Data communications
Chapter 2
Network Models
Presenter by NTR
2.1
McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
LAYERED
TASKS
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an
example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.
Topics discussed in this section:
Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy
2.2
Tasks involved in sending a letter
2.3
Benefits of using a layered model
■ Layering means decomposing the problem into more manageable
components(Layers).
■ To find out the fault easily.
■ Changes in one layer do not affect other layers.
■ It provides more modular design.
4
Protocols
It is a set of rules that governs data communication.
▪
The protocol in each layer governs the activities of the data communication.
▪
5
Protocols and Standards
Protocols
▪
Standards
▪
Standards Organizations
▪
Internet Standards
▪
6
Standards
■ Endorsed by the networking industry and approved by a
standards organization.
■ Benefits:
■ Create and maintain an open and competitive market.
■ Ensured greater compatibility and interoperability.
■ Categories
■ De facto: Standards that have not been approved by an
organized body but have been adopted as standards through
widespread use
■ De jure: Those standards that have been legislated by an
officially recognized body
7
Standard Organizations
■ International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
■ Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)
■ American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
■ Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)
■ The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
■ International Telecommunications Union –
Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T)
8
Communication Process
Layered standards:
■ OSI Reference model
De Jure Standard
■
■ TCP/IP Protocol suite
■ Open De Facto Standard
■ Governed by IETF Working
Groups
9
Layered Architectures
❑ OSI Reference model
❑ The OSI model is not a protocol
❑ It is only a guideline and hence it is referred as OSI reference
model.
❑ TCP/IP Protocol suite
❑ TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive
modules, each of which provides a specific functionality.
10
THE OSI MODEL
▪ Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization
(ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement
on international standards. An ISO standard that covers all
aspects of network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late
1970s.
▪ An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different
systems to communicate regardless to their underlying
architecture.
Topics discussed in this section:
Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
2.11
Note
ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.
2.12
THE OSI MODEL
■ The OSI model is not a protocol, it is a
model for understanding and designing
a network architecture that is flexible,
robust, and interoperable.
2.13
Layered Architecture: Seven layers of the OSI model
In layered Architecture, a particular layer uses the services provided by its
lower layer and provides services for its upper layer
2.14
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are called peer-to-peer processes.
Each layer communicates only with its peer layer on the receiving device.
2.15
Encapsulation: An exchange using the OSI model
The data portion of a packet at level n-1 carries the whole packet (data and
header and maybe trailer) from level n. The concept is called encapsulation.
2.16
LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
In this section we briefly describe the functions of each
layer in the OSI model.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
2.17
LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
2.18
OSI Model- 7 Layers
Layers CISCO
7 Application All
6 Presentation People
5 Session Seem
4 Transport To
3 Network Need
2 Data Link Data
1 Physical Processing
19
Physical Layer
Note
The Physical layer deals with the physical transmission of data
bits over a communication channel.
2.20
Physical layer
2.21
Physical layer
■ Coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical
medium.
■ It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface
and transmission medium.
■ It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and
interfaces have to perform for transmission.
■ The physical Layer is the bottom-most layer in the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) Model which is a physical and electrical
representation of the system. It consists of various network components
such as power plugs, connectors, receivers, cable types, etc. The
physical layer sends data bits from one device(s) (like a computer) to
another device(s). The physical Layer defines the types of encoding
(that is how the 0’s and 1’s are encoded in a signal).
■ The physical Layer is responsible for the communication of the
unstructured raw data streams over a physical medium.
2.22
Physical layer- Responsibilities:
■ Physical characteristics of Interfaces and medium
■ Representation of bits (Encoded into signals- electrical or optical)
■ Data transfer rate (bits per second and duration)
■ Synchronization of bits (clock sync of Sender and receiver)
■ Line Configuration (point to point multipoint)
■ Physical topology (Bus, Ring, Star, Mesh)
■ Transmission Mode (simplex, Half and full duplex))
2.23
Physical layer- Representation of bits
■ Amplitude modulation (AM)
■ Frequency modulation (FM)
■ Phase modulation (PM)
2.24
Data link Layer
Note
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.
2.25
Data link layer
2.26
Data Link layer
■ It makes the physical layer appear error free to
upper layer (Network layer)
■ The data link layer overseas the delivery of the
frames between two systems on the same
network
■ Responsibilities:
■ Framing
■ Physical Addressing
■ Flow Control (maintain data transfer rate)
■ Error Control (detect and re-transmit the lost
frame)
■ Access Control (who will get access in a given time)
2.27
Hop-to-hop delivery
2.28
Physical Address : MAC Address
■ MAC (Media Access Control) address for a
device or port of a router is an unique
identification number given by manufacturer.
■ 48 bits long, represented by 12 hexadecimal
digits.
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
29
2.29
Network Layer
Note
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
2.30
Network layer
■ It does not recognize any relationship
between packets. It treats each packet
independently as though each piece
belonged to a separate message.
■ Responsibilities:
■ Logical Addressing(unique for a device)
■ Routing(which path to take)
2.31
Network layer
2.32
Logical Addresses :: IP Address
■ Universal address, each host uniquely defined.
■ 32-bit address also known as IP Address.
■ Independent of underlying physical networks.
■ Common Network layer Protocol is called Internet Protocol (IP)
■ Network Layer PDU is called Packets.
192.168.10.1
32 bits written in dotted decimal notation. Each
decimal represented by 8 bits.
2.33
Source-to-destination delivery
2.34
Physical and Logical Addressing
Suppose A is source and P is destination IP address
And MAC Addresses are represented by Numbers
2.35
Physical and Logical Addressing (in different network)
■ Assume:
22 21 M A ■ IP Addresses –
Alphabets
■ MAC Addresses -
Numbers
F/22
D/13
G/31
32 31 M A
E/21 H/32
B/12
42 41 M A
IP addressMAC address IP address
MAC address N/41
M/42
A/11 13 11 M A Receiver
Sender 36
D S D S
Physical and Logical Addressing (in same network)
■ Assume:
IP Addresses –
E/15
■
Alphabets
■ MAC Addresses -
Numbers
D/14
C/13
Receiver
B/12
A/11 14 11 D A
Sender 37
Transport Layer
Note
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message from one process to another.
2.38
Transport layer
■ The transport layer is responsible for
process to process delivery of the entire
message
■ The transport layer ensures that the whole
message arrives intact and in order
■ Responsibilities:
■ Service point addressing
■ Segmentation and reassembly
■ Connection control
■ Flow control
■ Error control
2.39
Transport layer
2.40
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
2.41
Segmentation
A
1
Data from Application 1
layer
Segments into small parts
Received by Transport 2
Layer Add a number to identify
the application.
1 2 3 3
A1 A1 A1 Add a number sequence
the segmented parts.
42
Identifying Different Applications
■ Port Numbers
43
Port Address
■ In a node multiple processes will be
running.
■ Data which are sent/received must reach
the right process.
■ Every process in anode uniquely
identified using port numbers.
■ Port= Communication endpoint.
■ 16-bit in length
■ A 16-bit port address represented
as one single number.
■ Fixed port numbers and dynamic port
numbers(0-65535)
■ Example:
■ Fixed port numbers:25,80 etc.
■ OS assigned dynamic port
numbers:62414
44
Connection Control
Are you up? Yes
Data
45
Host B has too many
Flow Control
▪
packets to process.
Buffer to store
▪
incoming packets
overflows
Data Please send less
packets.
Host A Host B
46
Error Control
1 I have 1&3,
3 where is 2?
Data Please send
2
X packet 2.
Lost in transition
Host A Host B
47
Multiplexing
48
Multiplexing- Demultiplexing
Multiplexing and de-multiplexing are just concepts that describe the process of the
transmission of data generated by different applications simultaneously. When the data
arrives at the Transport layer, each data segment is independently processed and sent to its
appropriate application in the destination machine.
49
Addressing Review
Although physical addresses change from hop to hop, logical and
port addresses remain the same from the source to destination.
2.50
Session Layer
Note
The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.
2.51
Session layer
■ It establishes, maintains and
synchronizes the interaction among
communicating systems
■ Responsibilities:
■ Dialog control(half duplex/ full-duplex)
■ Synchronization(check points/ synchronization point)
2.52
Session layer
2.53
Presentation Layer
Note
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.
2.54
Presentation layer
■ It is concern with the syntax and
semantics of that information exchange
between two systems
■ Responsibilities:
■ Translation(sender format-common format/ common format-receiver format)
■ Compression(reduce the number of bits)
■ Encryption(for ensuring privacy)
2.55
Presentation layer
2.56
Application Layer
Note
The application layer is responsible for
providing user interfaces and services to the user, such as
electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared
database management and other types of distributed
information services.
.
2.57
Applications
■ The Interface Between Human and Data
Networks
■ Responsible for providing services to the user.
58
Applications and responsibilities in Application layer
Email
Web Page
Responsibilities:
• Network virtual terminal
• File transfer, access and management Instant
• Mail service messaging
• Directory service
59
Application layer
2.60
Summary of layers
2.61
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly
match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers:
host-to-network, internet, transport, and application.
However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say
that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers:
physical, data link, network, transport, and application.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
2.62
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
■ TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and is a
suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on
the internet.
■ It describes a set of general design guidelines and implementations of
specific networking protocols to enable computers to communicate over a
network. It provides end to end connectivity specifying how data should be
formatted, addresser, transmitted, routed and received at the destination.
■ Developed by the US Defense Advanced Research Project Agency
(DARPA) for its packet switched network (ARPANET)
■ Used by the global Internet.
2.63
TCP/IP and OSI model
2.64
Protocol data units(PDU) and layer addressing
PDU is a significant term related to the initial four layers of the OSI model. In Layer 1, PDU
is a bit, in Layer 2 it is a frame, in Layer 3 it is a packet and in Layer 4 it is a segment. In
Layer 5 and above, PDU is referred to as data.
Common Protocol used in Transport Layer is TCP
2.65
TCP/IP Encapsulation
66
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
2.67
Some of the protocols included in the TCP/IP suite are:
■ ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) – used to associate an IP address with a MAC
address. Used to find the PA. of the node when its Internet address is known.
■ IP (Internet Protocol) – used to deliver packets from the source host to the
destination host based on the IP addresses.
■ ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) – used to detects and reports
network error conditions. Used in ping.
■ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) – a connection-oriented protocol that
enables reliable data transfer between two computers.
■ UDP (User Datagram Protocol) – a connectionless protocol for data transfer.
Since a session is not created before the data transfer, there is no guarantee of data
delivery.
■ FTP (File Transfer Protocol) – used for file transfers from one host to another.
■ Telnet (Telecommunications Network) – used to connect and issue commands
on a remote computer.
■ DNS (Domain Name System) – used for host names to the IP address resolution.
■ HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) – used to transfer files (text, graphic
images, sound, video, and other multimedia files) on the World Wide Web.
2.68
ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing
the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses
2.69
Addresses in TCP/IP
2.70
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
2.71
Example 2.1
In Figure of next slide a node with physical address 10
sends a frame to a node with physical address 87. The
two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN).
As the figure shows, the computer with physical address
10 is the sender, and the computer with physical address
87 is the receiver.
2.72
Physical addresses
2.73
Example 2.2
Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical
address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.
2.74
Example 2.3
Figure of next slide shows a part of an internet with two
routers connecting three LANs. Each device (computer
or router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical)
for each connection. In this case, each computer is
connected to only one link and therefore has only one
pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to
three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So
each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.
2.75
IP addresses
2.76
Example 2.4
Figure of next slideshows two computers communicating
via the Internet. The sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The
receiving computer is running two processes at this time
with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending
computer needs to communicate with process j in the
receiving computer. Note that although physical
addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port
addresses remain the same from the source to
destination.
2.77
Port addresses
2.78
Specific Address
❑ Designed by users for access web resources through different application
on network.
❑ Two types of specific address: URL, E-mail address
❑ URL(Uniform Resource Locator)
❑ Address of resources on Internet, web sites, wed document
❑ https://www.prothomalo.com/sports/football/98rpu81sf0
❑ E-mail(electronic mail):
❑ It is message contains text, file, images, videos etc.
❑ heroalom@ gmail.com
❑ These are converted into corresponding port and logical addresses by the
sending computer.
2.79
Addressing Review
13 11 M A k a ■ Assume:
■ IP Addresses
D S D S D S – Capital
Alphabets
F/22 MAC
D/13 ■
Addresses –
G/31 Numbers
■ Port
E/21 Numbers-
B/12 H/32 Small
Alphabets
Em
IP address ail
MAC address N/41
k
Em We
A/11 ail b
M/42
a c Receiver
80
Sender
END
2.81
