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Career Technology Notes

Basic 8
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STAND 1: HEALTH AND SAFETY
SUB-STRAND 2: DEMONSTRATE BASIC SKILLS IN APPLYING FIRST AID TO SELF AND
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OTHERS (FIRST AID)
First aid is the first and immediate assistance given to any person suffering from either a minor
or serious injury or illness until full medical treatment is available. It is also the first response

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administered to someone experiencing sudden injury or illness before seeking full medical
attention.

All accidents require first aid to relieve pain, stop bleeding or prevent further harm. However,
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minor accidents can be treated in the home. Items that are needed in giving first aid are kept in
a first aid box or kit.

The first aid box

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First aid kits or boxes are essential for any home, car, work or travel. They come in all types and
the list of contents vary depending on their use. Some of the items that should be in the first aid
box and their uses are as follows:
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1. A box of adhesive dressing (plaster) of different sizes for covering small wounds. A roll of
plaster (cloth-backed micro-pore tape).
2. Antiseptic lotion to use with the cotton wool and antiseptic wipes.

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3. Cotton wool for cleaning cuts.
4. Some triangular bandages to hold several safety pins for making a sling or emergency
bandage.
5. Sterile dressings (of various sizes) e.g., gauze: for covering wounds.
6. Tweezers for removing blinters.
7. Antihistamine cream for insect bites and stings.
8. Tubular gauze bandages for finger injuries and applicator tongs.
9. Safety pins are used to keep the bandage in place.
10. Scissors are also used for cutting gauze.

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11. Pain reliever spray, gel or balm to relieve pain and ease the discomfort immediately.
12. Report book to record injuries and treatments given.

Note: First aid is given to save life. The first important step in first aid is to remove the source of
danger. The second is to keep the person calm and make the patient comfortable. Lastly, stay
safe and avoid putting yourself in danger when administering first aid.
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FIRST AID TREATMENT

Cuts And Open Wounds: Cuts are openings on the skin caused by sharp objects. e.g. knife.

Treatments: Stop the bleeding, wash the wound with cold water and apply with antiseptic.
Cover the wound with gauze and plaster or bandage. For a deep cut, raise the affected part,
apply a clean pad, press on the bleeding spot or press pressure point to stop bleeding. Send
patient to a clinic or a medical officer.

Burns Or Scalds: Burns are injuries on the skin caused by dry heat, (e.g., lighted charcoal,
pressing iron) whilst scalds are caused by wet heat, e.g., steam, hot liquid).

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Treatments: Cover the affected part quickly to exclude air and to prevent blisters forming, then
cover the spot with flour, baking powder, egg white or strong salt solution. Do not break blisters
if they are formed. You may apply gentian violet on it. Cover the patient with blanket if the burns
spread over large parts of the body and send him or her to a hospital.

Electric Shock: This is caused by direct contact with live electric wires.

Treatments: Protect yourself by wearing rubber sandals. Wipe your hands dry and then switch
off the main current before touching the person. Put the person down gently and send him or her
to a hospital or clinic.

Poisoning: This is taking in a harmful substance that is injurious to health.

Treatments: Get the poison out of the body by making the person vomit. Induce vomiting by
giving the patient any of the following: palm oil, a strong solution of salt, sugar or vinegar.

Sprain: This refers to swelling of a joint which has been twisted, fallen upon or over-worked.

Treatments: Apply cold water and ice, if available, on the wound to relieve pain of swelling.
Bandage the part firmly to prevent movement of joint. Send the patient to a hospital if the pain is
severe.

Broken bone (Fracture): This refers to a crack or breaking of a bone.

Treatment: Do not move the patient, but make him comfortable. Do not rub the affected area.
Seek help from a nurse or any qualified medical personnel.

Diarrhoea: A person with diarrhoea is losing body fluid and should be given liquid to replace
it. Below is a simple method for making salt and sugar solution (oral rehydration).

RECIPE (Diarrhoea remedy solution)

Ingredients: 1 litre clean water

2 tablespoons sugar
1/2 teaspoon salt
/, cup orange juice or coconut milk
Method:
➢ Mix all the ingredients in a clear bottle and shake to dissolve sugar and salt.
➢ Add orange juice or coconut milk where available.
➢ Try as much as possible to give all the liquid to the patient within a day.
➢ In extreme cases, see a doctor at once.

Fall: This results from slippery and wet floors or peels scattered about.

Treatment: Place a cold compress or ice pack on any bumps or bruises.

Suffocation: Suffocation occurs when one is unable to breath due to a blockage in the windpipe.

Treatment: Administer cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) on the person. (CPR is an

emergency procedure that can help save a person's life if their breathing or heart stops. When a
person's heart stops beating, they are in cardiac arrest).

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1 2 3

4
5

SUB-STRAND 3: DISCUSS THE CAUSAL FACTORS, EFFECTS AND PREVENTION OF

DESERTIFICATION AND DEFORESTATION (ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH)
Environmental health is a way of protecting quality of life through the prevention and treatment
of disease that relates to the natural and built environment that may affect human health and
fosters healthy and safe communities. This includes studying the impact of human-made
chemicals on wildlife or human health, as well as how the environment influences the spread of
diseases. Environmental health constitutes clean water, disease control, sanitation and hygiene.

DESERTIFICATION
Desertification is a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry land region becomes
increasingly arid, typically losing its water bodies as well as vegetation and wildlife. It is caused
by a variety of factors such as climate change and human activities. Desertification is a significant
global ecological and environmental problem.

Causes of Desertification
1. Overgrazing: This refers to allowing animals to graze (feed) an area to the point of destroying
vegetational cover. If too many animals are grazing in certain spots, it makes it difficult for the
plants to grow back.
2. Deforestation: When people are looking to move into an area, where they need trees in order
to make houses and do other tasks, then they are contributing to the problems related to
desertification.
3. Farming practices: Some farmers do not know how to use the land effectively. They may
essentially strip the land of everything that it has before moving to another plot of land. By
stripping the land of its nutrients, desertification becomes more of a reality for the area that is
being used for farming.
4. Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticide: The use of excessive amounts of fertilisers and
pesticides to maximise crop yield in the short term often leads to significant damages for the
soil. In the long run, this may turn from arable into arid land over time, and it will no longer be
suitable for farming purpose after a few years of excessive farming since the soil has been
damaged too much over time.
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4. Collection and logistics: This is when the waste management sector collects the waste at
source; i.e. industry, commerce and household in suitable transport containers and hand over
to waste disposal operations. In the case of hazardous waste, in accordance with 'Ordinance
on Movement of Waste; the hand over must be documented.

INDUSTRIAL OR WORKSHOP WASTE

Industrial waste is defined as waste generated by manufacturing or industrial processes. The
types of industrial wastes generated include cafeteria waste garbage, dirt and gravel, masonry
and concrete scrap metals, trash, oil, weed, grass, trees and lumber.

Ways of Disposing Industrial/Workshop Waste

The most effective methods of industrial waste management are ones that aim to reduce, reuse
and recycle when possible and that are guaranteed to cause no harm to the environment,

Segregation and recycling: Much of the waste generated through companies’ productions,
shipping and packaging needs is not reusable or compostable, but it is recyclable.

Use of landfills: Landfills are one of the most common ways to dispose of waste. When the waste
is sent to a landfill, it is confined to a small area, compacted when necessary and then buried in
the earth. As the waste decomposes, it releases gases that can be converted to natural gases
used for power and fuel.

Composting: The composting process turns organic waste into fertilizer that can be used to
nourish plants. We can compost food waste, leaves, newspaper, very small pieces of cardboard,
straw and sawdust. Composting’s one of the most effective ways to reuse and recycle waste.

STRAND 2: MATERIALS FOR PRODUCTION

SUB-STRAND 2: EXPLAIN THE BASIC PROPERTIES OF RESISTANT MATERIALS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF RESISTANT MATERIALS
A designer's choice of material in manufacturing an artefact is largely informed by the physical
and working/mechanical properties of the material. Let's take a look at some of these properties.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

The physical properties of a material are the properties that can be measured or observed
without changing the composition of the material. Below are examples of these properties.

• Density: How solid a material is. This is measured by dividing mass (grams) by volume (cm 3),
e.g. lead is a dense material.
• Fusibility: The ability of a material to be converted through heat into a liquid state and
combined with another material before cooling as one material. e.g. lead and tin are fused to
obtain solder.

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• Electrical conductivity: The ability to conduct electricity, e.g. copper is a good conductor
of electricity.
• Thermal conductivity: The ability to conduct heat, e.g. steel is a good heat conductor,
whereas timber is not.
• Melting point: The temperature at which a material melt. e.g. copper melts at 1080C to
1085'C.
• Corrosion resistance: The ability of the material not to deteriorate. e.g. copper has a high
corrosion resistance.

WORKING/MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

Mechanical properties of a material are the reactions of the material when force is applied to it.
Below are examples.
• Strength: The ability of a material to withstand force such as pressure, tension or shear
without breaking. e.g. odum.
• Hardness: The ability to resist abrasive wear and penetration through impact. e.g. bricks.
• Toughness: Materials that are hard to break, are tough and can absorb shock, e.g. cast iron
is a very tough material.
• Malleability: Being able to bend or shape easily by hammering, rolling or pressing to shape,
e.g. sheet metal such as steel or silver is malleable.
• Ductility: Materials that can be stretched or pulled are ductile. e.g. pulling copper into wire
shows it is ductile.
• Elasticity: The ability to be stretched and then return to its original shape, e.g. steel.

DESCRIBE THE PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS

A material is considered for building only when it has the required engineering properties
suitable for construction works. It is therefore beneficial to study these properties as the quality
of a building will be judged on the materials used.

PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
Cement is a popular binding material. It is a very important civil engineering material. It is
therefore necessary to study the properties of cement. Different blends of cement used in
construction are characterized by their physical properties. The physical properties of good
cement are based on; fineness of cement, soundness, consistency, strength, setting time, heat of
hydration and bulk density.

Fineness of Cement
The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required fineness of good cement is
achieved through grinding the clinker in the last step of cement production process.

Soundness of Cement
Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening. Good quality cement
retains its volume after setting without delayed expansion, which is caused by excessive free
lime and magnesia.

Consistency of Cement
The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency.

Strength of Cement
Three types of strength of cement are measured - compressive, tensile and flexural. Various
factors affect the strength, such as water-cement ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio, curing
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conditions, size and shape of a specimen, the manner of molding and mixing, loading conditions
and age. Cement gains strength over time.

Setting Time of Cement

Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can vary depending on multiple
factors, such as fineness of cement, cement-water ratio, chemical content, and mixtures. Cement
used in construction should have an initial setting time that is not too low and a final setting time
not too high.

Hence, two setting times are measured:

Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically occurs within 30 - 45 minutes).

Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load (occurs below 10 hours).

Heat of Hydration
When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called hydration. Hydration
generates heat, which can affect the quality of the cement and also be beneficial in maintaining
curing temperature during cold weather.

HOW TO DETERMINE THE QUALITY OF YOUR CEMENT

i. The colour of cement should be uniformly grey with greenish shade.
ii. It should feel smooth when touched or rubbed in-between fingers.
iii. If hand is inserted in a bag of cement or in a heap of cement, it should feel cool and not
warm.
iv. It should be free from any hard lumps.
v. It must be easily workable.
vi. It must possess a good plasticity.
vii. It stiffens or hardens early.
viii. A thin paste of cement with water should feel sticky between the fingers.
ix. A cement thrown in water should sink and should not float on the surface.

PROPERTIES OF SAND
Sand is a naturally occurring inorganic substance made up of granulated rocks. Considered as
one of the prerequisites for the development of infrastructures, it is of high importance in
construction.

Requirements of quality sand

i. Sand should be clean and free from any particles.
ii. The sand used should be a well-graded mixture from coarser to fine grains.
iii. For plastering purposes, the fine sand used must be smooth.
iv. For brickwork, fine sand used must be medium.
v. Concreting works require coarse sand.

TYPES OF SAND AND CLASSIFICATION OF SAND

1. Based on the grain size of the particle, sand is classified as Fine Sand (0.075 to 0.425mm),
Medium Sand (0.425 to 2mm), and Coarse Sand (2.0mm to 4.75mm).
2. Based on origin, sand is classified as Pit sand, River sand, Sea sand, and Manufactured sand.

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Pit Sand:
This is a type of coarse sand that is commonly found in red-orange colour. It is secured from deep
pits dug 1 to 2 meters from below the topsoil. The grain of pit sand is rough, angular, sharp and
harsh. It is free from salts and other impurities. It is suitable for concreting.

River Sand:
River sand is a type of fine sand formed by the corrosion from water current and is obtained from
the banks of rivers and streams. It is generally white-grey, unlike pit sand, the grain of river sand
is smooth, rounded and of fine quality. Hence, it is suitable for plastering.

Sea Sand:
Sea sand (also known as offshore sand) refers to the sand eroded by seawater. It is secured from
seashores and has a distinct brown colour. The grain of sea sand is very fine in quality with a
circular shape. Sea sand contains salt and other marine impurities which tend to absorb
atmospheric moistness and bring forth dampness. Therefore, it is not suitable for concrete
structure and engineering works.

Manufactured Sand:
Created by crushing hard granite stones, manufactured sand refers to an artificially created type
of sand made as an alternative to river sand for construction. It is prepared with the required
gradation of fineness, shape, surface smoothness, texture, and consistency; making it the best
sand suitable for construction while providing with greater strength to the concrete by reducing
segregation during placing.

PROPERTIES OF STONE
The following properties of stones should be looked into before selecting them for engineering
works: structure, density, appearance, strength, hardness, porosity and absorption, weathering,
toughness and seasoning.

Structure
The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or unstratified. Structured stones should be
easily dressed and suitable for super-structure. Unstratified stones are hard and difficult to dress.
They are preferred for the foundation works.

Density
Denser stones are stronger. Light-weight stones are weak.

Appearance
A stone with uniform and attractive colour is durable if grains are compact. Marble and granite
get a very good appearance, when polished. Hence, they are used for face works in buildings.

Strength
Strength is an important property to be looked into before selecting stone as a building block.
The stone should be able to resist the load coming on it. Ordinarily this is not of primary concern
since all stones are having good strength.

Hardness
It is an important property to be considered when a stone is used for flooring and pavement. The
stone used should be able to resist abrasive forces caused by the movement of people and
materials over them.

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Porosity and Absorption

All stones have pores and hence absorb water. The reaction of water with a material of stone
causes it to crumble.

Weathering
Rain and wind cause loss of the good appearance of stones. Therefore, stones with good weather
resistance should be used for face works.

Toughness

The resistance to impact or force is known as toughness. Building stones should be tough enough
to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations. The vibrations may be due to the machinery
mounted over them or due to the loads moving over them.

Seasoning
The stones obtained from the quarry contain moisture in the pores. The strength of the stone
improves if this moisture is removed before using the stone. The process of removing moisture
from pores is called seasoning. The best way of seasoning is to allow it to dry in the sun for 6 to
12 months.

Durability
Stones selected should be capable of resisting adverse effects of natural forces like wind, rain,
and heat.

STRAND 3: TOOLS, EQUIPMENT AND PROCESSES

SUB-STRAND 1: MEASURING AND MARKING-OUT
HOW TO HANDLE THE TAPE MEASURE TO TAKE MEASUREMENT.
A tape measure, also called measuring tape, is a type of flexible ruler. Tape measures are made
from a variety of materials, including fiber glass, plastic and cloth. They are among the most
common measuring tools used today.
Tape measures come in both Imperial Units (inches and feet) and metric (centimeters and
meters), featuring unit breakdowns for further accuracy. Specialized versions can include
markings that cover truss lengths for roofing and stud intervals for housing.

Case: The case is where the tape/blade is housed. This often determines how durable the tape
is as a whole. Some tape measure houses are made from metal, some from plastic and others
from robust rubber which has been drop tested to withstand the impacts of the job site.

Case Length: On the back of the tape measure, you will find the case length. It is essentially the
length of the case, but is a great addition to your tape. It comes in handy when you want to
measure round corners. Use the housing for inside measurements instead of bending the tape.

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Thumb Lock: The thumb lock is designed to keep your tape in place at your desired length. It
stops your tape from automatically retracting back into its housing when carrying out
measurements. Simply release the thumb lock to put the tape measure back in its case.

Blade/Tape: The most important part of your tape measure, the blade is what gives you your
measurements. Imperial units are usually on the top row and metric on the bottom. More on the
tape itself later...

Hook: The hook, located at the end of the tape comes in handy when measuring hard surfaces
such as tables. You may notice that the hook is loose; this is intentional to ensure accuracy.

Belt clip: The belt clip simply allows the measuring tape to be hooked onto your belt so you can
always have it to hand.

Read a tape measure’s incremental marks for the imperial system.

A tape measure with both inches and centimeters usually has the imperial measurement in red
on the top of the blade while the metric measurements are in black on the bottom of the blade.

FOLDING RULES
These folding rules are usually from two to six feet long (5-15 cm). The folding rules cannot be
relied on for extremely accurate measurements because a certain amount of play develops at
the joints after continued use.

STEEL TAPES
Steel tapes are made from 6 to about 300 feet (2-92 meters) in length. The shorter tapes are made
with a curved, but rigid, cross section flexible enough to be rolled up. Long, flat tapes need
support over their full length to avoid sagging. Lack of support can cause reading errors. The
most common types of steel tapes have a hook at one end to let one person take all the readings.

Using rules and tapes

1. Rules and tapes are used for measuring lengths.
2. Measuring the outside diameter of pipe.
3. Measuring the inside diameter of pipe.
4. Measuring the circumference of pipe.
5. Measuring inside dimensions.
6. Measuring the thickness of stock through a hole.
7. Measuring outside dimension with a tape.
8. Steel rule is used to check the straightness of an edge.

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BUILDING SITE
SETTING OUT A STRAIGHT WALL
Setting out may be defined as the term used for the operations necessary for the correct
positioning of proposed works on the ground and their dimensional control during the
construction process. Before a decision about the final position or setting of a building is made,
many factors have to be taken into account. Consideration must be given to local Authority and
Town and country planning regulations, prevailing wind, noise, shelter, proximity to bush, water
supply, access, slope of the around privacy and the type of soil on which to build.

Tools and equipment for setting-out straight wall

Setting out requires the use of wooden pegs, string, nylon or lines, a builder's square, spirit level,
club hammer or mallet, bonding rods, timber for profiles and builder's tape measure.

Setting out building lines

Before starting, clear away the top soil and plants, digging out any roots. Decide on suitable
references for alignment and level. An existing building wall or property line can be used as a
base line. The planned shape of the proposed building must be the site boundaries. Profile
boards are used in conjunction with pegs so that the extended line position may be marked. By
using profile board, the string or wire lines can be removed with the knowledge that when they
are required again they can be positioned exactly as they were original.

FOUNDATION
Foundation can be described as that part of the building which is in direct contact with the ground
onto which all the loads are transmitted. The design of foundation depends upon the nature of
the structure and the properties of the soil in which they are carried.

Purpose of foundation
1. To spread the building load more evenly over a larger area than that covered by the
building.
2. To prevent walls from tilting over because of unequal settlement.
3. To help to bridge over any soft spots which may occur in the natural foundation. d. To form
a level base from which all building operations can start.

WOOD WORKSHOP AND METAL WORKSHOP

Procedure for measuring and marking out artefacts/articles/products in the; Wood
workshop and Metal workshop.

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Measuring and marking-out is a key part of any practical project. Planning for this will help
ensure the success of the project and reduce the chance of mistakes and waste.

The aim is to prepare the materials you are working with for the next stages of the production
process. Failure to measure and mark-out materials properly can lead to joints that do not match
up or are incorrectly aligned and connected.

There are several key points to measuring and marking out correctly;
i. reading dimensions from sketches or drawings correctly.
ii. choosing appropriate tools for your task and material.
iii. using tools correctly and accurately. iv. checking over your measuring and marking out to
ensure it is accurate.

WOOD WORKSHOP
The following tools are commonly used for measuring and marking-out when using wood;

Pencil - Used to mark lines and centres for cutting or joining. Pencil marks are easy to remove
afterwards. It is best to use a sharp pencil very lightly. This gives thin light lines that don't
engrave the workpiece.

Steel rules - Used to measure materials for cutting or joining. Best used flat against the side and
bottom edges. This ensures that measurements are marked from a one consistent spot.

Try square - Used to help draw perpendicular lines on materials to mark out the sides of a
woodwork joint. Best used with the brass edge flat against the side. This ensures that the line is
parallel.

Marking gauge -Used to scribe lines parallel to edges so that waste wood can be chiselled away
from a woodwork joint... The marking gauge stock needs to be flat against the side of the
workpiece. It is best not to dig the spur into the material to be cut and instead gently run it over
a few times until an indented line is scored in the wood.

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