81-83
evidence and research, 13. See public writing, 72, 78-80, 349
also evidence; research and reflection, 39-40, 42
research projects sharing, 38
exploring a topic, 10-11 See also academic writing;
formal vs. informal style. See research and research pro-
formal writing; informal jects; sample student writing
writing writing to learn, 42
genres and disciplines, 10, 67-80 wrong words, 29
organizational patterns. See
organization
planning, 13-15, 82-83, 90 Y
reviewing, 24, 121 yet, 283. See also coordinating
revising, 24-25, 121 conjunctions
sentences. See sentence; you, it, they, indefinite use of, 341
sentence structure your, you're, 404
sharing and reflecting, 38-40 yourself, myself, himself, herself, 399
stance and tone, 9-10. See also YouTube, 38, 200
stance; tone
time, genre, medium, and
format, 10. See also format- Z
ting; genre ze/hir/hirs, 256
writer’s choices, 7-10 ze/zir/zirs, 256
writer’s opportunities, 2-7 Zoom sessions, 43, 82
 “Revision Symbol.
Numbers in bold refer to sections of this book.

abbreviation 47a para paraphrase 13g, 14b

adjective/adverb 34 pass inappropriate passive 30b,
agreement 33, 36b 31f
ref unclear pronoun
awkward
reference 36c
capitalization 46
run-on run-on (fused) sentence 38
case 36a
sexist sexist language 22b, 36b
cliché 24d
shift shift 30
incomplete comparison 26c
slang slang 24a
weak conclusion
#P. spelling
comma splice 38
summarize 8d, 13g, 14b
define
transition
dangling modifier 35c
verb form 31
documentation 16-19 verb sequence 31e
emphasis unclear
verb tense 31e
example needed
word choice 24
sentence fragment 39
wordy 28
fused sentence 38
weak verb 28d
hyphen 48e-f
wrong word 24
incomplete construction 26 period, question mark,
italics 48a-d exclamation point 42a—c
jargon 24a comma 40
lowercase 46 semicolon 41
language variety 23 apostrophe 43
mixed quotation marks 44
construction 26, 30
parentheses, brackets,
misplaced modifier 35a dash 45a-c
manuscript format 16c, 17b, colon, slash, ellipses 45d-f
18b, 19a
insert
no comma 40i
number 47b transpose

paragraph close up

faulty parallelism 29 delete

443
 _Language, Culture,
and Context (wuttitingual) |
Look for this icon to find advice of special interest to
international students, speakers of multiple English
sien or anyone else curious about language and culture.

¢ Positioning yourself as an academic writer 1c

¢ Adapting genre structures 10c
¢ Meeting audience expectations 21c
¢ Building verb phrases 31b
¢ Using infinitives and gerunds 31c
¢ Using conditional sentences appropriately 31h
¢ Understanding count and noncount nouns 32a
¢ Using determiners 32b
¢ Using articles 32c
¢ Choosing the right preposition 37a
¢ Using two-word verbs idiomatically 37b

Stating aThesis 12
Using Visuals 22
Identifying Sources 111
Thinking about Plagiarism as a Cultural Concept 119
Asking Experienced Writers to Review a Thesis 121
Respecting Black Language 262
Recognizing Global Varieties of English 266
Avoiding Fancy Language 270
Seeing Grammar as Flexible 301
Checking Usage with Search Engines 305
Using Adjectives with Plural Nouns 327
Judging Sentence Length 346
QUICK START MENU ji Previewing
How This Book Can Help You v Annotating
Summarizing
WRITING PROCESSES Analyzing
A Writer's Opportunities 2 STUDENT WRITING: RHETORICAL ANALYSIS
Engaging difference Arguing Ethically and
Using social media wisely Persuasively 51
sf) Positioning yourself as an academic
fomom
Listening purposefully and openly
writer Identifying basic appeals
Collaborating
Analyzing the elements of an argument
A Writer's Choices 7 Arguing purposefully
Assignment and purpose Making an argument

|
Topic Organizing an argument
Audiences STUDENT WRITING: ARGUMENT ESSAY
Stance and tone
= Writing in a Variety of Disciplines
Time, genre, medium, and format
and Genres 67
a Exploring, Planning, and
tWoancoIN Expectations of academic disciplines
Drafting 10 Understanding and using genres
Exploring a topic Adapting genre structures
Developing a working thesis Choosing genres for public writing
Gathering credible evidence lS
oanoao
©
eroance
>mMaAan0&
STUDENT WRITING: SAMPLES IN A VARIETY OF
Planning and drafting DISCIPLINES AND GENRES
Developing paragraphs
= es Creating Presentations 81
Making Design Decisions 17 Task, purpose, and audience
Design principles Memorable introduction and conclusion
Appropriate formats Structure and signpost language
Visuals and media Script
Ethical use of visuals and media Visuals
Reviewing, Revising, and Practice
tu
ancoliR
mano
Editing 24 Delivery
Reviewing se STUDENT WRITING:
*oancel PRESENTATION EXCERPTS
oo Revising
a Editing and proofreading

_\ Top Twenty Tips for Editing 12 Conducting Research 88

' Your Academic Writing 27 a Understanding challenges to research
b Beginning the research process
iT) Sharing and Reflecting on Your c Choosing among types of sources
Writing 38 d Using web and library resources
Sharing with audiences e Doing field research
Creating a portfolio
Reflecting on your own work 13 Evaluating Sources and Taking
STUDENT WRITING: REFLECTION
aanqoaowo Notes 96
Checking facts
CONTEXTS FOR WRITING, Reading vertically
READING, AND SPEAKING
Reading laterally
Reading and analyzing sources
IN Learning from Low-Stakes
Writing 42 Synthesizing sources
The value of low-stakes writing Keeping track of sources
Types of low-stakes assignments Quoting, paraphrasing, and
summarizing
Reading and Listening Analytically, Creating an annotated bibliography
Critically, and Respectfully 44
pS STUDENT WRITING: ANNOTATED
Go)
Cy
Oo
8D
» Reading collaboratively
§0
oo BIBLIOGRAPHY ENTRIES
 22 Language That Builds Common
. Contents, continued | Ground 254
Integrating Sources and Avoiding Assumptions and stereotypes
Plagiarism 113 Assumptions about gender; pronouns
Assumptions about race and ethnicity
Using sources ethically
Abilities and disabilities
Integrating source material
Integrating visuals and media Language Varieties 260
Knowing which sources to acknowledge Practicing language awareness
Avoiding plagiarism Understanding “standardized English”
et
=jf Writing a Research Project 120 Bringing in other languages
Drafting your text N Word Choice 268
Reviewing and revising
Levels of formality
Preparing a list of sources
Denotation and connotation
Editing and proofreading
General and specific language
In
soln
eoanoron
oanSTUDENT WRITING: OUTLINE
Figurative language
arom
TTIW
Aor

16 MLA Style 124

25 Varying Sentences 278
a MLA citation style
a Sentence length
b Context of sources
Cc MLA format Sentence openings
d MLA in-text citations Consistency and
@ List of examples 130 Completeness 280
e MLA list of works cited Revising sentence structure
@ List of examples 136
Matching subjects and predicates
f STUDENT WRITING: MLA STYLE
Making complete comparisons
17
= APA Style 174 Coordination and
a_ APA citation style Subordination 283
b APA format
Relating equal ideas
c APA in-text citations
Distinguishing main ideas
@ List of examples 178
d APA list of references Conciseness 287
@ List of examples 182 Eliminating redundant words
@ STUDENT WRITING: APA STYLE Eliminating empty words
18 Chicago Style 212
oad Chicago citation style
See ee Rie 8
Simplifying sentence structure
b Chicago format Parallelism 290
c Chicago
‘ notes and bibliographic entries ah items in a series
With : or list
é
® List of examples 216 With paired id
d STUDENT WRITING: CHICAGO STYLE P is 3
Words necessary for clarity
MEMa gS) aia ct
CSE format
wW
N Shifts
a
293
b CSE in-text citations ees
c CSE list of references ieepee Sarl
@ List of examples 238
dS STUbent Wine: CSE STYLE [Nooo
ancely
lao
ocelS
ancwlS
co aetween
pout s Sa ldaie ana :
direct and indirect discourse

STYLE: EFFECTIVE LANGUAGE GRAMMAR

20 Language and Identity 248 WwW Verbs and Verb Phrases 298
anion language shapes identity Regular and irregular verb forms
b Language to shape your own identi Verb phrases
Buag Pey' a4 Infinitives and gerunds
21 Writing across Cultures, Lie and lay, sit and set, rise and raise
= Communities, and Identities 250 Verb tenses
a Thinking about what seems “normal” Active and passive voice
b Clarifying meaning Mood
c Meeting audience expectations moaneols
se Conditional sentences
32 Nouns and Noun Phrases 313 With other elements
_——)
a Count and noncount nouns With parts of dates and addresses
b Determiners With quotations
c Articles Unnecessary commas

33 Subject-Verb Agreement 319

=a
Semicolons 365
a Words between subject and verb Linking independent clauses
b With compound subjects oof8
oS Separating items in a series containing
arene
c With collective nouns other punctuation
d With indefinite pronouns Avoiding misused semicolons
e With who, which, and that
f With linking verbs End Punctuation 367
g With subjects that end in -s Periods
h With subjects that follow the verb Question marks
i With titles and words used as words Exclamation points
j With forms of be Informal writing
34 Adjectives and Adverbs 325 Apostrophes 370
a Adjectives after linking verbs For possessive case
b Comparatives and superlatives
cold
aan For contractions
35 Modifier Placement 329 c With some plural forms
a Misplaced modifiers
b
44 Quotation Marks 373
Disruptive modifiers
c Dangling modifiers For direct quotation
For titles of short works and definitions
36 Pronouns 333 With other punctuation
a A pronoun’s role in the sentence Misused quotation marks
b Agreement with antecedents
c Reference to clear antecedents Other Punctuation 377
Parentheses
37 Prepositions and Prepositional Brackets
Phrases 342
Dashes
a Appropriate preposition Colons
b Two-word verbs
Slashes
38 Comma Splices and Fused Ellipses
Sentences 345
Capital Letters 384
a Separating clauses into two sentences
b Linking clauses with a comma and a First word of a sentence
coordinating conjunction Proper nouns and proper adjectives
c Linking clauses with a semicolon Titles before proper names
d Rewriting two clauses as one Titles of works
independent clause Unnecessary capitalization
e Rewriting one independent clause as a
Abbreviations and Numbers 387
dependent clause
f Linking clauses with a dash Abbreviations
Numbers
39 Sentence Fragments 349
a Identify Italics and Hyphens 390
b Phrase fragments Italics for titles
c Compound-predicate fragments oo/S
sole
cold
ofS
|oan
>oan
a0
o Italics for words, letters, and numbers
d Clause fragments used as terms
Italics for non-English words
PUNCTUATION / MECHANICS Italics for emphasis
40 Commas 354 Hyphens with compound words
an Unnecessary hyphens
=>

With introductory elements >”"ADon

With clauses in compound sentences

With nonrestrictive elements GLOSSARY OF USAGE 395
With items in a series
INDEX/GLOSSARY OF TERMS 405
With parenthetical and transitional
oanao
expressions LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND CONTEXT 444
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