: Biomolecules: DNA fingerprinting is now used

Nucleic Acids: Nucleus of a living cell is responsible for (i) In forensic laboratories for identification of criminals.
this transmission of inherent characters, also called (ii) To determine paternity of an individual.
heredity. The particles in nucleus of the cell, responsible (iii) To identify the dead bodies in any accident by
for heredity, are called chromosomes which are made up comparing the DNA’s of parents or children.
of proteins and another type of Biomolecules called nucleic (iv) To identify racial groups to rewrite biological evolution.
acids. These are mainly of two types, the Biological Functions of Nucleic Acids:
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid 01. DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and may be
(RNA). Since nucleic acids are long chain polymers of regarded as the reserve of genetic information.
nucleotides, so they are also called polynucleotides. 02. DNA is exclusively responsible for maintaining the
Complete hydrolysis of DNA (or RNA) yields a pentose identity of different species of organisms.
sugar, phosphoric acid and nitrogen containing heterocyclic 03. A DNA molecule is capable of self duplication during
compounds (called bases). cell division and identical DNA strands are transferred to
In DNA molecules, the sugar moiety is β-D-2-deoxyribose daughter cells.
whereas in RNA molecule, it is β-D-ribose. 04. Nucleic acids are the protein synthesis in the cell.
DNA and RNA both contains three common bases viz. 05. The proteins are synthesised by various RNA
adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and the four bases molecules in the cell but the message for the synthesis of a
in DNA is thymine (T) and in RNA is uracil (U). particular protein is present in DNA.
: Vitamins: (Vital + amines)
Organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts to
perform specific biological functions for normal
maintenance of optimum growth and healths of the
organism are called vitamins.
Excess of vitamins is also harmful and vitamin pills should
not be taken without the advice of doctor.
Structure of Nucleic Acids: A unit formed by the
Vitamins are classified into two groups:
attachment of a base to 1′ position of sugar is known as
(i) Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamins which are soluble in fat
nucleoside. When nucleoside is linked to phosphoric acid
and oils but insoluble in water are kept in this group. These
at 5′-position of sugar moiety, we get a nucleotide.
are vitamins A, D, E and K. They are stored in liver and
Nucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester linkage
adipose (fat storing) tissues.
between 5′ and 3′ carbon atoms of the pentose sugar.
(ii) Water soluble vitamins: B group vitamins & C are
Information regarding the sequence of nucleotides in the
soluble in water so they are grouped together. Water
chain of a nucleic acid is called its primary structure.
soluble vitamins must be supplied regularly in diet because
Nucleic acids have a secondary structure also.
they are readily excreted in urine and cannot be stored
(except vitamin B12) in our body.
Vitamins Sources Deficiency diseases
Vitamin A Fish liver oil, X e r o p h t h a l m i a
(Retinol) carrots, butter (hardening of cornea of eye)
and milk Night blindness
James Watson and Francis Crick gave a double strand Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, green Beriberi(loss of appetite,
helix structure for DNA. Two nucleic acid chains are (Thiamine) vegetable & retarded growth)
wound about each other and held together by hydrogen cereals
bonds between pairs of bases. The two strands are Vitamin B2 Milk, egg white, Cheilosis (fissuring at
complementary to each other because the hydrogen Riboflavin liver, kidney corners of mouth and lips),
bonds are formed between specific pairs of bases. digestive disorders &
Adenine forms hydrogen bonds with thymine whereas burning sensation of skin.
cytosine forms hydrogen bonds with guanine. Vitamin B6 Yeast, milk, egg Convulsions
In secondary structure of RNA, helices are present which (Pyridoxine) yolk, cereals &
only single stranded are. Sometimes they fold back on grams
themselves to form a double helix structure. RNA Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, egg Pernicious anaemia (RBC
molecules are of three types and named as messenger cobalamines & curd deficient in haemoglobin)
RNA (m-RNA), ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) and transfer Vitamin C Citrus fruits, amla Scurvy (bleeding gums)
RNA(t-RNA). Ascorbic acid and green leafy,
DNA Fingerprinting: It is known that every individual has vegetables
unique fingerprints. These occur at the tips of the fingers Vitamin D Exposure to Rickets(bone deformities in
and have been used for identification for a long time but (Calciferol) sunlight, fish and children) & osteomalacia (soft
these can be altered by surgery. A sequence of bases on egg yolk bones & joint pain in adults)
Vitamin E Vegetable oils Increased fragility of
DNA is also unique for a person and information regarding
Tocopherol like wheat germ RBCs and muscular
this is called DNA fingerprinting. It is same for every cell
oil, sunflower oil. Weakness.
and cannot be altered by any known treatment.
Vitamin K1 Vegetables, leafy Increased blood clotting time
1
Enzymes: The process involves a sequence of reactions has amino acids linked with each other in a specific
and all these reactions occur in the body under very mild sequence and it is this sequence of amino acids that is
conditions with the help of certain biocatalysts called said to be the primary structure of that protein.
enzymes. Almost all the enzymes are globular proteins. Any change in this primary structure i.e., the sequence of
Enzymes are very specific for a particular reaction and for a amino acids creates a different protein.
particular substrate. They are generally named after the (ii) Secondary structure of proteins: The secondary
compound or class of compounds upon which they work. structure of protein refers to the shape in which a long
EX: the enzyme that catalyses hydrolysis of maltose into polypeptide chain can exist. They are found to exist in
glucose is named as maltase. two different types of structures viz. α-helix and β-pleated
C12H22 O11 Maltase 2 C6H12O6 sheet structure. These structures arise due to the regular
The enzymes which catalyse the oxidation of one substrate folding of the backbone of the polypeptide chain due to
with simultaneous reduction of another substrate are hydrogen bonding between and –NH– groups of the
named as oxidoreductase enzymes. The ending of the peptide bond.
name of an enzyme is -ase. α-Helix is one of the most common ways in which a
Proteins: polypeptide chain forms all possible hydrogen bonds by
Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules of the twisting into a right handed screw (helix) with the –NH-
living system required for growth and maintenance of body. group of each amino acid residue H-bonded to the C=O of
EX: milk, cheese, pulses, peanuts, fish, meat, etc. All an adjacent turn of the helix.
proteins are polymers of α-amino acids In β-structure all peptide chains are stretched out to nearly
Structure of Proteins: maximum extension and then laid side by side which are
Proteins are the polymers of α-amino acids and they are held together by intermolecular hydrogen bonds. The
connected to each other by peptide bond or peptide structure resembles the pleated folds of drapery and
linkage. therefore is known as β-pleated sheet.
(iii) Tertiary structure of proteins: The tertiary structure of
proteins represents overall folding of the polypeptide
chains i.e., further folding of the secondary structure. It
gives rise to two major molecular shapes viz. fibrous and
Peptide linkage is an amide formed between –COOH group globular. The main forces which stabilise the 2° * 3°
and –NH2 group. This results in the elimination of a water structures of proteins are hydrogen bonds, disulphide
molecule and formation of a peptide bond –CO–NH–. The linkages, vanderwaal’s & electrostatic forces of
product of the reactionis called a dipeptide because it is attraction.
made up of two amino acids. (iv) Quaternary structure of proteins: Some of the
For example, when carboxyl group of glycine combines with proteins are composed of two or more polypeptide chains
the amino group of alanine we get a dipeptide, referred to as sub-units. The spatial arrangement of these
glycylalanine. subunits with respect to each other is known as quaternary
If a third amino acid combines to a dipeptide, the product is structure.
called a tripeptide. A tripeptide contains three amino acids Denaturation of protein: Protein found in a biological
linked by two peptide linkages. Similarly when four, five or system with a unique three-dimensional structure and
six amino acids are linked, the respective products are biological activity is called a native protein. When a protein
known as tetrapeptide, pentapeptide or hexapeptide, in its native form, is subjected to physical change like
respectively. change in temperature or chemical change like change in
When the number of such amino acids is more than ten, pH, the hydrogen bonds are disturbed. Due to this, globules
then the products are called polypeptides. unfold and helix gets uncoiled and protein loses its
A polypeptide with more than hundred amino acid residues, biological activity. This is called Denaturation of protein.
having molecular mass higher than 10,000u is called a During Denaturation 2° and 3° structures are destroyed but
protein. EX: insulin which contains 51 amino acids. 1º structure remains intact.
Classification of Proteins based on molecular shape. Coagulation of egg white on boiling is a common
(a) Fibrous proteins: When the polypeptide chains run example of Denaturation.
parallel and are held together by hydrogen and disulphide Another example is curdling of milk which is caused due
bonds, then fibre like structure is formed. Such proteins are to the formation of lactic acid by the bacteria present in
generally insoluble in water. Some common examples are milk.
keratin (present in hair, wool, and silk) and myosin (present Amino acids:
in muscles), etc. Amino acids contain both amino (-NH2) and
(b) Globular proteins: This structure results when the carboxyl (-COOH) functional group.
chains of polypeptides coil around to give a spherical Classification of Amino Acids:
shape. These are usually soluble in water. Insulin and Amino acids are classified as acidic, basic or
albumins are the common examples of globular proteins. neutral. Equal number of amino and carboxyl groups makes
Structure and shape of proteins are four different levels: it neutral; more number of amino than carboxyl groups
(i) Primary structure of proteins: Proteins may have one makes it basic and more carboxyl groups as compared to
or more polypeptide chains. Each polypeptide in a protein amino groups makes it acidic.
2
 The amino acids, which can be synthesised in the The carbohydrates classified as either reducing or
body, are known as nonessential amino acids (Glycine, nonreducing sugars. All those carbohydrates which reduce
Alanine, Glutamic acid, Aspartic acid, Glutamine, Fehling’s solution and Tollens’ reagent are referred to as
Asparagine, Serine, Cysteine, Tyrosine, Proline). reducing sugars. All monosaccharide’s whether aldose or
The amino acids which cannot be synthesised in the body ketose are reducing sugars.
and must be obtained through diet, are known as essential In disaccharides, if the reducing groups of
amino acids (Valine*, Leucine*, Arginine*, Lysine*, monosaccharide’s i.e. aldehydic or ketonic groups are
Methionine*, Isoleucine*, Threonine*, Phenylalanine*, bonded, these are non-reducing sugars e.g. sucrose.
Tryptophan*, Histidine*). Note: PVT TIM HALL On the other hand, sugars in which these functional groups
Amino acids are usually colourless, crystalline solids. are free, are called reducing sugars, for example, maltose
These are water-soluble, high melting solids and behave and lactose.
like salts rather than simple amines or carboxylic acids. Monosaccharides are further classified on the basis of
This behaviour is due to the presence of both acidic number of carbon atoms and the functional group present
(carboxyl group) and basic (amino group) groups in the in them. If a monosaccharide contains an aldehyde group, it
same molecule. In aqueous solution, the carboxyl group is known as an aldose and if it contains a keto group, it is
can lose a proton and amino group can accept a proton, known as a ketose.
giving rise to a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion. This is Importance’s of Carbohydrates:
neutral but contains both positive and negative charges. Carbohydrates are essential for life in both plants and
animals. They form a major portion of our food. Honey has
been used for a long time as an instant source of energy by
‘Vaids’ in ayurvedic system of medicine.
Carbohydrates are used as storage molecules as starch in
In zwitter ionic form, amino acids show amphoteric
plants and glycogen in animals. Cell wall of bacteria and
behaviour as they react both with acids and bases.
plants is made up of cellulose.
Except glycine, all other naturally occurring α-amino acids
Two aldopentoses viz. D-ribose and 2-deoxy-D-ribose are
are optically active, since the α-carbon atom is
present in nucleic acids.
asymmetric. These exist both in ‘D’ and ‘L’ forms. Most
Preparation of Glucose:
naturally occurring amino acids have L-configuration. L-
1. From sucrose (Cane sugar): If sucrose is boiled with
Aminoacids are represented by writing the –NH2 group on
dilute HCl or H2SO4 in alcoholic solution, glucose and
left hand side.
fructose are obtained in equal amounts.
Carbohydrates: The carbohydrates may be defined as
C12H22O11+ H2O H+ C6H12O6 + C6H12 O6
optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the
Sucrose Glucose Fructose
compounds which produce such units on hydrolysis.
2. From starch: Commercially glucose is obtained by
Carbohydrates, which are sweet in taste, are called
hydrolysis of starch by boiling it with dilute H2SO4 at 393 K
sugars. The most common sugar, used in our homes is
under pressure.
named as sucrose whereas the sugar present in milk is
(C6H10O5 )n + nH2O H+393K; 2-3 atm nC6H12O6
known as lactose. Carbohydrates are also called
Starch or cellulose Glucose
saccharides.
Glucose is an aldohexose & is also known as dextrose. It
Classification of Carbohydrates:
is the monomer of many of the larger carbohydrates,
(i) Monosaccharides: A carbohydrate that cannot be
namely starch; cellulose. It is the most abundant organic
hydrolysed further to give simpler unit of polyhydroxy
compound on earth.
aldehyde or ketone is called a monosaccharide. Ex:
Structure of Glucose
glucose, fructose, ribose, etc.
[1].Its molecular formula was found to be C6H12O6.
(ii) Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates that yield two to ten
[2].On prolonged heating with HI, it forms n-hexane,
monosaccharide units, on hydrolysis, are called
suggesting that all the six carbon atoms are linked in a
oligosaccharides.
straight chain.
They are further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides,
. OCH-(CHOH)4-CH2OH HI, Δ CH3-(CH2)4-CH3
tetrasaccharides, etc., depending upon the number of
Glucose n-Hexane
monosaccharides, they provide on hydrolysis. Amongst
[3]. Glucose reacts with hydroxylamine to form an oxime
these the most common are disaccharides. The two
and adds a molecule of hydrogen cyanide to give
monosaccharide units obtained on hydrolysis of a
cyanohydrins. These reactions confirm the presence of a
disaccharide may be same or different. Ex: Sucrose on
carbonyl group (>C=O) in glucose.
hydrolysis gives one molecule each of glucose and fructose
whereas maltose gives two molecules of glucose only.
(iii) Polysaccharides: Carbohydrates which yield a large
number of monosaccharide units on hydrolysis are called
polysaccharides. [4]. Glucose gets oxidised to six carbon carboxylic acid
EX: starch, cellulose, glycogen, gums, etc. (gluconic acid) on reaction with a mild oxidising agent
Polysaccharides are not sweet in taste; hence they are also like bromine water. This indicates that the carbonyl
called non-sugars. group is present as an aldehydic group.

3
OHC-(CHOH)4-CH2OH Br2 water HOOC(CHOH)4CH2OH [2]. It belongs to D-series and is a laevorotatory compound.
Glucose Gluconic acid It is written as D-(-)-Fructose. The laevorotation of
[5]. Acetylation of glucose with acetic anhydride gives fructose is -92.40
glucose pentaacetate which confirms the presence of Haworth Projection Formulae: According to Haworth,
five –OH groups. Since it exists as a stable compound, carbohydrates exist in a six member ring called Pyranose
five –OH groups should be attached to different carbon structure derived from pyran or exist as five member ring
atoms. known as Furanose derived from furan.
OHC-(CHOH)4-CH2OH (CH3CO)2O
Glucose OHC-(CHOCOCH3)4-CH2OCOCH3
Glucose pentaacetate
[6]. On oxidation with nitric acid, glucose as well as
gluconic acid both yield a dicarboxylic acid, saccharic
acid. This indicates the presence of a primary alcoholic
(–OH) group in glucose.

Glucose Saccharic acid Gluconic acid

[7]. For assigning the configuration of monosaccharide’s, if
–OH on lowest asymmetric carbon is on the right side, it
is assigned D- configuration. For this comparison, the
structure is written in a way that most oxidised carbon is
at the top.(If-OH group attached to left side of last chiral
carbon is L-configuration.) The dextrorotation of glucose
is +52.50 Invert sugar:
Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after
hydrolysis gives dextrorotatory
glucose and laevorotatory fructose.
Since the laevorotation of fructose
(-92.40) is more than dextrorotation
of glucose (+52.50), the mixture is
laevorotatory. Thus hydrolysis of
[8]. Open structure of glucose could not explain: sucrose brings about a change in
(a) Glucose does not give 2,4-DNP test, Schiff’s test the sign of rotation from dextro(+)
and it does not form the hydrogen sulphite addition to laevo (-) and the product is
product with NaHSO3. named as invert sugar.
(b) The pentaacetate of glucose does not react with Sucrose which on hydrolysis gives equimolar mixture of
NH2OH indicating the absence of free –CHO group. D-(+)-glucose and D-(-)-fructose.
(c) Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline C12H22O11 + H2O H+ C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
forms which are named as α and β form. Sucrose Glucose Fructose
Anomers:- Pair of optical isomers which differ in the Glycosidic Linkage: A linkage between two
configuration only around first carbon are called Anomers. monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called
Ex: α and β form of glucose (Anomers) exist in equilibrium Glycosidic Linkage.
with open chain structure. Disaccharides :( Sucrose):
It on hydrolysis gives equimolar mixture of D-(+)-
glucose and D-(-) fructose.
C12H22O11 + H2O H+ C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Sucrose Glucose Fructose
These two monosaccharides are held together by a
Glycosidic linkage between C1 of α-glucose and C2 of
β-fructose.
: Fructose:
[1].Its molecular formula was found to be C6H12O6 and
contains acetone functional group at carbon number 2
and six carbons in straight chain as in the case of
glucose.

4
 Since the reducing groups of glucose and fructose are CHEMISTRY IN EVERY DAY LIFE
involved in Glycosidic bond formation, sucrose is a non Food Preservatives:
reducing sugar It prevent spoilage of food due to microbial growth.
Maltose: Maltose is composed of two α-D-glucose units in Example: Table salt, sugar, vegetable oils and sodium
which C1 of one glucose (I) is linked to C4 of another benzoate, C6H5COONa, Salts of sorbic acid and propanoic
glucose unit (II). The free aldehyde group can be produced acid are also used as preservatives.
at C1 of second glucose in solution and it shows reducing C6H5COONa is used in limited quantities & is metabolised
properties so it is a reducing sugar. in the body to hippuric acid and excreted by urine..
Artificial Sweetening Agents:
Natural sweeteners (sucrose) add to calorie intake
& therefore many people prefer to use artificial sweeteners,
Saccharin (Ortho-sulphobenzimide) is the 1st popular
artificial sweetening agent.
It is about 550 times as sweet as cane sugar. It is excreted
from the body in urine unchanged. It appears to be entirely
inert and harmless when taken. Its use is of great value to
diabetic persons and people who need to control intake of
calories.
Lactose: It is more commonly known as milk sugar since
Aspartame (methyl ester of dipeptide) is the most widely
this disaccharide is found in milk. It is composed of β-D-
used artificial sweetener. It is roughly 100 times as sweet
galactose and β-D-glucose. The linkage is between C1 of
as cane sugar. It is formed from aspartic acid and
galactose and C4 of glucose. Hence it is also a reducing
phenylalanine.
sugar.
Use of aspartame is limited to cold foods and soft drinks
because it is unstable at cooking temperature.
Alitame is high potency sweetener, although it is more
stable than aspartame, the control of sweetness of food is
difficult while using it.
Sucralose is trichloro derivative of sucrose. Its
appearance and taste are like sugar. It is stable at cooking
Polysaccharides:
temperature. It does not provide calories.
Polysaccharides contain a large number of
Drugs and their Classification:
monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic
Drugs are chemicals of low molecular masses
linkages. These are the most commonly encountered
(~100 – 500u) interact with macromolecular targets and
carbohydrates in nature. They mainly act as the food
produce a biological response.
storage or structural materials.
Drugs which have biological response and used in
(i) Starch: Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of
diagnosis, prevention and treatment of diseases are called
plants. It is the most important dietary source for human
medicines.
beings. High content of starch is found in cereals, roots,
All medicines are drugs but all drugs are not medicines
tubers and some vegetables. It is a polymer of α-glucose
If taken in doses higher than those recommended, most of
and consists of two components Amylose & Amylopectin.
the drugs used as medicines are potential poisons.
Amylose is water soluble component which constitutes
The treatment of disease by means of chemicals that have
about 15-20% of starch. Chemically Amylose is a long
specific toxic effect upon the diseases producing micro-
unbranched chain with 200-1000 α-D-(+)-glucose units held
organism or that selectively destroy neoplastic tissues is
by C1– C4 Glycosidic linkage.
called chemotherapy.
Amylopectin is insoluble in water and constitutes about 80-
Classification of Drugs:
85% of starch. It is a branched chain polymer of α-D-
(a) On the basis of pharmacological effect: This
glucose units in which chain is formed by C1–C4 Glycosidic
classification is based on pharmacological effect of the
linkage whereas branching occurs by C1–C6 Glycosidic
drugs. It is useful for doctors because it provides them the
linkage.
whole range of drugs available for the treatment of a
(ii) Cellulose: Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it
particular type of problem.
is the most abundant organic substance in plant kingdom. It
For example, analgesics have pain killing effect; antiseptics
is a predominant constituent of cell wall of plant cells.
kill or arrest the growth of microorganisms.
Cellulose is a straight chain
(b) On the basis of drug action: It is based on the action
(iii) Glycogen: The carbohydrates are stored in animal
of a drug on a particular biochemical process.
body as glycogen. It is also known as animal starch
For example, all antihistamines inhibit the action of the
because its structure is similar to Amylopectin and is rather
compound, histamine which causes inflammation in the
more highly branched. It is present in liver, muscles and
body. There are various ways in which action of histamines
brain. When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the
can be blocked.
glycogen down to glucose. Glycogen is also found in yeast
(c) On the basis of chemical structure: It is based on the
and fungi.
chemical structure of the drug. Drugs classified in this way
5
share common structural features and often have similar chemical messengers are received at the binding sites of
pharmacological activity. receptor proteins.
(d) On the basis of molecular targets: Drugs usually Medicines Examples Action
interact with biomolecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, Analgesics Aspirin(2-Acetoxy Used for pain
proteins and nucleic acids. These are called target Non-narcotic benzoic acid), relieving.
molecules or drug targets. seridone, analgin,
Drugs possessing some common structural features may Anacin,Aspro.
have the same mechanism of action on targets. Analgesics Opium,heroin,pethi It reduces tension and
Drug-Target Interaction: Narcotic dine,codein,morphi pain by producing sleep
Macromolecules of biological origin perform various ne, and unconsciousness.
functions in the body. Antimicrobial Cl2,phenol,HCHO,O3 It kill or destroy micro-
Ex, proteins which perform the role of biological catalysts in organism.
the body are called enzymes, those which are crucial to Antibiotic. Penicillin, It is produced by
Streptomycin, micro- organism that
communication system in the body are called receptors.
Chloramphenicol can inhibit the growth
Carrier proteins carry polar molecules across the cell
or death of other
membrane. Nucleic acids have coded genetic information
micro-organism.
for the cell.
Antiseptics Dettol, Bithional, It prevents the growth
Lipids and carbohydrates are structural parts of the cell
Resorcinol, of micro-organism or
membrane. Enzymes as Drug Targets Tincture iodine, kill them on living
(a) Catalytic action of enzymes: In their catalytic activity, methyl blue, human tissues.
enzymes perform two major functions: Salicylic acid,0.5%
(i) The first function of an enzyme is to hold the substrate phenol, picric acid
for a chemical reaction. Active sites of enzymes hold the Disinfectants 1% phenol, Cl2, SO2 It kill micro-organism
substrate molecule in a suitable position, so that it can be on non-living body i,e
attacked by the reagent effectively. Substrates bind to the toilet, instruments.
active site of the enzyme through a variety of interactions Antacids NaHCO3, Al(OH)3 Treatment and control
such as ionic bonding, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals gel, for acidity in the
interaction or dipole-dipole interaction. MgCO3,Mg(OH)2,AlP stomach
(ii) The second function of an enzyme is to provide O4
functional groups that will attack the substrate and carry out Antihistamines Bromphniramine It is used to treat
chemical reaction. (Dimetapp), allergy.
(b) Drug-enzyme interaction: Drugs inhibit activities of Terfenadine(seldan
enzymes. These can block the binding site of the enzyme e)
and prevent the binding of substrate, or can inhibit the Tranquilizer Valium, Serotonin It reduces the mental
catalytic activity of the enzyme. Such drugs are called and Barbiturates anxiety by acting on
i,e derivatives of higher nerve of
enzyme inhibitors.
barbituric acid central nerve system.
Drugs inhibit the attachment of substrate on active site of
such as veronal,
enzymes in two different ways;
Equanil, Amytal,
(i) Drugs compete with the natural substrate for their
Nembutal, luminal
attachment on the active sites of enzymes. Such drugs are
and seconal
called competitive inhibitors. Antipyretics Aspirin, phenacetin, It is used to bring down
(ii) Some drugs do not bind to the enzyme’s active site. Paracetamol, the temperature of
These bind to a different site of enzyme which is called Analgin body.
allosteric site. Anesthetics Xylocin, These drugs produce
This binding of inhibitor at allosteric site changes the cyclopropane,x loss of sensation.
shape of the active site in such a way that substrate cannot ylene
recognise it. If the bond formed between an enzyme and an Hypnotics Luminal, seconal, It produces sleep and
inhibitor is a strong covalent bond and cannot be broken Soaryl is habit forming.
easily, then the enzyme is blocked permanently. Sedatives Valium, They act as
The body then degrades the enzyme-inhibitor complex and Barbiturates depressant &
synthesises the new enzyme. suppress the
Receptors are proteins that are crucial to body’s activities of central
communication process. Majority of these are embedded in nerve system.
cell membranes. Receptor proteins are embedded in the Sulpha Sulphanilamide, It can be used inplace
cell membrane in such a way that their small part drugs sulphadiazine, of antibiotics. They
possessing active site projects out of the surface of the sulphaguanide inhibit the growth of
membrane and opens on the outside region of the cell micro-organisms.
membrane. In the body, message between two neurons Antifertility Norethindrone, These are steroids
and that between neurons to muscles is communicated drugs Novestrol used to control
(Ethynylestradial) pregnancy
through certain chemicals. These chemicals, known as
6
To accommodate a messenger, shape of the receptor site Limitation of Soap:-
changes. This brings about the transfer of message into the 1. When the soap is used for washing clothes with
cell. Thus, chemical messenger gives message to the cell hard water a large amount of soap is washed in reacting
without entering the cell. with Ca and Mg ions of hard water to form an insoluble
There are a large number of different receptors in the body precipitate called scum.
that interact with different chemical messengers. These 2. The scum formed, sticks to the clothes being
receptors show selectivity for one chemical messenger over washed and being interferes with the cleaning ability of
the other because their binding sites have different shape, additional soap. This makes the cleaning of clothes difficult.
structure and amino acid composition. Q. Soap doesn’t give leather with hard water why?
Drugs that bind to the receptor site and inhibit its natural Ans:-Because it 1st reacts with Ca and Mg ions present in
function are called antagonists. These are useful when hard water to form insoluble ppt of Ca and Mg salts of fatty
blocking of message is required. acids, however soft water doesn’t contain any Ca ,Mg ions.
Drugs that mimic the natural messenger by switching on Therefore leathers are easily formed when soap is added.
the receptor are called agonists. These are useful when 2C17H35COONa + CaCl2→(C17H35COONa)2Ca + 2NaCl
there is lack of natural chemical messenger. Detergent:-
Soaps and Detergents A detergent is sodium salt of long chain sulphonic
Soap:-It is sodium salt of a long chain fatty acid which has acid or the sodium salt of long chain alkyl hydrogen
cleaning properties in water. sulphate which has cleaning properties in water.
1) Sodium state(C17H35COONa) 2) Sodium Oleate Ex: - 1.Sodium n-dodecyl benzene sulphonate
(C17H33COONa) 3) Sodium palmitate (C15H31COONa) 2. Sodium n-dodecyl sulphonate
Preparation of Soap:-
Soap is made by heating animal fat or vegetable oil with
concentrated NaOH solution .The fats or oils react with
sodium hydroxide solution to form soap & glycerol.
Fat or oil + NaOH → Soap + Glycerol
Preparation:-
Detergents are prepared by treating long chain
hydrocarbons with conc. Sulphuric acid and neutralizing the
organic acid formed with NaOH to get the sodium salt,
which is synthetic detergent.
Detergent molecules like soaps are made of a long oil
soluble chain and ionic water soluble end. The cleaning
The process of making soap by hydrolysis of fats and oils
action of detergent is same as that of soap.
with alkalis is called saponification.
1)Na2SO4 and Na2SiO3 are added to keep the washing
Cleaning action of soap: - Soap is made up of two parts.
powder dry,Na2CO3 is added to the washing powder to
1. A long chain hydrocarbon part which is oil soluble.
maintain alkalinity which is helpful in removing dirt, it also
2. A short ionic part containing -COONa group which is
softens the water.
water soluble.
2) Carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC) is added to washing
03. The soap molecule is represented as
powder to keep dirt particles suspended in water .This
facilitates the cleaning of clothes.
3) A mild bleaching agent like sodium perborate (Na 3BO3)
is added to washing powder to produce whiteness in
clothes.
Synthetic detergents are mainly three categories:
(i) Anionic (ii) Cationic (iii) Non-ionic detergents
4. The dirty clothes contain greasy and oily substances, Anionic Detergents:
when soap is added to the dirty clothes dipped in water Anionic detergents are sodium salts of p-sulphonated long
then the greasy and oily particles attached themselves to chain alcohols or hydrocarbons. Alkyl hydrogen sulphates
the hydrocarbon part of soap molecule. formed by treating long chain alcohols with concentrated
5.The ionic parts of soap molecule however remain sulphuric acid are neutralised with alkali to form anionic
attached to water when the dirty cloth is agitated in the detergents.
soap solution. The dirty particles attached to the soap Similarly alkyl benzene sulphonates are obtained by
molecules get washed away and the cloths get cleaned. neutralising alkyl benzene sulphonic acids with alkali.
In anionic detergents, the anionic part of the molecule is
involved in the cleansing action.
Sodium salts of alkylbenzenesulphonates are an important
class of anionic detergents.
They are mostly used for household work. Anionic
detergents are also used in toothpastes.

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Cationic Detergents: → Soaps are sodium or potassium salt of stearic, oleic or
Cationic detergents are quarternary ammonium palmitic acid.
salts of amines with acetates, chlorides or bromides as → Soap obtains from saponification remains in colloidal
anions. Cationic part possesses a long hydrocarbon chain form and is precipitated from solution by adding NaCl.
and a positive charge on nitrogen atom. Hence, these are → K soaps are soft to skin than Na soap.
called cationic detergents. → Toilet soaps are prepared by using better grade fats and
Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide is a popular cationic oils and care is taken to remove excess alkali.
detergent and is used in hair conditioners. → Soaps that floats in water are made by beating the tiny
Cationic detergents have germicidal properties and are air bubbles before their hardening.
expensive; therefore, these are of limited use. → Transparent soaps are made by dissolving the soap in
ethanol and then evaporating the excess solvent.
→ Shaving soaps contains glycerol to prevent rapid drying
and a gum called, rosin is added (form sodium rosinate)
to produce lathers.
→ Laundry soaps contains filler like borax, sodium
Non-ionic Detergents: carbonates, sodium silicates and sodium rosinate..
Non-ionic detergents do not contain any ion in their → Detergent are long chain sulphonates and sulphates
constitution. One such detergent is formed when stearic Anionic Detergents:
acid reacts with polyethylene glycol. → Iodine is a powerful antiseptic. Its 2-3 per cent solution in
alcohol water mixture is known as tincture of iodine. It
is applied on wounds.
→Iodoform is also used as an antiseptic for wounds.
→Liquid dishwashing detergents are non-ionic type.
→ Boric acid in dilute aqueous solution is weak antiseptic
→Cleansing action is the same as that of soaps. These
for eyes.
also remove grease and oil by micelle formation.
→ Chlorine in the concentration of 0.2 to 0.4 ppm in
→Main problem is that if their hydrocarbon chain is highly
aqueous solution and sulphur dioxide in very low
branched, then bacteria cannot degrade this easily. Slow
concentrations, are disinfectants
degradation of detergents leads to their accumulation.
→ The antibiotic dysidazirine is supposed to be toxic
Effluents containing such detergents reach the rivers,
towards certain strains of cancer cells
ponds, etc.
→ tranquilizers chlordiazepoxide and meprobamate, are
→These persist in water even after sewage treatment and
relatively mild tranquilizers suitable for relieving tension.
cause foaming in rivers, ponds and streams and their water
Equanil is used in controlling depression and
gets polluted.
hypertension.
→These days the branching of the hydrocarbon chain is
HORMONES:
controlled and kept to the minimum. Unbranched chains
→ Hormones are molecules that act as intercellular
can be biodegraded more easily and hence pollution is
messengers.
prevented.
→These are produced by endocrine glands in the body and
Spectrum of an Antibiotic:
are poured directly in the blood stream which transports
→The full range of micro-organism attacked by an
them to the site of action.
antibiotic is called its spectrum.
e.g., estrogens, androgens, insulin, endorphins,
→The antibiotics which are effective against several
epinephrine and norepinephrine.
different types of micro-organism are called broad
→Insulin is released in response to the rapid rise in blood
spectrum antibiotics.
glucose level.
Ex: Tetracycline, chloramphenicol, ofloxacin,
→Progesterone is responsible for preparing the uterus for
vancomycin.
implantation of fertilised egg.
→The antibiotics which are effective only against certain
Antioxidants in Food:
specific groups of micro-organism are called narrow
→ These are important and necessary food additives.
spectrum antibiotics. Ex: Penicillin.
These help in food preservation by retarding the action
→ Penicillin was first antibiotic discovered By Alexander
of oxygen on food.
Fleming from mould Penicillium notatum.
→These are more reactive towards oxygen than the food
→ 0.2% phenol is used as antiseptic and 1% phenol as
material which they are protecting.
disinfectant
→The two most familiar antioxidants are butylated hydroxy
→ Bithional/Bithionol is added in soap to impart antiseptic
toluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA). The
properties.
addition of BHA to butter increases its shelf life from
→ Dettol is a mixture of chloroxylenol and terpeneol.
months to years.
→ Pathogen is an organism that causes diseases.
→Sometimes BHT and BHA along with citric acid are
→ Bactericidal Antibiotics: These drugs kill the organism
added to produce more effect.
in the body. Ex: Penicillin, Ofloxacine, Aminoglycosiders
→Sulphur dioxide and sulphite are useful antioxidants for
→ Bacteriostatic Antibiotics: These drugs inhibit the
wine and beer, sugar syrups and cut, peeled or dried
growth of organism.
fruits and vegetables.
Ex: Tratracycline, Chloramphenicol and Erythromycin.
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