04-Feb-24

EEE 322
Electromechanical Energy Conversion – II
By
Prof. Dr. A. Mete VURAL
[email protected]

References
• Electric Machinery Fundamentals, Stephen Chapman, 4th
Edition, McGraw-Hill
(Course Book)

• Electric Machinery, A.E. Fitzgerald, Charles Kingsley, JR.,

Stephen D. Umans, 6th Edition, McGraw-Hill
(Supplementary Book)

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Contents
Chapter 1 – AC Machinery Fundamentals (Chapter 4 in course book)
Chapter 2 – Synchronous Generators (Chapter 5 in course book)
Chapter 3 – Synchronous Motors (Chapter 6 in course book)
Chapter 4 – Induction Motors (Chapter 7 in course book)

Grading Policy
• Midterm-1 : 20%
• Midterm-2 : 20%
• Lab : 20%
• Final : 40%
• TOTAL : 100%

✓Exams are closed-book

✓Homework/Project can be assigned during the semester
(The performances of the students can be included into the grading policy)
✓Attendance is minimum 70% to class
✓Attendance is minimum 80% to laboratory works

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Some Advices !
• Keep attendance as much as poosible ! (70% or more)
• Take your own notes
• Practice is good. Do it as much as possible
• Do not try to summarize, try to learn the fundamental idea
• Solve examples, problems as many as possible
• Make your study plan by yourself
• Know yourself ! Study alone or within a group
• Do not postpone anything ! Do it now

Effects of Electrical Shock

Source: http://www.nema.org
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Greek alphabet letters used as symbols in electrical engineering

UPPER CASE

lower case
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CHAPTER 1

AC MACHINERY FUNDAMENTALS

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What is an AC machine ?
• AC machines are generators that convert mechanical energy to ac
electrical energy.

• AC machines are motors that convert ac electrical energy to

mechanical energy.

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Two major classes of AC machines

• Synchronous machines
Synchronous machines are motors and generators whose magnetic
field current is supplied by a separate dc power source

• Induction machines
Induction machines are motors and generators whose field current is
supplied by magnetic induction (transformer action)
12

Field (excitation) circuit

• The field (excitation) circuits of most synchronous and induction machines are
located on their rotors.
• Stator (armature) is the stationary part of both machine types
• Rotor is the rotating part of both machine types
Field circuit

Field circuit

Three-phase induction machine

13
Three-phase synchronous machine

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Voltage induced in a simple rotating loop

Rotation axis
𝑒 = 𝑣 𝑥 𝐵 .𝑙

e is the induced voltage at the terminals

of the segment

v is the linear velocity of the segment

B is the magnetic field generated by the

N-S poles

l is the length of the segment

• Two poles (N-S poles) produce a constant (uniform) magnetic field oriented from N to S-pole
• If a rectangular conductor is rotated in counter-clock wise direction in this magnetic field by applying a
mechanical force, a voltage is induced at the terminals of the rectangular conductor (etot)
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Voltage induced in segment ab

B
v
Velocity of the segment ab, v
Cross product (vxB) is 𝑣𝑥𝐵
B (out of page)

B
𝑣𝑥𝐵 𝑙 Dot product is 𝑣𝐵𝑙 (angle between (vxB) and l is α=0)

𝑣𝑥𝐵 𝑒𝑏𝑎 = 𝑣 𝑥 𝐵 . 𝑙 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙(cos 𝛼)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏 𝑒𝑏𝑎 = 𝑣 𝑥 𝐵 . 𝑙 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏

𝑣
1 (angle between v and B, due to cross-product)
𝐵
15

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Voltage induced in segment ab

CCW
• Determining the angles 𝜃𝑎𝑏 and 𝜃𝑐𝑑

CCW
𝑉𝑎𝑏
B
c 𝜃
B b 𝑎𝑏 B
d 𝜃𝑐𝑑 a
B
radius
𝑉𝑐𝑑

Case when 𝜃𝑎𝑏 = 90° Case when 𝜃𝑎𝑏 = 120°

𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 90° 𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 60°

𝜃𝑎𝑏 + 𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 180° 𝜃𝑎𝑏 + 𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 180°

16

segment ab is
Voltage induced in segment ab at the right side of segment ab is
rotation axis at the left side of
rotation axis

𝑒𝑏𝑎 = 𝑣 𝑥 𝐵 . 𝑙 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏

(segment ab is at the middle

𝜃𝑎𝑏 = 0 B of S pole)
𝑒𝑏𝑎 = 0 eba
v (segment ab is at the bottom)

t
B
𝜃𝑎𝑏 = 180 𝑒𝑏𝑎 = 0
v (segment ab is at the top)
1 period
(segment ab is at the
17
middle of N pole)

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Voltage induced in segment bc (first half)

B
v
Velocity of the segment bc, v
Cross product (vxB) is 𝑣𝑥𝐵
B (out of page)

B
𝑣𝑥𝐵 Dot product is 0 (angle between (vxB) and l is α=90°)
𝑙

𝑣𝑥𝐵 𝑒𝑏𝑐1 = 𝑣 𝑥 𝐵 . 𝑙 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙(cos 𝛼)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑏𝑐1 𝑒𝑏𝑐1 = 0

𝑣
0
𝐵
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Voltage induced in segment bc (second half)

B
v
x Velocity of the segment ab, v
Cross product (vxB) is 𝑣𝑥𝐵
B (into the page)

B
𝑣𝑥𝐵 Dot product is 0 (angle between (vxB) and l is α=90°)
𝑙

𝑣𝑥𝐵 𝑒𝑏𝑐2 = 𝑣 𝑥 𝐵 . 𝑙 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙(cos 𝛼)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑏𝑐2 𝑒𝑏𝑐2 = 0

𝑣

0
𝐵
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Voltage induced in segment dc

B
v
x Velocity of the segment ab, v
Cross product (vxB) is 𝑣𝑥𝐵
B (into the page)

B
𝑣𝑥𝐵 Dot product is 𝑣𝐵𝑙 (angle between (vxB) and l is α=0)
𝑙

𝑣𝑥𝐵 𝑒𝑑𝑐 = 𝑣 𝑥 𝐵 . 𝑙 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙(cos 𝛼)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑑 𝑒𝑑𝑐 = 𝑣 𝑥 𝐵 . 𝑙 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑑

𝑣
1
𝐵
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Voltage induced in segment dc

𝑒𝑑𝑐 = 𝑣 𝑥 𝐵 . 𝑙 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑑

(segment cd is at the middle

𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 0 B of N pole)
𝑒𝑑𝑐 = 0 ecd
v (segment cd is at the bottom)

t
B
𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 180 𝑒𝑑𝑐 = 0
v (segment cd is at the top)
1 period
(segment cd is at the
21
middle of S pole)

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Voltage induced in segment ad (first half)

B
v
Velocity of the segment bc, v
Cross product (vxB) is 𝑣𝑥𝐵
B (out of page)

B
𝑣𝑥𝐵 Dot product is 0 (angle between (vxB) and l is α=90°)
𝑙

𝑣𝑥𝐵 𝑒𝑎𝑑1 = 𝑣 𝑥 𝐵 . 𝑙 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙(cos 𝛼)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑑1 𝑒𝑎𝑑1 = 0

𝑣
0
𝐵
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Voltage induced in segment ad (second half)

B
v
x Velocity of the segment ab, v
Cross product (vxB) is 𝑣𝑥𝐵
B (into the page)

B
𝑣𝑥𝐵 Dot product is 0 (angle between (vxB) and l is α=90°)
𝑙

𝑣𝑥𝐵 𝑒𝑎𝑑2 = 𝑣 𝑥 𝐵 . 𝑙 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙(cos 𝛼)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑑2 𝑒𝑎𝑑2 = 0

𝑣
0
𝐵
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Total induced voltage in the rectangular

conductor
The total induced voltage in the rectangular conductor is the sum of individual induced voltages on each segment:
𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏 + 𝑣𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑑
𝑒𝑏𝑎 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏
𝑒𝑑𝑐 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑑 since
𝜃𝑎𝑏 + 𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 180° 𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 180° − 𝜃𝑎𝑏
𝑒𝑏𝑐1 = 0
𝑒𝑏𝑐2 = 0 𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏 + 𝑣𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛 180° − 𝜃𝑎𝑏
𝑒𝑎𝑑1 = 0
𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏 + 𝑣𝐵𝑙 sin 180 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑎𝑏 − cos 180 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏
𝑒𝑎𝑑2 = 0
-1
+ 0
____________ 𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏 + 𝑣𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏 = 2𝑣𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏
Let 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑎𝑏

𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2𝑣𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 24

Total induced voltage in the rectangular

conductor
𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡
+2𝑣𝐵𝑙

𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2𝑣𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

-2𝑣𝐵𝑙

1 period (1 full rotation of the rectangular conductor)

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𝑤 Angular velocity (rad/s)

𝑣 = 𝑤𝑟 𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2𝑣𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑣 Linear velocity (m/s)
𝜃 = 𝑤𝑡 𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2𝑤𝑟𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡)
𝑟 Radius of rotation (m)

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~2𝑟 (Ignoring small gap at the bottom)

𝑙 Area of the rectangular conductor (loop) is approximately

𝐴 = 2𝑟𝑙

𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2𝑤𝑟𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡)

𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐴𝑤𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡)

Since maximum flux occurs when loop is perpendicular to B lines

∅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝐵

𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∅𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡)

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Final form of the induced voltage in the

rectangular conductor
𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∅𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡)

2𝜋
• The generated voltage in a loop is sinusoidal with a period of 𝑇 =
𝑤

• The voltage has a peak value depending on the following parameters:

➢ The flux in the machine, ∅

➢ The speed (angular or linear) of rotation, 𝑤 𝑜𝑟 𝑣
➢ A constant representing the construction of the machine
(which is not shown in the above equation) 𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡

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Examples for the induced voltage in the

rectangular conductor
Plot of etot for 3 periods (cycles)
Case 1: Assume ➔ ∅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1 𝑊𝑏
1 rotation
in 1 second Since;

𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∅𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡)

𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 1𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡)

𝑤 = 1 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠

𝑤 = 6.28318531 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
1st period 2nd period 3rd period
𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = (1)(6.28318531)𝑠𝑖𝑛(6.28318531𝑡)
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇= = =1𝑠
𝑤 2𝜋

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Examples for the induced voltage in the

rectangular conductor
Plot of etot for 3 periods (cycles)
Case 2: Assume ➔ ∅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1 𝑊𝑏
66.6 rotations in
1 second Since;

𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∅𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡)

𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 1𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡)

𝑤 = 66.6 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠

𝑤 = 418.46 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
1st period 2nd period 3rd period
𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = (1)(418.46)𝑠𝑖𝑛(418.46𝑡)
2𝜋 1
𝑇= = = 0.01501 𝑠
(66.6)(2𝜋) 66.6
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Torque induced in a current-carrying loop

𝐹 = 𝑖. 𝑙 𝑥 𝐵

B F is the induced force on the segment

N B
S i is the loop current

l is the length of the segment

B is the magnetic field generated by the

N-S poles

• Two poles (N-S poles) produce a constant (uniform) magnetic field oriented from N to S-pole
• If a current i is applied to the rectangular conductor as shown in the figure, a force is induced on the rectangular
conductor
• Direction of length vector l is accepted as direction of current i
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Torque
Torque = (force applied)(perpendicular distance)

Counter-clock wise (CCW) direction

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Torque induced in segment ab

B scalar
B
x 𝑙𝑥𝐵 𝐹𝑎𝑏 = 𝑖. 𝑙 𝑥 𝐵
B 𝑙
Directed into the page x (directed into the page)
(Direction of l is the
direction of current i) 𝐹𝑎𝑏 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵 (Magnitude is constant,
independent of rotation)

Since Fab is directed into the page, induced Tab on

𝑇𝑎𝑏 = 𝑟𝐹𝑎𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑎𝑏 (clockwise)
segment ab is in the clock-wise (CW) direction

(angle between r and Fab, due to definition of torque)

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Torque induced in segment ab

• Determining the angles 𝜃𝑎𝑏 and 𝜃𝑐𝑑

𝐹𝑐𝑑 CW
𝜃𝑐𝑑
c r r
b
B d x segment ab is into the page
𝜃𝑎𝑏 a
segment cd is out of the page
𝐹𝑎𝑏

Case when 𝜃𝑎𝑏 = 90°

𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 90°

𝜃𝑎𝑏 + 𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 180°

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Torque induced in segment ab

• Determining the angles 𝜃𝑎𝑏 and 𝜃𝑐𝑑
𝐹𝑐𝑑

𝐹𝑎𝑏

Case when 𝜃𝑎𝑏 = 30°

𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 150°

𝜃𝑎𝑏 + 𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 180°

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Torque induced in segment ab

• When segment ab is at the top position between N-S poles
B
x 𝐹𝑎𝑏
𝑇𝑎𝑏 = 𝑟𝐹𝑎𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑎𝑏 𝜃𝑎𝑏 = 180° 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑎𝑏 = 0 𝑇𝑎𝑏 = 0
𝑟
B (clockwise)
• When segment ab is at the bottom position between N-S poles
x 𝐹𝑎𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑎𝑏 = 0 𝑇𝑎𝑏 = 0
𝜃𝑎𝑏 = 0°
x 𝑟
segment ab is
𝑇𝑎𝑏
at the bottom position

segment ab is
at the top position right side left side 36

Torque induced in segment bc

B
𝑙
B 𝑙𝑥𝐵 =0 𝐹𝑏𝑐 = 𝑖. 𝑙 𝑥 𝐵 = 0 𝑇𝑏𝑐 = 0
B

There is no induced force (hence no torque) on segment bc

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Torque induced in segment cd

B scalar
B
𝑙𝑥𝐵 𝐹𝑐𝑑 = 𝑖. 𝑙 𝑥 𝐵
B 𝑙
Directed out of page
directed out of page
(Direction of l is the
direction of current i) 𝐹𝑐𝑑 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵 (Magnitude is constant,
independent of rotation)

Since Fcd is directed out of the page, induced Tcd

𝑇𝑐𝑑 = 𝑟𝐹𝑐𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑐𝑑 (clockwise)
on segment cd is in the clock-wise (CW) direction

(angle between r and Fcd, due to definition of torque)

38

Torque induced in segment cd

• When segment cd is at the top position between N-S poles
B
𝐹𝑐𝑑
𝑇𝑐𝑑 = 𝑟𝐹𝑐𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑐𝑑 𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 0° 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 0 𝑇𝑐𝑑 = 0
B (clockwise) 𝑟

• When segment ab is at the bottom position between N-S poles

𝐹𝑐𝑑
𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 180° 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 0 𝑇𝑐𝑑 = 0
segment cd is x 𝑟
𝑇𝑐𝑑
at the top position

segment cd is
at the bottom position
39
left side right side

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Torque induced in segment ad

B
𝑙
𝑙𝑥𝐵 =0 𝐹𝑎𝑑 = 𝑖. 𝑙 𝑥 𝐵 = 0 𝑇𝑎𝑑 = 0
B B

There is no induced force (hence no torque) on segment ad

40

Total induced torque in the rectangular

conductor
The total induced torque in the rectangular conductor is the sum of individual induced torques on each segment:
𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑟𝐹𝑎𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏 + 𝑟𝐹𝑐𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑑 Let 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑎𝑏 = 𝐹𝑐𝑑 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵
𝑇𝑎𝑏 = 𝑟𝐹𝑎𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑎𝑏
since
𝑇𝑏𝑐 = 0
𝜃𝑎𝑏 + 𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 180° 𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 180° − 𝜃𝑎𝑏
𝑇𝑐𝑑 = 𝑟𝐹𝑐𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑐𝑑 𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑟𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏 + 𝑟𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛 180° − 𝜃𝑎𝑏
𝑇𝑎𝑑 = 0
𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑟𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏 + 𝑟𝐹 sin 180 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑎𝑏 − cos 180 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏
+____________
-1
0
𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑟𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏 + 𝑟𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏 = 2𝑟𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏
Let 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑎𝑏

𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2𝑟𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 since 𝐹 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵 𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2𝑟𝑖𝑙𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

41

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Total induced torque in the rectangular

conductor
𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑡
+2𝑟𝑖𝑙𝐵

𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2𝑟𝑖𝑙𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

-2𝑟𝑖𝑙𝐵

1 period (1 full rotation of the rectangular conductor)

42

Final form of the induced torque in the

rectangular conductor
Since 𝜃 = 𝑤𝑡
𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2𝑟𝑖𝑙𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2𝑟𝑖𝑙𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡)
2𝜋
• The induced torque in a loop is sinusoidal with a period of 𝑇 =
𝑤

• The torque has a peak value depending on the following parameters:

➢ r and l parameters (physical dimensions of the loop)

➢ The magnitude of the current i in the loop
➢ The magnetic field B generated by pole pair
➢ A constant representing the construction of the machine
(which is not shown in the above equation)

IMPORTANT NOTE: Since i of the loop generates its own magnetic field and B is the magnetic field generated by
pole pair, there must be two types of magnetic field in a machine to induce a torque
43

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Stator magnetic field

• If a three-phase set of currents, each of equal magnitude
and differing in phase by 120° flows in a three-phase
winding, then it produces a rotating magnetic field of
constant magnitude.
• The three-phase winding consists of three separate
windings spaced 120 electrical degrees apart around the
surface of the machine.

𝑖𝑎𝑎′ 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 generates 𝐻𝑎𝑎′ 𝑡 = 𝐻𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 /___0° (A.turns/m)

𝑖𝑏𝑏′ 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 120° generates 𝐻𝑏𝑏′ 𝑡 = 𝐻𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 120° /___ + 120° (A.turns/m)

𝑖𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 + 120° generates 𝐻𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑡 = 𝐻𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 + 120° /___ − 120° (A.turns/m)

Three-phase currents (positive sequence) Magnetic field intensities generated by each phase
44

Stator magnetic field

Since B=µH

𝐻𝑎𝑎′ 𝑡 = 𝐻𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 /___0° 𝐵𝑎𝑎′ 𝑡 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 /___0° (Wb/m2) or (T)

(T)
𝐻𝑏𝑏′ 𝑡 = 𝐻𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 120° /___ + 120° 𝐵𝑏𝑏′ 𝑡 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 120° /___ + 120°
(T)
𝐻𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑡 = 𝐻𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 + 120° /___ − 120° 𝐵𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑡 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 + 120° /___ − 120°

45

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Net stator magnetic field

Since there are three magnetic fields simultaneously at a given time, the net stator magnetic field Bnet can be calculated:

𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 (𝑡) = 𝐵𝑎𝑎′ 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑏𝑏′ 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑐𝑐′ 𝑡

46

Net stator magnetic field

For example at t=0 ➔ wt = 0

𝐵𝑎𝑎′ 𝑡 = 0 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 = 0
− 3
𝐵𝑏𝑏′ 𝑡 = 0 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 120° /___ + 120° = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −120° /___ + 120° = 𝐵 /___ + 120°
2 𝑀

− 3/2

3
𝐵𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑡 = 0 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 + 120° /___ − 120° = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 +120° /___ − 120° = 2 𝐵𝑀 /___ − 120°

3/2
3
− 3 3 3 3 𝐵
𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑡=0 = 𝐵𝑀 /___ + 120° + 𝐵𝑀 /___ − 120° = 2 𝐵𝑀 −𝑗 = 2 𝐵𝑀 /___ − 90° 2 𝑚
2 2
47

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Net stator magnetic field

For example at wt = 90°

𝐵𝑎𝑎′ 𝑤𝑡 = 90 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90 /___0° = 𝐵𝑀 /___0°

𝐵𝑏𝑏′ 𝑤𝑡 = 90 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90 − 120° /___ + 120° 1

= − 𝐵𝑀 /___ + 120°
2
−1/2

1
𝐵𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑤𝑡 = 90 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90 + 120° /___ − 120° = − 𝐵𝑀 /___ − 120°
2

−1/2

1 1 3
𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑡 = 90 = 𝐵𝑀 /___0° − 𝐵𝑀 /___ + 120° − 𝐵𝑀 /___ − 120° = 𝐵𝑀 /___0° 3
2 2 2 𝐵
2 𝑀
48

Net stator magnetic field

For example at wt = 180°

𝐵𝑎𝑎′ 𝑤𝑡 = 180 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 180 /___0° = 0

𝐵𝑏𝑏′ 𝑤𝑡 = 180 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 180 − 120° /___ + 120° = 3 𝐵 /___ + 120°

2 𝑀

3/2

3
𝐵𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑤𝑡 = 180 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 180 + 120° /___ − 120° = − 𝐵 /___ − 120°
2 𝑀

− 3/2

3
3 3 3 3 𝐵
𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑡 = 180 = 𝐵𝑀 /___ + 120° − 𝐵𝑀 /___ − 120°= 𝐵𝑀 𝑗 = 𝐵𝑀 /___90° 2 𝑀
2 2 2 2
49

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Net stator magnetic field

For example at wt = 270°

𝐵𝑎𝑎′ 𝑤𝑡 = 270 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 270 /___0° = −𝐵𝑀 /__0°

1
𝐵𝑏𝑏′ 𝑤𝑡 = 270 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 270 − 120° /___ + 120° = 𝐵 /___ + 120°
2 𝑀

1/2

1
𝐵𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑤𝑡 = 270 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 270 + 120° /___ − 120° = 𝐵 /___ − 120°
2 𝑀

1/2

3
1 1 3 𝐵
𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑡 = 270 = −𝐵𝑀 /___0° + 𝐵𝑀 /___ + 120° + 𝐵𝑀 /___ − 120° = − 𝐵𝑀 2 𝑀
2 2 2
50

Net stator magnetic field

For example at t=0 ➔ wt = 360=0°

𝐵𝑎𝑎′ 𝑡 = 0 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 = 0
− 3
𝐵𝑏𝑏′ 𝑡 = 0 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 120° /___ + 120° = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −120° /___ + 120° = 𝐵 /___ + 120°
2 𝑀

− 3/2

3
𝐵𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑡 = 0 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 + 120° /___ − 120° = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 +120° /___ − 120° = 2 𝐵𝑀 /___ − 120°

3/2
3
− 3 3 3 3 𝐵
𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑡=0 = 𝐵𝑀 /___ + 120° + 𝐵𝑀 /___ − 120° = 2 𝐵𝑀 −𝑗 = 2 𝐵𝑀 /___ − 90° 2 𝑚
2 2
51

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Rotating stator magnetic field

Rotation in CCW direction Three-phase currents (positive sequence)

52

Rotating stator magnetic field

• Rotating stator magnetic field can be represented as moving North and South poles

• North pole is where the flux leaves the stator

• South pole is where the flux enters the stator

• These magnetic poles complete one mechanical rotation around the stator surface
for one electrical cycle of the three-phase applied current to the stator

• Therefore, the mechanical speed of rotation of the magnetic field

in revolutions per second (rev/s) is equal to the electric frequency in hertz (Hz):

𝑓𝑒 Electrical frequency (Hz)

a-c'-b-a '-c-b'
𝑓𝑒 = 𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑚 Mechanical speed (rev/s) Rotation in CCW direction
For 2-pole stator
𝑤𝑒 = 𝑤𝑚
𝑤𝑒 Electrical frequency (rad/s)
𝑤𝑚 Mechanical speed (rad/s) 53

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How pole number is increased in stator ?

• Let’s repeat twice the phase pattern of the stator as follows:

a-c '-b-a' -c-b '-a-c '-b-a '-c-b‘

(a) A simple four-pole stator winding. (b) The resulting stator magnetic poles. Notice
that there are moving poles of alternating polarity every 90° around the stator surface. 54

A winding diagram of the stator as seen from its inner surface, showing
how the stator currents produce north and south magnetic poles
55

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How pole number is increased in stator ?

• When a three-phase set of currents is applied to the stator, two north
poles and two south poles are produced in the stator winding

• A pole moves only halfway around the stator surface in one electrical
cycle

• Since one electrical cycle is 360 electrical degrees, and since the
mechanical motion is 180 mechanical degrees, the relationship between
the electrical angle and the mechanical angle is given as;

four-pole stator winding

𝜃𝑒 = 2𝜃𝑚 𝜃𝑒 Electrical angle (rad or degree)

𝜃𝑚 Mechanical angle (rad or degree)

56

How pole number is increased in stator ?

Since;
𝜃𝑒 = 2𝜃𝑚

𝜃𝑒 = 𝑤𝑒 . 𝑡
𝑤𝑒 = 2𝑤𝑚
𝜃𝑚 = 𝑤𝑚 . 𝑡

Since in general; For a 4-pole stator

𝑤 = 2𝜋𝑓

four-pole stator winding

𝑤𝑒 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑒
𝑓𝑒 = 2𝑓𝑚
𝑤𝑚 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑚

57

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How pole number is increased in stator ?

• In general, if the number of magnetic poles on the stator is P, then there are P/2 repetitions of the winding
sequence a-c '-b-a '-e-b' around the inner surface of the stator

• The following equations then can be derived:

𝑃
𝜃𝑒 = 𝜃
2 𝑚

𝑃
𝑤𝑒 = 𝑤 𝑃 Pole number on the stator
2 𝑚
(always an even number)
𝑃
𝑓𝑒 = 𝑓
2 𝑚

58

Six-pole stator winding with a rotor inside

59

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Relationship between electrical frequency and

rotation speed of stator magnetic field
• This relationship is very important for the analysis of AC machines (synchronous/induction)

𝑛𝑚 The speed of rotating stator magnetic field (rev/min) or (rpm)

𝑓𝑒 Electrical frequency of the three-phase supply connected at stator terminals (Hz)

120𝑓𝑒
𝑛𝑚 = (50 Hz or 60 Hz)
𝑃
𝑃 Pole number of the stator (always an even number)

60

• Let’s proof this equation:

120𝑓𝑒
𝑛𝑚 =
𝑃

𝑛𝑚 Rotation number per minute

𝑛𝑚
Rotation number per second
60

(𝑛𝑚 ). 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
Travelled mechanical rotational angle per second
60 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

So;
2𝜋. (𝑛𝑚 )
𝑤𝑚 = Mechanical speed (rad/s)
60

61

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Since;
𝑃
𝑤𝑒 = 𝑤
2 𝑚

𝑃 2𝜋. (𝑛𝑚 )
𝑤𝑒 = .
2 60

Since;

𝑤𝑒 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑒

𝑤𝑒 𝑃 2𝜋. (𝑛𝑚 )
𝑓𝑒 = = .
2𝜋 2 60. (2𝜋)

𝑃. (𝑛𝑚 )
𝑓𝑒 =
120
or;
120𝑓𝑒
𝑛𝑚 =
𝑃 62

Reversing the Direction of Magnetic Field

Rotation
• If the two phases of the stator connections is exchanged (swapped), then the direction of the rotating stator
magnetic field will be reversed

• This means that it is possible to reverse the direction of rotation of an AC motor just by switching the
connections on any two phases of the three-phase supply

• Since mechanical rotation direction is directly related with the rotation direction of the stator magnetic field

63

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Reversing the Direction of Magnetic Field

Rotation

Reversing a 3-phase asynchronous motor rotation using two contactors

64

Reversing the Direction of Magnetic Field

Rotation
• Let’s exchange phase-B and C (phase-A remains unchanged)

𝐵𝑎𝑎′ 𝑡 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 /___0°

𝐵𝑎𝑎′ 𝑡 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 /___0°
After
Before 𝐵𝑏𝑏′ 𝑡 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 120° /___ − 120° exchanged
𝐵𝑏𝑏′ 𝑡 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 120° /___ + 120° exchanged
𝐵𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑡 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 + 120° /___ + 120°
𝐵𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑡 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 + 120° /___ − 120°

65

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Net stator magnetic field

For example at t=0 ➔ wt = 0

𝐵𝑎𝑎′ 𝑡 = 0 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 = 0
− 3
𝐵𝑏𝑏′ 𝑡 = 0 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 120° /___ − 120° = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −120° /___ − 120° = 𝐵 /___ − 120°
2 𝑀

− 3/2

3
𝐵𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑡 = 0 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 + 120° /___ + 120° = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 +120° /___ + 120° = 2 𝐵𝑀 /___ + 120°

3/2
3
− 3 3 3 3 𝐵
𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑡=0 = 𝐵𝑀 /___ − 120° + 𝐵𝑀 /___ + 120° = 2 𝐵𝑀 +𝑗 = 2 𝐵𝑀 /___ + 90° 2 𝑚
2 2
66

Net stator magnetic field

For example at wt = 90°

𝐵𝑎𝑎′ 𝑤𝑡 = 90 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90 /___0° = 𝐵𝑀 /___0°

𝐵𝑏𝑏′ 𝑤𝑡 = 90 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90 − 120° /___ − 120° 1

= − 𝐵𝑀 /___ − 120°
2
−1/2

1
𝐵𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑤𝑡 = 90 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90 + 120° /___ + 120° = − 𝐵𝑀 /___ + 120°
2

−1/2

1 1 3
𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑡 = 90 = 𝐵𝑀 /___0° − 𝐵𝑀 /___ − 120° − 𝐵𝑀 /___ + 120° = 𝐵𝑀 /___0° 3
2 2 2 𝐵
2 𝑀
67

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Net stator magnetic field

For example at wt = 180°

𝐵𝑎𝑎′ 𝑤𝑡 = 180 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 180 /___0° = 0

𝐵𝑏𝑏′ 𝑤𝑡 = 180 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 180 − 120° /___ + 120° = 3 𝐵 /___ − 120°

2 𝑀

3/2

3
𝐵𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑤𝑡 = 180 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 180 + 120° /___ − 120° = − 𝐵 /___ + 120°
2 𝑀

− 3/2

3
3 3 3 3 𝐵
𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑡 = 180 = 𝐵 /___ − 120° − 𝐵 /___ + 120°= 𝐵𝑀 −𝑗 = 𝐵𝑀 /___ − 90° 2 𝑀
2 𝑀 2 𝑀 2 2
68

Net stator magnetic field

For example at wt = 270°

𝐵𝑎𝑎′ 𝑤𝑡 = 270 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 270 /___0° = −𝐵𝑀 /__0°

1
𝐵𝑏𝑏′ 𝑤𝑡 = 270 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 270 − 120° /___ + 120° = 𝐵 /___ − 120°
2 𝑀

1/2

1
𝐵𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑤𝑡 = 270 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 270 + 120° /___ − 120° = 𝐵 /___ + 120°
2 𝑀

1/2

3
1 1 3 𝐵
𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑡 = 180 = −𝐵𝑀 /___0° + 𝐵𝑀 /___ − 120° + 𝐵𝑀 /___ + 120° = − 𝐵𝑀 2 𝑀
2 2 2
69

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Net stator magnetic field

For example at t=0 ➔ wt = 360=0°

𝐵𝑎𝑎′ 𝑡 = 0 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 = 0
− 3
𝐵𝑏𝑏′ 𝑡 = 0 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 120° /___ − 120° = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −120° /___ + 120° = 𝐵 /___ − 120°
2 𝑀

− 3/2

3
𝐵𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑡 = 0 = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 + 120° /___ + 120° = 𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 +120° /___ − 120° = 2 𝐵𝑀 /___ + 120°

3/2
3
− 3 3 3 3 𝐵
𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑡=0 = 𝐵𝑀 /___ − 120° + 𝐵𝑀 /___ + 120° = 2 𝐵𝑀 +𝑗 = 2 𝐵𝑀 /___ + 90° 2 𝑚
2 2
70

MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE AND FLUX

DISTRIBUTION ON AC MACHINES
• The flux produced inside an ac machine was treated as if it were in free space
• The direction of the flux density (B) produced by a coil of wire was assumed to be perpendicular to the coil plane
• Flux direction can be shown by right-hand rule

Free space

71

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MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE AND FLUX

DISTRIBUTION ON AC MACHINES
• The flux in a real machine does not behave as simple as mentioned before
• Because there is a ferromagnetic rotor in the center of the machine and
• There is as a small air gap between the rotor and the stator

• The rotor can be cylindrical (non-salient pole) or non-cylindrical (salient-pole)

stator

airgap
Cylindrical Salient-pole
rotor rotor

72

MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE AND FLUX

DISTRIBUTION ON AC MACHINES

Reference: https://etrical.blogspot.com.tr/2016/10/cylindrical-salient-pole-rotor.html

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MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE AND FLUX

DISTRIBUTION ON AC MACHINES
• Consider cylindrical-rotor AC machine (much easier to analyze)

𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝜇𝑠 (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟)

𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 =
𝜇0 (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑝)

𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝜇𝑟 (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟)

Since 𝜇𝑠 , 𝜇𝑟 ≫ 𝜇0 𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 ≫ 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 , 𝑅𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟

• Flux density vector B takes the shortest possible path across the air gap
and jumps perpendicularly between the rotor and the stator
• Because the reluctance of air is much greater than that of stator and
rotor, hence B wants to travel the airgap as fast as posible
74

MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE AND FLUX

DISTRIBUTION ON AC MACHINES
• To produce a sinusoidal voltage in the machine, the
magnitude of the flux density vector B must vary in a
sinusoidal manner along the surface of the air gap

• B varies sinusoidally only if the magnetizing intensity H and

the magnetomotive force F varies also in sinusoidal manner
along the surface of the air gap

• But how is this possible in a real machine ?

75

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The magnetomotive force F or magnetizing intensity H as a function of angle α in the air gap

The flux density B as a function of angle α in the air gap

76

MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE AND FLUX

DISTRIBUTION ON AC MACHINES
• The most straightforward way to achieve (approach) a sinusoidal variation of
magnetomotive force F along the surface of the air gap is;

❑ Distribute the turns of the winding that produces F in closely spaced slots
around the surface of the machine (increase total number of slots)

❑ And vary the number of conductors in each slot in a sinusoidal manner

according to the equation given below:

𝑛𝑐 = 𝑁𝑐 cos(𝛼)

𝑛𝑐 The number of conductors in the slot at angle, α

𝑁𝑐 The number of conductors at the position α=0°

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MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE AND FLUX

DISTRIBUTION ON AC MACHINES
𝑁𝑐 = 12 (total number of slots in the figure)

𝑛𝑐 = 𝑁𝑐 cos(𝛼)

α
For α = 15° ➔ nc = 12xcos(33.5) ≅ 10
α α=33.5°
For α = 45° ➔ nc = 12xcos(54.3) = 7.07 ≅ 7 α=54.3°

For α = 75° ➔ nc = 12xcos(75.5) = 2.588 ≅ 3 α=75.5°

Note: If total number of slots are increased, a

better sinusoidal approximation is achieved
78

MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE AND FLUX

DISTRIBUTION ON AC MACHINES
Ideal F distribution (dashed line)

Practical F distribution (line)

The magnetomotive force F distribution resulting from the stator

winding distribution (left side) as compared to an ideal distribution
79

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MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE AND FLUX

DISTRIBUTION ON AC MACHINES
• Stator voltages will have the same shape as that of the air-gap flux density distribution

• So, if the air-gap flux density distribution is sinusoidal, the output voltages in the stator coils are also
sinusoidal (AC generator action)

• If the air-gap flux density distribution is not sinusoidal , the output voltages in the stator coils are also
not sinusoidal

• The reason for being non-sinusoidal shape is the inclusion of the harmonics

80

Fractional-Pitch Windings
Why harmonics are present in AC machines ?

• There are only a finite number of slots in a real machine

• Only approximated number of turns can be considered for the windings in each slot

• Usually, it is often convenient for the machine designer to use equal numbers of turns in each slot instead of
varying the number of turns

Because of the above three reasons, there will be higher-order harmonic components in F and H

Using fractional-pitch windings is one of the techniques to suppress the harmonics in AC machines

81

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Effect of 3rd harmonic

Reference: https://etrical.blogspot.com.tr/2016/07/advantages-disadvantages-of-harmonics.html

82

Effect of 5th harmonic

Reference: https://joliettech.com/information/reducing-harmonics-caused-by-variable-speed-drives/

83

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Pole pitch
• Pole pitch is defined as the angle distance between two 𝑃
neighboring poles in an AC machine 𝜃𝑒 = 𝜃
2 𝑚
• Pole pitch is defined in terms of mechanical degrees as follows:

360°
𝑃𝑝 = Pole pitch in mechanical degrees
𝑃

𝑃 Pole number

• Regardless of the number of pole numbers, pole pitch is always

180 electrical degrees

The pole pitch of a four-pole machine is 90

mechanical or 180 electrical degrees

84

Full-pitch vs fractional-pitch coil

• If the stator coil stretches across the same angle as the pole pitch, it is called full-pitch coil
• If the stator coil stretches across an angle smaller than the pole pitch, it is called fractional-pitch coil

slot winding
Rotor poles

Stator

full-pitch coil fractional-pitch coil

(short-pitch)
85

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Coil pitch
• Coil pitch is expressed as a fraction indicating the portion of the pole pitch it spans
• Coil pitch is given as follows:
𝜃𝑚
𝜌= . 180°
𝑃𝑝

𝜌 Coil pitch in electrical degrees

𝜃𝑚 Mechanical angle covered by the coil in degrees

𝑃𝑝 Pole pitch in mechanical degrees

• For fractional-pitch coils, 𝜌 is always less than 180°

• For full-pitch coils, 𝜌 is always equal to 180°

86

Coil pitch: An example

slot winding
Rotor poles

Stator

full-pitch coil fractional-pitch coil

3
𝜌 = 180° 𝜌= . 180° = 135°
4

87

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Induced Voltage of a Fractional-Pitch Coil

• The induced voltage of a fractional-pitch coil (without
giving the proof) is expressed as:

𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = ∅𝑤𝑘𝑝 cos(𝑤𝑡)

where 𝑘𝑝 is the “pitch factor”, defined as;

𝜌
𝑘𝑝 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛( )
2

𝜌 Coil pitch in electrical degrees

𝜌
Since 0 ≤ sin ≤1
2
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 is reduced by a factor less than 1 due to fractional- A fractional-pitch winding of pitch p
pitch coil 88

Induced Voltage of a Fractional-Pitch Coil

• For N-turn, the induced voltage of a fractional-pitch
coil is given as:

𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑁∅𝑤𝑘𝑝 cos 𝑤𝑡

• The peak voltage is

𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑁∅𝑤𝑘𝑝 =𝑁∅2𝜋𝑓𝑘𝑝

• The rms voltage is

𝑁∅𝑤𝑘𝑝 𝑁∅2𝜋𝑓𝑘𝑝
𝐸𝐴 = =
2 2

𝐸𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑁𝑘𝑝 ∅𝑓

If 𝑘𝑝 = 1 (𝜌 = 180°) Full-pitch winding A fractional-pitch winding of pitch p

89

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Harmonic suppression and fractional-pitch

windings
• This figure shows a salient-pole synchronous machine
whose rotor is sweeping across the stator surface.

• Because the reluctance of the magnetic field path is much

lower under the center of the rotor than it is toward the
sides (smaller air gap), the flux is strongly concentrated at
that point and the flux density is very high there.

• The magnetic field density and the induced voltage in the

winding is shown in the figure.

• As seen, induced voltage is not sinusoidal and it contains

many harmonic frequency components.

90

Harmonic suppression and fractional-pitch

windings
• Since the resulting voltage waveform is symmetric about the
time axis, no even harmonics are present in the phase voltage

• However, the odd harmonics (third, fifth, seventh, ninth, etc.)

are present in the phase voltage

91

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Harmonic suppression and fractional-pitch

windings
• Third-harmonic component is disappeared from the output
voltage of the machine for three-phase (Y or ∆) connection.

• For example if the AC machine is Y-connected:

𝑒𝑎1 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑀1 sin 𝑤𝑡

𝑒𝑏1 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑀1 sin(𝑤𝑡 − 120°) Fundamental components

𝑒𝑐1 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑀1 sin(𝑤𝑡 − 240°)

𝑒𝑎3 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑀3 sin 3𝑤𝑡

𝑒𝑏3 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑀3 sin(3𝑤𝑡 − 3𝑥120°) Third-harmonic components 𝑒𝑎3 𝑡 = 𝑒𝑏3 𝑡 = 𝑒𝑐3 𝑡

𝐸𝑀1 (They are equal !)
𝑒𝑐3 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑀3 sin(3𝑤𝑡 − 3𝑥240°) 𝐸𝑀3 =
3 92

Harmonic suppression and fractional-pitch

windings
• Third-harmonic component is disappeared from the Y-connected
A output of the machine:
eab
B

+
ea3 +
~ ~
+ ea1 eb3
+ 𝑒𝑎𝑏 = 𝑒𝑎1 + 𝑒𝑎3 − 𝑒𝑏1 − 𝑒𝑏3
~ ~ eb1
eca ebc

𝑒𝑎𝑏 = 𝑒𝑎1 − 𝑒𝑏1

~ ec1
+ • Third harmonic components disappear from the
~ ec3 line-to-line voltage of the AC machine
+
C
• Third harmonic components also disappear
Y-connected stator of AC machine
from other line-to-line voltages (𝑒𝑏𝑐 and 𝑒𝑐𝑎 )
93

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Harmonic suppression and fractional-pitch

windings
• Third-harmonic component is disappeared from the ∆-connected
output of the machine:
C
𝐼 ⇒ circulating current (loop current) in delta

• Applying KVL to delta:

ebc
eca 𝑒𝑐1 + 𝑒𝑐3 − 𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 . 𝐼 − 𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 . 𝐼 + 𝑒𝑏3 + 𝑒𝑏1 −𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 . 𝐼 + 𝑒𝑎3 +𝑒𝑎1 = 0
𝑰

• Since 𝑒𝑎1 + 𝑒𝑏1 + 𝑒𝑐1 = 0, (balanced), the following

equation is obtained for loop current:
B
rphase start eab
A 𝑒𝑎3 + 𝑒𝑏3 + 𝑒𝑐3 3𝑒𝑎3 𝑒𝑎3
𝐼= = =
∆-connected stator 3𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 3𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒

94

Harmonic suppression and fractional-pitch

windings
𝑒𝐵 + 𝑒𝑐1 + 𝑒𝑐3 − 2𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 . 𝐼 + 𝑒𝑏3 + 𝑒𝑏1 = 𝑒𝐶
C

𝑒𝐵 − 𝑒𝐶 = −𝑒𝑐1 − 𝑒𝑐3 + 2𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 . 𝐼 − 𝑒𝑏3 − 𝑒𝑏1

ebc 0
eca 𝑒𝐵 − 𝑒𝐶 = −𝑒𝑐1 − 𝑒𝑏1
𝑰
LL voltage

B
rphase eab • Third harmonic components disappear from the line-to-
A line voltage of the AC machine
∆-connected stator
• Third harmonic components also disappear from other
line-to-line voltages
95

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Harmonic suppression and fractional-pitch

windings
• We see that the third-harmonic components are removed from the line-to-line voltages.

• Also any multiple of the third-harmonic components (such as the 9th, 12th, etc…) are also eliminated from the line-to-
line voltages.

• These special harmonic frequencies are called “triplen harmonics” and are automatically eliminated in three-phase
machines (either Y or ∆ connected)

• So, the remaining harmonic frequencies at machine terminals are 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, etc…

• The most strong harmonics are 5th and 7th. Because their magnitude is greater then other harmonics (11th, 13th , etc…)

• Fractional-pitch windings on the stator can be used to suppress these harmonics at the terminals of AC machines.

• If they are effectively eliminated, then the machine's output voltage waveform would be essentially a pure sinusoid at
the fundamental frequency (50 or 60 Hz).
96

Harmonic suppression and fractional-pitch

windings
How can some of the harmonic content of the winding's terminal voltage be eliminated using fractional windings ?

• Assume a coil spans 𝝆 electrical degrees at its fundamental frequency (50 or 60 Hz);

• It will span 𝟐𝝆 electrical degrees at its second-harmonic frequency,

• It will span 𝟑𝝆 electrical degrees at its third-harmonic frequency,

• So the pitch factor at the harmonic order 𝝑 can be written as follows:

𝜗𝜌
𝑘𝑝 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2

• The pitch factor of a winding is different for each harmonic frequency

• By a proper choice of coil pitch it is possible to almost eliminate harmonic frequency components at the output
97

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Harmonic suppression and fractional-pitch

windings: An Example
Question: A three-phase, two-pole stator has coils with a 5/6 pitch. What are the pitch factors for the harmonics
present in this machine's coils? Does this pitch help suppress the harmonic content of the generated voltage?

360° 360°
𝜌𝑝 = = = 180° (pole pitch)
𝑃 2

5
𝜃𝑚 ∗ 180°
𝜌= . 180° = 6 . 180° = 150° (coil pitch)
𝑃𝑝 180°

98

Harmonic suppression and fractional-pitch

windings: An Example
150°
Pitch factor at fundamental frequency: 𝑘𝑝 = sin = 0.9659
2

3 ∗ 150°
Pitch factor at third harmonic frequency: 𝑘𝑝 = sin = −0.7071
2

5 ∗ 150°
Pitch factor at fifth harmonic frequency: 𝑘𝑝 = sin = 0.2588
2

Pitch factor at seventh harmonic frequency: 7 ∗ 150°

𝑘𝑝 = sin = 0.2588
2

Pitch factor at ninth harmonic frequency: 9 ∗ 150°

𝑘𝑝 = sin = −0.7071
2

99

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Harmonic suppression and fractional-pitch

windings: An Example
𝜌 = 150°

𝜌 = 180°

The line-to-line output voltage of a three-phase generator with full-pitch and fractional-pitch windings. Although
the peak voltage of the fractional-pitch winding is slightly smaller than that of the full-pitch winding its output
voltage is much purer 100

Induced Voltage in a Three-Phase Set of Coils

• Three coils (each has 𝑵𝒄 turns) are placed in stator around the rotor magnetic field as shown in the Figure.
• The induced voltages in stator at each phase are given as follows:

𝑒𝑎𝑎′ 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑐 ∅𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡

𝑒𝑏𝑏′ 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑐 ∅𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 120°

𝑒𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑐 ∅𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 240°

• A three-phase set of voltages (hence currents) generates a uniform rotating magnetic field in the AC machine.
• A uniform rotating magnetic field generates a three-phase set of voltages in stator of the AC machine.

101

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The RMS Voltage in a Three-Phase Stator

• Phase-A induced instantaneous voltage in stator:

𝑒𝑎𝑎′ 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑐 ∅𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡

• Peak value of this voltage:

𝑒𝑎𝑎′ (𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘) = 𝑁𝑐 ∅𝑤

• RMS value of this voltage:

𝑁𝑐 ∅𝑤 𝑁𝑐 ∅2𝜋𝑓
𝑒𝑎𝑎′ (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = = = 2𝑁𝑐 ∅𝜋𝑓
2 2

• Since stator is balanced:

𝑒𝑎𝑎′ (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑒𝑏𝑏′ (𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑒𝑐𝑐 ′(𝑅𝑀𝑆)

102

Stator connection as Wye (Y)

• If stator is Wye (Y) connected, phase voltages (line-to-neutral [LN]) of stator:

𝑒𝐴𝑁 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑐 ∅𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡
𝑒𝐵𝑁 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑐 ∅𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 120° 𝑒𝐴𝑁 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑒𝐵𝑁 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑒𝐶𝑁 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑒𝐿𝑁 𝑅𝑀𝑆

𝑒𝐶𝑁 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑐 ∅𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 240°

(N)
• The line voltages (line-to-line [LL]) of stator: A
a
𝑒𝐴𝐵(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑒𝐵𝐶(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑒𝐶𝐴(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 3. 𝑒𝐿𝑁(𝑅𝑀𝑆) b’ a' C
b c’ c
B

103

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Stator connection as Delta (∆)

• If stator is Delta (∆) connected, phase voltages of stator:

𝑒𝑎𝑎′ 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑐 ∅𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡
𝑒𝑏𝑏′ 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑐 ∅𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 120° 𝑒𝑎𝑎′ 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑒𝑏𝑏′ 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑒𝑐𝑐′ 𝑅𝑀𝑆

𝑒𝑐𝑐′ 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑐 ∅𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 240°

b’ a A
• The line voltages (line-to-line [LL]) of stator:

𝑒𝐴𝐵(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑒𝐵𝐶(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑒𝐶𝐴(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑒𝑎𝑎′(𝑅𝑀𝑆) b a' C

c’ c
B

104

Stator connection as Delta (∆)

• If stator is Delta (∆) connected, phase voltages of stator:

𝑒𝑎𝑎′ 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑐 ∅𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡
𝑒𝑏𝑏′ 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑐 ∅𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 120° 𝑒𝑎𝑎′ 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑒𝑏𝑏′ 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑒𝑐𝑐′ 𝑅𝑀𝑆

𝑒𝑐𝑐′ 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑐 ∅𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 240°

b’ a A
• The line voltages (line-to-line [LL]) of stator:

𝑒𝐴𝐵(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑒𝐵𝐶(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑒𝐶𝐴(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑒𝑎𝑎′(𝑅𝑀𝑆) b a' C

c’ c
B

105

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Example:
(N)
Question: A three-phase stator is Y-connected as shown in the figure. The stator diameter A
and coil length are 0.5 m and 0.3 m, respectively. There are 15 turns per coil. The stator a
has two poles and the peak value of the flux density of the machine is 0.2 T. If the speed of b’ a' C
the rotor (not shown in the figure) is adjusted to 3600 r/min (rpm), answer the following b c’ c
questions: B

a) Express the phase voltages (LN-voltages) of the stator in time domain and plot them as
a function of time for two cycles.

Solution:
120𝑓𝑒 𝑛𝑚 𝑃 3600𝑥2
𝑛𝑚 = ➔ 𝑓𝑒 = = = 60 𝐻𝑧➔ 𝑤𝑒 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑒 = 2𝜋60 = 376.9911 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑃 120 120

∅ = 𝐵. 𝐴 = 0.2𝑇 ∗ 0.5 ∗ 0.3𝑚 = 0.03 𝑊𝑏

106

Example:
𝑒𝑎𝑁 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑐 ∅𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 = 15x0.03x376.9911sin 376.9911t = 169.65sin(376.9911t) (volts)
(we assume
𝑒𝑏𝑁 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑐 ∅𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 120° = 169.65sin 376.9911t − 2π/3 (volts) positive
sequence)
𝑒𝑐𝑁 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑐 ∅𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − 240° = 169.65sin 376.9911t − 4π/3 (volts)

107

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Example:
(b) Calculate the rms value of the phase voltages of stator (N)
A
Solution: a
b’ a' C
169.65
𝑒𝐴𝑁(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑒𝐵𝑁(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑒𝐶𝑁(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = = 119.96 Volts b c’ c
2 B

c) Calculate the rms value of the stator terminal voltage.

Solution:

Terminal voltage = Line-to-line voltage IMPORTANT

𝑒𝐴𝐵(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑒𝐵𝐶(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑒𝐶𝐴(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 119.96 ∗ 3 = 207.77 Volts

108

Winding Insulation of AC Machines

• Winding insulation is one of the most important part of AC machine design.
• If the insulation of an AC motor/generator breaks down, the machine shorts out.
• The repair of the machine with shorted insulation is very expensive.
• Overheating (overloading the machine) is the cause of the winding insulation from breaking down .
• It is necessary to limit the temperature of the windings.
• This can be partially done by providing a cooling air circulation over them.
• The maximum winding temperature limits the maximum power that can be supplied continuously by the machine.

Electrical winding is necessary

✓ To isolate the conductors in each winding
Healthy stator ➔
✓ To isolate the windings from each other
✓ To isolate all windings from stator

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Winding Insulation of AC Machines

• The increase in temperature produces a gradual degradation (slow declination) of the insulation.

• Mechanical shock/vibration, or electrical stress (electric field) are the other factors for the insulation degradation.

• The life expectancy of a motor is generally halved for each 10 percent rise in temperature above the rated
temperature of the winding.

• To standardize the temperature limits of machine insulation, the National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(NEMA) in the United States has defined a series of insulation system classes: Class A, B, F, H

• Similar standards have been defined by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and by various national
standards organizations in other countries.

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(NEMA Standard MG 1-1993)

Mean life of a machine in thousands of hours versus the temperature of the windings, for several
different insulation classes 112

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IEC 60034-1 Insulation Class

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Some examples to winding insulation failure

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Some examples to winding insulation failure

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Power Flow in AC Machines

• AC generators convert mechanical power into electrical power.
• AC motors convert electrical power into mechanical power.
• There is always some losses (electrical/mechanical) in either AC motors and generators, given by the equation:

𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑃𝑖𝑛 > 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 )

• The efficiency of an AC machine is defined by the following equation:

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
η= 𝑥100% (Efficiency is usually represented by Greek symbol “eta”)
𝑃𝑖𝑛

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 is the output power of the AC machine (W, kW, MW)

𝑃𝑖𝑛 is the output power of the AC machine (W, kW, MW)

0 ≤ η ≤ 100%
(Efficiency can not be greater than 100% or negative)
0≤η ≤1
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Losses in AC Machines
• There are generally four types of losses that occur in AC machines:

✓ Electrical or copper losses (I2R losses)

✓ Core losses
They all decreases efficiency. Hence
✓ Mechanical losses machine design stage is very important in
order to reduce/minimize these losses
✓ Stray losses

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Electrical Losses
• Electrical or copper losses are the resistive heating losses that occur in the stator (armature) and rotor (field)
windings of the machine.

• The stator copper losses (SCL) in a three-phase AC machine are given by the equation:

𝑃𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 3𝐼𝐴 2 𝑅𝐴

𝐼𝐴 is the armature current of each phase of the stator

𝑅𝐴 is the per-phase armature resistance of the (stator)

• The rotor copper losses (RCL) of a synchronous AC machine are given by the following equation:

𝑃𝑅𝐶𝐿 = 𝐼𝐹 2 𝑅𝐹

𝐼𝐹 is the field current flowing through the field circuit on the rotor of the AC synchronous machine
𝑅𝐹 is the resistance of the field winding on the rotor
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Core Losses
• The core losses are the summation of hysteresis losses and eddy current losses occurring in the metal
structure (both for rotor and stator) of the AC machine.

• Core losses vary as the square of the flux density (B2).

• For the stator, core losses are the 1.5 power of the speed of rotating magnetic field (n1.5).

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Mechanical and Stray Losses

• The mechanical losses in an AC machine are the losses associated with mechanical rotation.
• There are two basic types of mechanical losses:
✓ Friction
✓ Windage
• Friction losses are caused by the friction of the bearings in the AC machine.
• Windage losses are caused by the friction between the moving parts of the machine and the air inside the
motor's casing. Windage losses vary as the cube of the speed of rotation of the machine.

Stray losses (miscellaneous

Motor bearing losses) are the losses that
cannot be placed in one of
the previous categories.
For most AC machines,
stray losses are taken by
convention to be 1 percent
of full load.
Bearings 120

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Power-Flow Diagram of Three-Phase AC Generator

(Converted electrical power) 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 . 𝑤𝑚

(input mechanical power)

(Net electrical power output)

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Power-Flow Diagram of Three-Phase AC Motor

(Converted mechanical power) 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 . 𝑤𝑚

(Net mechanical power output)

(input
electrical power)

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Voltage Regulation of the Generator

• Voltage regulation (VR) is a measure of the ability of a generator (AC/DC) to keep a constant voltage at its
terminals as the load varies.

• Voltage regulation is a performance indicator that is used to compare the generators.

• Voltage regulation is calculated by the following equation:

𝑉𝑁𝐿 − 𝑉𝐹𝐿
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑥100%
𝑉𝐹𝐿

𝑉𝑁𝐿 is the No-Load voltage (LL or LN) of the generator

𝑉𝐹𝐿 is the Full-Load (rated-load) voltage (LL or LN) of the generator

• A small voltage regulation is "better" in the sense that the voltage at the terminals of the generator is more
constant with variations in load.
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Speed Regulation of the Motor

• Speed regulation (SR) is a measure of the ability of a motor to keep a constant shaft speed as load varies.

• Speed regulation is a performance indicator that is used to compare the motors.

• Speed regulation is calculated by the following equation:

𝑛𝑁𝐿 − 𝑛𝐹𝐿
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑥100%
𝑛𝐹𝐿

𝑛𝑁𝐿 is the No-Load speed of the motor

𝑛𝐹𝐿 is the Full-Load (rated-load) speed of the motor

• SR is a rough measure of the shape of a torque-speed characteristics of the motor.

• A positive SR means that a motor's speed drops with increasing load. (common behavior)
• A negative SR means that a motor 's speed increases with increasing load. (not common behavior)
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END OF CHAPTER 1

AC MACHINERY FUNDAMENTALS

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