Technology in Action

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 Technology in Action

Chapter 9
Behind the Scenes:
A Closer Look at System Hardware

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 Chapter Topics
• Computer switches
• Binary number system
• Inside the CPU
• Cache memory
• Types of RAM
• Computer buses
• Creating faster CPUs

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 Binary Language
• Computers work in binary
language
• Consists of two numbers: 0 and 1
• Everything a computer does is broken
down into a series of 0s and 1s
• Switches: Devices inside the
computer that can be flipped between
these two states: 1 or 0, on or off

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 Switches
• Nonmechanical devices in
computers that open and close
circuits
• Types of electrical switches: Vacuum Tube

– Vacuum tubes
– Transistors:
• Semiconductors
– Integrated circuits
Transistors

Integrated Circuits 5
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 Switches Representing Data
• The on/off state of a switch represents one
bit of data
• Bit (binary digit) OFF
ON

– On = 1 0
1
– Off = 0
OR = 1 bit
1 0

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 The Binary Number System
• Describes a number as powers of 2
• Also referred to as base 2 numbering
system
• Used to represent every piece of data
stored in a computer: all of the numbers,
letters, and instructions

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 The Binary Number System
• Number systems are organized ways to represent
numbers
• Each number in one system has a corresponding
number in another.
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
2x64 2x32 2x16 2x8 2x4 2x2 2x1
Binary 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1

Base 0 + 64 + 0 + 16 + 8 + 0+ 0+ 1 = 89
10

01011001
Binary
= 89
Base 10
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 Representing Letters and Symbols
• American Standard • Unicode
Code for Information – 16 bits equal 1 byte
Interchange (ASCII) – 65,000 different
– 8 bits = 1 byte = alphanumeric combinations, used for all
character or symbol languages
– 256 different combinations

01100001 = a
01000001 = A
ASCII 00100011 = #
01101101 = m
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 The CPU:
Processing Digital Information
• The CPU is the brains of
the computer
• Different types of CPUs
– Intel and AMD chips: Used in
most Windows-based PCs
– Apple systems use different
CPU design
• Differentiating CPUs
– Processing power
– Clock speed and cache

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Processors on the Market Today
Processor Manufacturer Number of Typical Levels of Description
Transistors Clock Speed Cache Storage

Athlon 64 FX – AMD 233 million 2.6 GHz 2 64-bit processor for heavy
60 computation and demanding video
gaming needs.

Core Duo Intel 151.6 million 1.6 - 2.16 GHz 2 Designed specifically for mobile
computers; transfers power only to
those areas of the processor that
need it, improving battery life.

Itanium 2 Intel 410 million 1.3 – 1.66 GHz 3 Seen in high-end server computers.

Pentium 4 Intel 225 million 3.46 GHz Each processor This processor uses a dual–core
Extreme core has its own 2 design and hyperthreading to
Edition 955 MB L2Cache Process four tasks at once.

Pentium D Dual Intel 230 million 2.8 - 3.4 GHz 2 New dual-core processor for more
Core efficient multitasking. No
hyperthreading capabilities.

PowerPC G4 Freescale 57 million 1.5 – 1.67 GHz 3 Until 2006, powered the Apple line
Semiconductor of computers.
(once part of
Motorola)

Dual Core IBM 58 million 2.0 - 2.5 GHz 2 Powerful 64-bit processor for heavy
PowerPC G5 computational needs.

Sempron AMD 68.5 million 2.0 GHz 2 Affordable performance for today’s
value-conscious buyers of desktop
PCs.

Turion AMD 114 million 1.6 – 2.4 GHz 2 Optimized for better performance in
thinner and lighter laptops for
longer battery life and compatible
with wireless technologies.

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 The CPU Machine Cycle
• Fetch
– The program’s binary code is “fetched” from its
temporary location in RAM and moved to the CPU
• Decode
– The program’s binary code is decoded into commands
that the CPU understands.
• Execute “InsideClip
Video the Chip” by Intel

“Inside the Chip” by

– The ALU performs the calculations. Intel
• Store Video Clip
– The results are stored in the registers

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 The System Clock
• Located on the motherboard
• Controls the CPU’s processing cycles
• Clock cycle
– Pulse or tick
• Clock speed
– Number of pulses per second
– Measured in hertz (Hz)

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 The Control Unit
• Manages the switches inside the CPU
• Is programmed by CPU designers to
remember the sequence of processing
stages for that CPU
• Moves each switch to its correct setting
(on or off)
• Then performs the work of that stage

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 The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
• Part of the CPU designed to perform
mathematical operations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, etc.)
• Also performs logical OR, AND, and NOT
operations
• Is fed data from the CPU registers
– Word size: Number of bits a computer can work with
at a time

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 Cache Memory
• Small amount of
memory located on the
CPU chip or near it
• Stores recent or
frequently used
instructions and data
• Used for quick access
by the CPU
• Different levels of cache

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 RAM: The Next Level of
Temporary Storage

• Volatile: When you turn off your computer,

the data is erased
• Several kinds of RAM exist
• Each type of RAM has a different design
– Some types work at much faster speeds
– Some transfer data more quickly

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 Types of RAM: DRAM
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
– Cheapest and most basic type of RAM
– Loses its electrical charge
– Needs to be refreshed
– Many types of DRAM
• SDRAM: Synchronous DRAM
• DDR SDRAM: Double data rate SDRAM

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 Types of RAM: SRAM
• Static RAM (SRAM)
– Does not lose its electrical charge
– Faster than DRAM
– More expensive than DRAM
– Used only in locations like cache
memory

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 Buses: The CPU’s Data Highway
• Bus
– Electrical pathway used to move data between
components
– Local bus: Connects the CPU with the memory
– Expansion bus: Connects the CPU with peripheral
devices

01100010
01001000
01110011
00100111

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 Bus Performance
• Bus clock speed
– Rate of speed data moves
from one location to another
– Measured in MHz (millions
of clock cycles per second)
• Bus width
– The number of bits of data
moved on a bus at any one
time
– Measured in bits
• 16 bits
• 32 bits

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 Types of Expansion Buses
• ISA and EISA
– Found on older computers
– Connects mouse, modem, and sound card
• PCI
– Faster than ISA and EISA
– Found on modern computers
– Connects network, modem, and sound cards
• AGP
– Used for three-dimensional graphics
– Connects the graphics card and memory

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 Moore’s Law
• Number of transistors on a CPU will
double every 18 months
• First chip had 29,000 transistors
• Pentium chip 169,000,000 transistors
• Moore’s Law has been accurate for more
than 40 years
• Law has remained accurate into the 21st
century
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 Making Computers Faster
• Pipelining: The CPU processes more than
one instruction at a time
Nonpipelined CPU
Instruction 1

Fetch Decode Execute Store Instruction 2

Fetch Decode Execute Store

Pipelined CPU
Instruction 1 Fetch Decode Execute Store
Instruction 2 Fetch Decode Execute Store

Instruction 3 Fetch Decode Execute Store

Instruction 4 Fetch Decode Execute Store

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 Making Computers Faster
• Dual processing
– Two CPUs on the same Dual processors
system
– Each processor shares
the workload
• Parallel processing
– Network of computers
– Each computer works on
a portion of the problem
simultaneously

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 Dual-core Processing and
Hyperthreading
• Two separate parallel processing paths
• Almost as fast as two separate processors
• Hyperthreading allows the processor to
run four tasks at once
• Allows multiple applications to execute
much more quickly

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 Computing Clusters
• Group of computers
• Connected by “clustering software”
• Load-balancing principle
• Not as fast as supercomputers
• Can be set up on Linux systems for free

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 Chapter 9 Summary Questions
• What is a switch and how does it work in a
computer?

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 Chapter 9 Summary Questions
• What is the binary number system and
what role does it play in computer system?

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 Chapter 9 Summary Questions
• What is inside the CPU and how do these
components operate?

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 Chapter 9 Summary Questions
• How does a CPU process data and
instructions?

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 Chapter 9 Summary Questions
• What is cache memory?

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 Chapter 9 Summary Questions
• What types of RAM are there?

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 Chapter 9 Summary Questions
• What is a bus and how does it function in
a computer system?

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 Chapter 9 Summary Questions
• How do manufacturers make CPUs so that
they run faster?

© 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 36