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Title: The new air world

The science of meteorology simplified

Author: Willis Luther Moore

Release date: January 15, 2025 [eBook #75114]

Language: English

Original publication: Boston: Little, Brown, and company, 1922

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THE NEW AIR WORLD
FIG. 4.—INSTRUMENT SHELTER. Frontispiece.
(Page 66)
 THE
NEW AIR WORLD
The Science of Meteorology
Simplified
BY

WILLIS LUTHER MOORE, SC.D., LL.D.

PROFESSOR METEOROLOGY GEORGE WASHINGTON
UNIVERSITY, EIGHTEEN YEARS CHIEF
UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU

BOSTON
LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY
1922
 Copyright, 1922,
BY LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY.

All rights reserved

Published October, 1922

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

 AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED

TO
A FRIEND OF MANY AND PLEASANT YEARS
A BELOVED TEACHER AND A

GREAT CHEMIST

DR. CHARLES E. MUNROE, PH.D.

 INTRODUCTION

The author’s “Descriptive Meteorology” (Appleton, 1914) is designed for

the teaching of those who intend to make Meteorology a profession. This
book is planned for the reading of those who desire to know something of
the wonders of the New Air World into which man is just now entering, for
those who desire to become weatherwise and make forecasts for
themselves, and to apply their knowledge to their business, their health, and
their happiness; and for the reading of the more advanced pupils of the
public schools.
So far as possible technical terms are avoided and an effort made to tell a
simple story that will awaken curiosity and lead the reader to wish to know
more and more of the mysteries of the atmosphere, of which practically
nothing was known at the time of the landing of the Pilgrims, Torricelli not
having discovered the barometer until twenty-three years later. It will be
made plain how atmospheric air was formed, how long it will remain,
whither it will go, how it is heated, cooled, and lighted; where and how
storms, cold waves, clouds, frosts, and fair-weather conditions originate and
how move; how the cyclone, the tornado, and the thunderstorm may be
recognized on the Daily Weather Map of the Government and their future
activities forecast; how a fund of simple yet wonderful information that will
be of inestimable value may be acquired by any intelligent person.
The author acknowledges courtesies extended to him by Prof. Charles F.
Marvin, present chief of the Weather Bureau, and by R. H. Weightman,
chief clerk of the Bureau, in the matter of securing several important
illustrations; and like favors extended to him by D. Appleton and Company,
John Wiley & Sons, and the Taylor Instrument Company, of Rochester, N.
Y.
W. L. M.
AUGUST, 1922
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
INTRODUCTION vii
I ATMOSPHERES OF THE EARTH, THE SUN, AND THE PLANETS 1
II A SYNOPTIC PICTURE OF THE AIR 7
III EXPLORATIONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE 18
IV EARTH’S FOUR ATMOSPHERES 29
V LIGHT, HEAT, AND TEMPERATURE 48
VI THE ADVANTAGE OF TAKING WEATHER OBSERVATIONS AND APPLYING THEM TO ONE’S
PERSONAL NEEDS 64
VII FROST 85
VIII WIND AND PRESSURE OF THE GLOBE 98
IX HOW TO FORECAST FROM THE DAILY WEATHER MAP 112
X CLIMATE 161
XI HOW CLIMATE IS MODIFIED AND CONTROLLED 188
XII CIVILIZATION FOLLOWS THE STORM TRACKS 213
XIII HAS OUR CLIMATE CHANGED? 225
XIV CLIMATES FOR HEALTH AND PLEASURE 245
XV CONDENSATION 282
XVI DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN WEATHER SERVICE 291
INDEX 307
 LIST OF FIGURES

Instrument Shelter (Figure 4) Frontispiece

FIGURE PAGE
1. Winter and Summer Vertical Temperature Gradients, in degrees Centigrade and
Fahrenheit 12
2. Showing light from lamp a passing into dust-free air at b, and passing out at c
without illuminating the interior 46
3. Standard Weather Bureau Kite 64
5. Comparison of the Thermometer Scales 67
6. Dry and Wet Bulb Thermometers 68
7. Mercurial Barometer 78
8. Continuous records of the temperature from 4 P.M. to 9 A.M. 87
9. Continuous records of the temperature 5 feet and 35 feet above ground on a
tower in a pear orchard 95
10. Average dates of last killing frost in Spring 96
11. Average dates of first killing frost in Fall 97
12. Trade wind circulation 99
13. Average surface winds and pressure of the globe 102
14. How winds would blow into a cyclone on a non-rotating earth 108
15. Deflection of wind due to earth’s rotation 109
16. Annual, summer, and winter wind velocities with altitude 110
17. Tornado Cloud 145
18. The St. Louis Tornado of May 27, 1896, Shot a Pine Scantling through the Iron
Side of the Eads Bridge 147
19. The St. Louis Tornado of May 27, 1896, Shot a Shovel Six Inches into the Body
of a Tree 147
20. The St. Louis Tornado Drove Straws One half Inch into Wood 149
21. Equinoxes, March 21 and September 22 163
22. Summer Solstice, June 21 164
23. Winter Solstice, December 21 164
24. Winter and Summer Solstices, and the Equinoxes 165
25. As angle of incidence decreases from 90° to 10° the heat received on upper end 165
of blocks is spread over greater area at bottom, and its temperature
 diminished
26. Altitude attained by Sun at midday and length of its track above the horizon at
the Summer and Winter Solstices and at the two Equinoxes 167
27. Summer day and Summer night temperatures in the same narrow valley 204
28. Average Monthly Temperature and Rainfall of Typical Places in North America 207
29. Average Monthly Temperature and Rainfall of Typical Places in the Old World 208
30. Changes in Climate in California during the Christian Era 237
31. Snow Crystals 286
 LIST OF CHARTS

CHART PAGE
1. High and Low Centers of Action and Prevailing Winds of the Globe for July 99
2. High and Low Centers of Action and Prevailing Winds of the Globe for January 100
3. Winter Storm, December 15, 1893, 8 A.M. 114
4. Winter Storm, December 15, 1893, 8 P.M. 116
5. Winter Storm, December 16, 1893, 8 A.M. 118
6. Cold Wave Zones, March to November. Amount of Fall and Verifying Limit 127
7. Cold Wave Zones, December, January, and February. Amount of Fall and Verifying
Limit 128
8. Lowest Temperatures in the United States, 1871-1913 129
9. Number of Cold Waves, 1904-1914, Inclusive 130
10. Storm Tracks for August for Ten Years 132
11. Storm Tracks for February for Ten Years 134
12. Average Maximum Temperature for July 195
13. Ocean Currents 196
14. Mean Annual Isotherms 200
15. Normal Wind Direction and Velocity for January and February 202
16. Normal Wind Direction and Velocity for July and August 204
17. Map of Climatic Energy 221
18. Density of Population in the United States, 1910 222
THE NEW AIR WORLD
 CHAPTER I

ATMOSPHERES OF THE EARTH, THE SUN,

AND THE PLANETS

How Atmospheres Are Formed. Once there were no such things on the
earth as hills and mountains, singing brooks, roaring rivers and vast oceans;
and the delicately hued landscape, with its winding roads, hedges, flowers,
green fields, and golden grain, had not evolved from the atmosphere. The
earth had not yet cooled down to the condition of a solid crust, everything
that the eye now sees existed in the form of invisible gases, or as clouds
incandescent with white heat. Fiery blasts swirled over the face of the earth.
Storms a million times more powerful than the most destructive West
Indian hurricane of the present day moved through the indescribably hot
atmosphere, throwing down not rain as we understand it, but liquid earth
and metal, as their rising clouds ascended and cooled. It is difficult for the
human mind to grasp the wonders of this.
Small planets cool quicker than large ones and sooner come to the
conditions of a crust and to a temperature suitable for the development of
the various forms of life.
Atmosphere of the Sun. To the unaided eye it appears as a smooth,
bright, quiescent sphere, but the telescope reveals millions of agitations and
hundreds of red flames that shoot outward to distances of hundreds of
thousands of miles. One can form no adequate picture of the convulsions of
the atmosphere of the sun. During eclipses, when the intense glare of its
center is obscured, hydrogen flames may be seen darting outward for as
much as a million miles.
Lifeless Planets. The larger a planet the longer is the time that must
elapse before the hot vapors of rock and metal, which largely compose its
early atmosphere, cool and congeal into a crust, leaving as a residual an
atmosphere of such heat, density, and composition as to permit of the
beginnings of the forms of life that have inhabited the world. Before the sun
can reach this condition, an indescribable period will have elapsed, its light
will have gone out, its heat will have ceased to reach the earth and the other
planets in quantities sufficient to maintain life, the earth will have been
dead millions of years, and the sun itself will only receive heat and light
from the feeble rays of the stars that, unlike itself, have not yet ceased to
shine. But even then the sun ever must remain dead, for there is no external
source whence it may receive heat. No vegetation can adorn it, no water
flow upon its surface, neither can the foot of any man press its soil.
Jupiter, and perhaps Neptune, Uranus, and Saturn, have hot atmospheres
still in violent agitation,—molten surfaces composed of all kinds of matter,
from which bubble and boil off hot clouds of vapor that surge about in huge
eddies or cyclonic storms, and that here and there are shot outward in
tongues of fire. The earth millions of years ago had a similar atmosphere.
But when the heat energy of these vaporous planets wanes, and they cool
down, as the earth did many years ago, the simplest forms of life cannot be
evolved upon them, for they are too far away from the sun to receive life-
giving heat. Mars receives less than half the intensity of the solar rays that
come to the earth, Jupiter only 0.037, Saturn 0.011, Uranus 0.003, and
Neptune 0.001.
In due time—some hundreds of millions of years—the cooling of the sun
will leave the earth to freeze and all life to become extinct, unless,
perchance, the oxygen of the air is so far absorbed by its rocks, or filtered
away into space, as to destroy life before that time. No matter what may be
the achievements of the human mind, what wonderful civilizations may be
developed, what powerful empires created, or what wonderful secrets of
creation discovered, it seems certain that these all will pass away, and
finally the surface of the earth be as if man never lived. The dust of ages
will wipe out and obliterate every trace and vestige of the operations of life.
Silence, cold, and darkness will then reign supreme. But the time of this is
indescribably far off in the future, and man will have ample opportunity to
develop to the highest mental and spiritual estates of which he has inherent
possibilities.
The moon already is dead. If it is formed of matter abandoned by the
earth, as we believe, it once must have had an atmosphere, a portion of
which was absorbed by its rocks as it cooled, and the remainder lost as the
result of the low power of attraction of so small a body, which is
insufficient to prevent the darting molecules of the gases of its air from
shooting off into space. The absence of an atmospheric covering allows the
heat from the sun to escape almost as rapidly as it is received; and the long
nights of the moon (each as long as fourteen of our days) during which the
sun’s rays are entirely cut off, permit the temperature of the dark side to fall
to something like -400° F.
How Atmospheres Are Maintained and How Lost. The processes of
nature are always adding to the various gases of the atmosphere in some
ways, and transforming or taking from them in other ways. On the earth the
loss and the gain are so nearly equal as to maintain at present a nearly
constant condition. Marked changes have taken place, however, in long
geologic periods. Our early atmosphere probably contained large quantities
of carbon dioxide which were absorbed by the rank vegetable growth that
now forms the coal beds of the earth, and the slowly cooling rocks that
constitute the crust took in large quantities of oxygen; in fact, nearly one
half of the weight of the crust of the earth is composed of the latter element.
 In consequence it may be said that our present atmosphere is what
remained after the earth had absorbed its gases nearly to depletion, and after
the lighter gases, like hydrogen and helium, which seem to have too great
molecular velocity to be imprisoned by the earth’s attraction of gravitation,
had been lost in space. Gases that cannot be held by the moon may be
imprisoned by the earth and those that can escape from the earth may be
held by the larger planets.
Height of the Earth’s Atmosphere. Exact computation has shown that if
the air were the same density at all elevations, which it is not, it would
extend upward a distance of only five miles. From laws that are well
understood it is known that at a height of thirty miles the atmosphere is only
about one hundredth as dense as it is at the surface of the earth, and that at
fifty miles it is too light to manifest a measurable pressure. The oxygen
ceases at about thirty miles and the nitrogen at about fifty miles, the water
vapor being restricted below the five-mile level. The appearance of
meteors, which are rendered luminous by rushing into the earth’s
atmosphere, and whose altitudes have been determined by simultaneous
observations at several stations, reveals the presence of hydrogen and
helium at a height of nearly two hundred miles.
 CHAPTER II
A SYNOPTIC PICTURE OF THE AIR

How much do you know of the great aërial ocean on the bottom of which
you live and in which human beings are just beginning to fly? Its variations
of heat, cold, sunshine, cloud, and tempest materially affect not only the
health and happiness of man but his commercial and industrial welfare, and
yet few know more than little of the wonders of the life-giving medium that
so intimately concerns them.
At the Height of Two Hundred Miles. Here is only the invisible, the
intangible ether which, while too tenuous to be detected or measured by any
appliances of man, is supposed to transmit the rays of the sun. These rays,
coming in the form of many different wave lengths, and with widely
differing velocities of vibration, produce a multitude of phenomena as they
are absorbed by or pass through the air, or as they reach the surface of the
earth. The longer and slower waves are converted into heat, the shorter and
more rapid ones into light, and the minutest movements probably into
electricity.
Oxygen and nitrogen, which form the greater part of the atmospheric
gases, absorb comparatively little of the solar rays, while water vapor,
which constitutes a little more than one per cent. of the atmosphere and
which remains close to the earth, absorbs large quantities. From the fact that
one half of the atmosphere, including nearly all of its water vapor, lies
below an elevation of three and one half miles, it becomes evident that the
greater part of the absorption of the sun’s rays must take place in the lower
strata. On clear days the atmosphere absorbs nearly one half of the sun’s
heat rays; the remainder reaches the surface of the earth, warms it and in
turn is radiated back into the air,—with this difference: that as earth
radiation the wave motion of the rays is longer and slower than it was when
the rays entered our atmosphere as solar radiation. In this slower form the
rays are the more readily absorbed. The atmosphere is thus warmed largely
from the bottom upwards, which accounts for the perpetual freezing
temperatures of high mountain peaks, although they are nearer the sun than
are the bases from which they rise.
At the Height of One Hundred Miles. The temperature at this altitude
must be that of outside space, probably 459° F.[1] below zero. Air liquefies
at 312° below, and therefore it cannot exist in the gaseous state in a region
having a lower temperature. When it liquefies it has the color and general
appearance of water, and about the same specific gravity.
When a piece of steel and a lighted taper are brought together inside of a
vessel filled with liquid air, the dense supply of oxygen makes combustion
so rapid that the hard metal burns like tinder.
At the Height of Fifty Miles. There is enough air here to refract light
slightly, as at twilight, and to render luminous the meteors that rush with
fearful velocity against its widely scattered molecules. At this distance from
the earth there probably is no more air than would be found under the
receiver of the best air pump, and, the reader will be surprised to learn,
darkness is practically complete, although the hour may be midday, for
there are no dust motes to scatter and diffuse and render visible the light
rays of the sun. (See Chapter III.)
The Darkness of Outer Space. It may be proven by taking an inclosed
volume of air, freeing it of dust motes, of which there are millions per cubic
centimeter, and then trying to illuminate it; it will be found that no matter
how powerful the light directed into it, it remains wholly dark. When one
looks upward on a clear day, he apparently sees the whole universe
illuminated; but in point of fact only the thin stratum of the earth’s air in
which he lives is illuminated. Outer space is practically without temperature
or light. The rays of the sun do not become either light or heat or electricity
until they encounter the molecules of the air, or the invisible dust motes, or
the cloud particles near the earth and through interference are transmuted
from etheric vibrations into other forms of energy.
The Bacteria of Disease and of Putrefaction. These rapidly diminish in
number with elevation, and on the tops of the highest mountain peaks
practically none are found. Mid-ocean also shows but few.
At the Height of Twenty-five Miles. Air, light as it is, has still sufficient
density to obstruct the passage of the minutest wave lengths of light, and
here probably begins to be appreciable the blue tint of the heavenly vault.
At this short distance from the earth there must be a deathlike stillness, for
there is no medium sufficiently dense to transmit sound. Two persons could
not hear each other speak, even if they could live in this rare atmosphere,
which they could not. Here is eternal peace and no apparent motion, for
storms and ascending and descending currents cease long before this level
is reached. The cold is intense and daylight but a feeble illumination. There
are no clouds.
Isothermal Stratum Entered at the Height of Seven Miles. We know
that the temperature decreases rapidly with ascent—about one degree for
each three hundred feet—until the top of the storm level is reached, at about
seven miles, when a most wonderful discovery is made: the thermometer no
longer falls as the aviator rises, or as balloons float to great altitudes
carrying self-registering instruments. The temperature remains practically
stationary, so far as exploration has been made, which is to the height of
over nineteen miles. Major R. W. Schroeder, U. S. A., flew in an aëroplane
to 36,000 feet and recorded a temperature of 69° below zero.
We have named this region above storms the Isothermal stratum. (See
Figure 1.) Its temperature everywhere is about 70° below zero and it
changes only about six degrees between winter and summer. Of course we
must assume that ultimately the temperature shades away to practically
nothing as outer space is reached.

FIG. 1.—Winter and Summer Vertical Temperature Gradients, in degrees

Centigrade and Fahrenheit.

Scientific and inventive genius is becoming so skillful in harnessing the

forces of nature to man’s desires that it is reasonable to anticipate that
within a quarter of a century or less human beings will be nearly as
numerous in the air as insects, they will remain aloft longer, and sail to
vastly greater distances and to higher altitudes. In time dirigible ships may
sail for days and possibly for weeks in the pure air aloft, carrying millions
of passengers.
 At a Height of One and One Half Miles. There is little difference in the
temperatures of day and night, except that the coolest time of the twenty-
four hours is during daytime and not at night, as would be most naturally
supposed. This is important information to an aviator or to the pilot of a
balloon.
At an Altitude of One Thousand Feet. In free air at the hottest time in
midsummer’s heat, the air is found to be as much as fifteen degrees lower
than that at the ground. Almost within arm’s length of the streets of great
inland cities there is a cool and healthful atmosphere when humanity is
sweltering and dying from heat below. Some youth who is reading this may
develop the genius that will lift up whole city blocks into this cool and
healthful region. Open steel work below, the first level at one or two
thousand feet above the hot streets, express elevators to carry passengers,
and the climate of the cool mountain air is accessible to those who now live
in discomfort at low populous centers. Man is just beginning to disport
himself in the hitherto trackless wilderness of the air. Certain it is that the
hanging gardens of Babylon will be outdone in the Twentieth Century and
the eyrie of the eagle left far below by those who will live a part of their
time in elevated structures having bases resting upon the earth; or who will
fly to great distances aloft and remain at whatever altitude furnishes them
the most pleasant and beneficial conditions, and that they may thus remain
not only for days but for weeks without returning to the surface of the earth.
Only during recent years have we realized how thin is the stratum of air
next to the earth which has sufficient heat and moisture for the inception,
growth, and maturity of animal and vegetable life. The raising of the
instrument shelter at the New York station of the U. S. Weather Bureau
from an elevation of one hundred and fifty feet above the street to an
altitude of three hundred feet has caused an apparent lowering of the mean
annual temperature of two and one half degrees.
 Air is so elastic and its density diminishes so rapidly with elevation that
nearly one half of the weight of the entire mass of the atmosphere lies
below the level of the top of Pike’s Peak, which has a height of a little less
than three miles above sea level. It presses with a weight of about fifteen
pounds per square inch of surface, and its pressure is exerted in all
directions, upward as well as downward. An ordinary man sustains a
pressure of over one ton on each square foot of his surface, but as the air
penetrates all portions of his body and exercises a pressure outward as well
as inward he feels no inconvenience. If his body could be so tightly sealed
that no air could enter and if then the air of the interior should be removed
with a pump, his body instantly would be crushed to a shapeless pulp.
A cubic foot of atmospheric air weighs one and one third ounces. Water
is 773 times, and mercury ten thousand times, as dense as air. But air is a
more ponderable substance than many suppose; an ordinary lecture hall
forty by fifty feet and thirty feet from floor to ceiling contains two and one
half tons of air at freezing temperature. It would contain less at a higher
temperature, because heat expands its volume; it would contain more at a
lower temperature, because cold contracts its volume.
Everything Evolved from the Air. Air is so common that we seldom
stop to consider the magnitude of the force it exerts or the grandeur wrought
by this invisible architect of nature. In the great cycle of world building—
birth from the nebulæ, growth, maturity, decay, disintegration, death, and
then possibly back again to the nebulæ—the atmosphere, be it light and
tenuous as at present, or be it filled with the hot vapors of earth and metal,
is the vehicle and the medium of the builder, transporting and transmuting,
in mysterious ways and to wondrous forms, the materials of planets. Its
work as a builder may be further illustrated by showing that the body of
man itself returns not to the earth earthy, as we have been taught, but largely
to the air whence it came. Decomposition is but the liberation of the
aëriform gases of which it is mainly composed; the residue is but a handful
that goes back to mother earth. Let us take the dried corn plant; weigh it,
then burn it in a closed vessel so that none of the ashes can blow away.
Continue the burning until the ashes are perfectly white and it will be found
that the weight of the ashes is only about one twentieth of the weight of the
great stalk, ear, and foliage we began with. What has become of all the rest?
The fire has destroyed it, you say. No, we can destroy nothing. Remember
that; we can destroy nothing that the Creator has made, neither matter nor
force. The fire has simply changed the form of the plant; the nineteen
twentieths that have disappeared have gone back to the air whence they
came.
Thus we see that the body of man, the cereal and fruit that furnish him
food, the structure that gives him shelter, aye, the many things that please
the eye: the landscape, the beautiful flowers, the green fields, the babbling
brooks, even the rose blush on the maiden’s cheek,[2]—really come from
this wonderful fluid surrounding the earth, and well may it be said that the
queen of life rides upon the crest of the wind.
 CHAPTER III
EXPLORATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

DISCOVERIES AS VALUABLE TO THE FUTURE AS THOSE MADE BY COLUMBUS

An entire new world is coming within the range of man’s vision. Its
possibilities for adding to the health and happiness of mankind are almost
limitless. The geographic poles have been conquered and the jungles of
Africa traversed; and deep borings have been made into the bowels of the
earth until heat has arrested further progress. The further exploration of
both regions is of the utmost importance to the coming age. It is not at all
visionary to assume that the heat of the earth’s interior in near time will
furnish the power necessary to do the drudgery of mankind, give warmth
and light to habitations, and operate transportation systems; and the New
World Above offers pure, electrified, and highly stimulating air into which
helium-inflated dirigible balloons will sail, and in which they will remain
not only days but weeks or longer, with their multitudes of people.
While the use of kites and balloons in sending automatic meteorological
instruments far aloft has revealed more of the wonders of this hitherto
uncharted wilderness of cold and partial or total darkness than the general
public is aware of, only the outer fringes of the mysterious regions above
the clouds and the storms have been penetrated.
When the manufacture of helium, a noncombustible gas almost as light
as hydrogen, becomes more general, as seems imminent in the United
States, the dirigible balloon may successfully compete with the railroads in
the carrying of long-distance passengers. The recent loss of over forty lives
in England by the collapse of the dirigible ZR2 probably was largely if not
entirely due to the explosion and fire of the hydrogen gas with which the
ship was inflated.
A decade ago, in a number of Chautauqua lectures, the writer invariably
was greeted with looks of incredulity when he prophesied that within ten
years travelers of the air would take breakfast at the Waldorf-Astoria in
New York and afternoon tea on the banks of the Thames. And yet the ocean
already has been crossed by an aëroplane in continuous flight, and in the
near future it is highly probable that aërial navigation will be safer than
travel by rail or automobile. The hitherto inaccessible parts of the earth will
be sailed over and closely scrutinized, while travelers enjoy the comforts
that heretofore have been associated with Pullman service.
In 1862 the English meteorologist Glashier ascended in a balloon to
about the same height as that attained by Major R. W. Schroeder, U. S. A.,
who achieved a more difficult feat when he flew in an aëroplane to over
36,000 feet. And at Dayton, Ohio, celebrated as the home of the Wright
brothers, on September 28, 1921, Lieutenant John A. Macready, U. S. A.,
reached the unprecedented height of 40,800 feet. These are the extreme
altitudes to which human beings ever have attained, but they are only the
beginning of explorations into a vast and largely unknown and extremely
cold region,—one in which darkness increases with elevation until at the
outer limits of the atmosphere no illumination whatever exists.
The high eastward wind and 69° below zero encountered by Schroeder
are conditions that already had been revealed by the work done at the
research station of the Weather Bureau, at Mount Weather, Virginia, and at
other stations in this country and in Europe, by the sending up of
instruments unaccompanied by observers. Under the direction of the writer
the Weather Bureau liberated numerous small hydrogen gas balloons in the
Rocky Mountain region, to which were attached automatic instruments
registering the temperature, pressure, and the hygrometric conditions. As
they came eastward in the atmospheric drift that always prevails above the
storms in the middle latitudes they attained to great altitudes, one balloon
reaching 19.1 miles, the greatest altitude ever reached at that time by the
appliances of man. Ultimately the balloons would explode as they expanded
under the influence of decreasing air pressure and the case of instruments
would descend slowly under a parachute designed to open at the right
moment. The barometer traced a line on a paper cylinder revolving by clock
works, as did the thermometer. The thermogram gave the temperature that
corresponded with the varying elevation shown by the tracing of the
barogram.
In 1898, twelve hundred observations were made with kites by the
observers of the Weather Bureau at seventeen stations selected by the
writer, during the six warm months from May to October. It was surprising
to find the temperature often losing as much as fifteen degrees with the first
thousand feet ascent during middays of extremely hot periods. The average
decrease in temperature per thousand feet elevation for all stations for all
times, and at all elevations up to 5280, was 4°.
For over five years kites were used nearly every day in the year at Mount
Weather to carry instruments aloft to heights ranging from two to four and
one half miles, and at times to keep the apparatus up during all hours of the
day, so that a comparison could be made of the difference between day and
night temperatures. There is but little difference between midday and
midnight at only a few thousand feet above the earth.
Few are aware that the rectangular kite of the weather man was the
forerunner of the aëroplane of the aviator. In 1903, while directing wireless
experiments in the sending of messages at Roanoke Island, North Carolina,
the writer saw the Wright brothers, or their representatives, lying flat upon
the lower planes of what appeared to be Weather Bureau kites and gliding
in the air from the top of the sand dunes. This was the beginning of real
flight by man. The ingenuity of the Wrights transformed the weather man’s
kite, strengthened it, took out the ends, hitched on a rudder, and when the
petrol engine had developed sufficient power with a given weight, installed
it, and flew.
In the future the meteorologist and the aviator will be closely associated.
With a sufficient number of weather observations made by aviators
simultaneously and well distributed over the United States it will be
possible to construct a daily weather map on some high level—say the
three-mile level—similar to the map now based upon sea level. The
pressure, temperature, wind direction, clouds, and rainfall would be
recorded and charted for the upper region clear across the continent. Three
miles is about halfway to the top of cyclonic storms and probably in the
region of greatest activity. More accurate forecasts would be possible by the
study of this additional weather chart. This coöperation of the bird man and
the weather man in studying the geography of the new air world will mark
an epoch in meteorological science as far-reaching in its consequences as
were the discovery of the barometer by Torricelli and the uncovering of the
principles of the thermometer by Galileo, the former of which was not
known until more than twenty-three years after the landing of the Pilgrims
at Plymouth Rock. Thus swiftly does the mind of man to-day explore the
hidden recesses of nature’s mysteries, and with each conquest carry itself to
a higher realm of existence.
In the not distant future, more storm warnings may be issued by the
Weather Bureau for ships of the air than for those of the sea, for the
navigation of the air must play an increasing and important part in the
coming activities of the world. Science is becoming so skilled in the
harnessing of the forces of nature to man’s desires and in the development
of mechanical appliances, that it is reasonable to anticipate the possibility
that long-distance travel over land or ocean ultimately will be almost
entirely confined to the air.
As the result of the explorations of the atmosphere made by the
institution at Mount Weather there was ready for our fighting air men at the
front, immediately on our entry into the World War, a fund of useful
information concerning a region that but a short time before was entirely
uncharted. The instruments carried by the exploring kites and balloons had
keen scientific eyes and they recorded on clock-timed cylinders what they
saw. Thus did the air pilot know much about the direction and the force of
the wind that he would encounter as he rose, the altitude where he would
pass above clouds, the degree of cold that he would encounter, etc. He was
told that the temperature would fall about one degree for each three hundred
feet of his ascent until he reached the top of the storm stratum at six or
seven miles, and that if he could reach that altitude he would observe a most
wonderful phenomenon: the temperature no longer would fall with gain in
altitude; he would enter a cold but an equally heated stratum, without
finding any temperatures lower than were encountered upon entering the
region, which is always about seventy degrees below zero.
If the aërial explorer could stop his ship and keep it at an altitude of about
one and one half miles for twenty-four hours he would be startled to find
that the coolest time of the period was during the daytime, not during the
night, as he had expected to find it.
In the future the traveler in the upper reaches of the atmosphere will carry
oxygen and make the kind of air that he wishes to breathe, and he will
properly protect himself against the cold of his new world, which he will
find deficient in dust motes and doubtless entirely wanting in the bacteria of
putrefaction and of disease. There will be no clouds to obscure his vision;
no rain or snow. He will not often ascend above the region where there are
not some dust motes to scatter and diffuse a part of the solar rays and give
him at least a partial illumination.
Few persons are familiar with the simple problems of the air which have
such important bearing on the distribution of man into realms above those
he has been accustomed to occupy. They do not know that the northwest
wind brings physical energy and mental buoyancy because it has a
downward component of motion that draws air from above, where it is free
of impurities, and where high electrification has changed a considerable
quantity of its oxygen into ozone, in which condition it remains but a short
time after reaching the lower potential near the earth’s surface. More people
die under the influence of the south wind than under the influence of the
north wind, because the south winds hug the surface of the earth and
become laden with impurities and are lacking in electrical stimulation.
When inventive man becomes more familiar with the ocean on the bottom
of which he has heretofore lived, he will not wait for the north wind to
bring down to him the beneficial conditions that always exist higher up; he
will go after them and remain aloft as long as he desires to do so.
The further development of the dirigible balloon and the aëroplane are
among the most important duties that the engineer of the future owes to
civilization; and the meteorologist must establish the climatology of the
vast untracked regions above the highest mountain peaks, for here man will
largely disport himself in the time to come.
The writer agrees with the opinion of Major William R. Blair, formerly of
his staff when he was the head of the U. S. Weather Bureau, but since the
beginning of the World War the chief meteorological assistant of the Chief
Signal Officer of the U. S. Army when he says:
“With reference to air travel in the future: the present stage of aircraft
development seems to indicate that long non-stop traffic, both freight
and passenger, in the air will be by means of lighter-than-air craft
(balloons). These craft have much larger carrying capacity than any
airplanes now designed and will travel across the continent over several
prepared routes, stopping only at important centers on these routes to
discharge and take up passengers and freight. It is believed that airplanes
(heavier-than-air craft) will ply between these important centers and the
outlying country about them, thus acting as feeders to the main route,
over which the monstrous dirigibles will operate. Most transoceanic as
 well as transcontinental air traffic will probably be carried on in these
large dirigible balloons.”
Lieutenant Colonel Henry B. Hersey, who served through the World War
in the Aëronautical Service of the Signal Corps, U. S. A., and who also was
associated with the writer in the management of the Weather Bureau, says:
“The fields of the dirigible and the air plane are separate and there is
no conflict between the two. For light loads, great speed, and quick
manœuvering, the airplane is supreme. For heavy loads, long distance,
ability to remain in the air for great periods of time, the dirigible is the
only air craft that can fulfill the requirements. Dirigibles will soon be in
use which can start from Europe, sail over New York, and drop enough
poison gas to kill thousands and make practically the whole city
uninhabitable.”
 CHAPTER IV
EARTH’S FOUR ATMOSPHERES

The earth has four important atmospheres and others of less importance.
The principal ones are oxygen, nitrogen, vapor of water, and carbon
dioxide, each comporting itself as it would do if the others were not present.
There is space between the molecules of each gas, and therefore it is easily
compressed. A doubling of its pressure reduces its volume one half.
Composition of Atmospheric Air. It is difficult for the mind to form a
picture of the infinitely small molecules of the air. Let us therefore use
terms and comparisons that will the more directly appeal to the human
senses. First let us imagine each molecule enlarged to the size of a small
grain of sand. Then with the molecules from one cubic inch of air
transformed into grains of sand we could build a roadway ten feet deep and
one hundred feet wide extending from New York to San Francisco. May
one still further grasp the idea of the atom, many of which are required to
make up the molecules? If so, the imagination has been stretched to its
limits to enable the human mind to comprehend some of the simplest facts
with regard to the wonderful fluid in which we live.
Sir William Thomson, afterwards Lord Kelvin, in endeavoring to give
relative values that would appeal to the imagination, said that if a drop of
water were enlarged to the size of the earth, the molecules of which it is
composed would be no larger than cricket balls, and the smallest about the
size of small peas.
More than a thousand years before the birth of Christ a great Phœnician
philosopher believed that all matter—solids, liquids, and gases—was built
up from infinitely small aggregations of atoms. The learned men of Greece
enlarged upon his views but this philosophy passed into oblivion with the
destruction of Rome and the coming of the Dark Ages, and it was not
revived until about one hundred and fifty years ago. The ancients could not
prove their theory, while we to-day can count the atoms and determine their
size and motions; and, exceedingly small though they be, we no longer
believe them to be indivisible in structure. On the contrary, we know that
each atom consists of particles of positive and negative electricity. The
negative electrons arrange themselves about a positive electron for a
nucleus and, rotating about it as if it were a central sun with planets,
constitute an atom. All matter reduced to the ultimate electron is precisely
alike. The difference in matter is determined by the number of negative
electrons that are attracted and held in place by the positive nucleus that is
at the center of each atom of which a particular kind of matter is composed.
Each of the ninety-two elements which we believe constitute the ninety-two
different forms of simple matter has an atom with its own peculiar type of
nucleus, which nucleus differs from those of the others only in the amount
of positive electricity it contains. Thus hydrogen, the lightest of all gases,
whose weight is taken as unity in measuring the magnitude of other gases,
has a nucleus whose positive charge of electricity is only sufficient to attract
one negative electron. The next element, helium, has a nucleus with a
double positive charge and consequently holds two electrons or planets to
pay it homage. In like manner the carbon atom contains six electrons;
oxygen, eight; aluminum, thirteen; nitrogen, fourteen; sulphur, sixteen; iron,
twenty-six; copper, twenty-nine; silver, forty-seven; gold, seventy-nine;
mercury, eighty; lead, eighty-two; bismuth, eighty-three; radium, eighty-
eight; thorium, ninety; and uranium, ninety-two. The chemical union of
these elementary forms of matter creates other forms. For instance, the
union of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen constitutes a molecule
of water. But the gases of the atmosphere are not in chemical union; they
exist in the form of a mechanical mixture, each acting as though the others
were not present.
 It is important that this mixture of gases that constitutes our air be
maintained in the right proportion. Only a slight difference in relative
amounts might be disastrous to life. An increase in the oxygen would
stimulate mental and physical activities and hold the human faculties at a
higher tension. Man would accomplish more in a given time, but his span of
life would be shortened; and too great an increase in the proportion of this
stimulating element would quickly terminate life. Conversely an increase in
the nitrogen would render all life more lethargic and man would be slower
to act and to think; and too great an increase would smother every living
thing.
In addition to the gases named, the air contains small amounts of many
other substances,—argon, nitric acid, ammonia, ozone, xenon, krypton, and
neon; as well as organic matter, germs, and dust in suspension. Over the
land it contains sulphates in minute quantities, and over the sea and near the
seashore salt left from the evaporated spray.
The proportion of each component of the atmosphere by volume of the total
atmosphere is different from its proportion by weight. The percentages for
the more abundant gases are as follows:

BY VOLUME BY WEIGHT
Nitrogen 78.04 75.46
Oxygen 20.99 23.19
Argon 0.94 1.30
Carbon dioxide 0.03 0.05
100.00 100.00

Nitrogen. Its principal functions are to dilute the oxygen and to furnish
food to vegetation. It is inert and does not manifest many marked chemical
affinities. Its lack of activity is shown by the fact that it will neither support
combustion nor burn.
Oxygen. Oxygen, unlike nitrogen, is an active element that readily enters
into chemical combination with many other elements, and it is second in
quantity to nitrogen. With hydrogen it constitutes eight ninths, by weight, of
water; combined with other elements it constitutes forty to fifty per cent. of
the crust of the earth. It burns so readily that were it not greatly diluted by
an inert gas like nitrogen it would be difficult if not impossible to stop a
conflagration when once started. It is the vitalizing principle in all forms of
life. By its chemical union with carbon in the tissues of plants and animals
it develops the energy manifested in their movements.
In the free air up to about seven miles high there is no variation in the
proportion of oxygen. But variations of marked importance to health and
life occur in places where ventilation is restricted, and especially where
living creatures exist in closed rooms, and where combustion occurs in
confined places. The following variations in percentages by volume were
found in careful analyses by Robert Angus Smith: On the seashore of
Scotland, 20.99; open places in London, 20.95; in a small room where a
petroleum lamp had been burning six hours, 20.83; pit of a theater at 11:30
P.M., 20.74; in a court room, 20.65; in mine pits, 20.14. He took samples
from one mine that showed 18.27, the candles going out when the amount
had decreased to 18.50.
The absorption of oxygen by putrid matter and by living beings in the
process of breathing, and the giving out of carbon dioxide by both explain
the deficiency of oxygen that is found over large cities, which is more
marked when the air is moving but little and where the city is located in a
depression or near swampy lands.
Both animals and plants inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide with
the unchanged nitrogen. The process automatically proceeds both night and
day. It should not be confused with the opposite action of plants under the
influence of sunlight in taking in and decomposing carbon dioxide and
expelling pure oxygen.
Carbon Dioxide. It forms the chief food supply of all green-leaved
plants. It is as necessary to the life of vegetation as is oxygen in the
supporting of animal life. In the ratio of seventy-seven to one hundred there
is less of this gas present in the atmosphere in the winter than in the
summer; there also is a diurnal maximum and minimum. In the open
country the amount averages about 0.035 per cent. by volume. In cities the
amount is considerably greater, frequently rising to 0.07, and at times to
0.10 when the wind velocity is too low to scatter the excess amount that
accumulates near the ground. Any quantity in excess of 0.06 per cent.,
especially if combined with the organic matter exhaled from the lungs and
from the pores of the skin by animals and man, is injurious to health. Angus
Smith found as much as 0.32 per cent. in crowded theaters, and 2.50 in
mines. The latter amount soon would destroy animal life.
Vegetation, in addition to the inhalation of oxygen and the expiration of
carbon dioxide at all hours, absorbs the latter during the day, and under the
influence of sunlight the green granular matter that constitutes the
chlorophyll of the cells of the leaves decomposes it, the plant retaining the
carbon and giving out the oxygen. Because of the absence of sunshine the
chemical activities of the plant are altered at night and the absorption of
carbon dioxide ceases; therefore over the land the maximum amount occurs
during the nighttime. This gas is dissolved in sea water and given off with a
rise in temperature, which causes the maximum amount over oceans to
occur at midday.
Carbon dioxide is 1.50 times as dense as an equal volume of atmospheric
air. Its greater density causes it to collect in mines, sewers, cellars, and other
low places, unless there is forceful ventilation.
The American cold wave should be welcomed as the mighty scavenger of
the air. Its high velocity and great density cause it to search into cracks,
crevices, sewers, and cellars and expel foul accumulations. How sweet and
clean the air smells and how vigorous physically and buoyant mentally one
feels after a rain and high winds! All nature smiles and every form of life
adds its pæan of joy. Rain washes out the carbonic acid gas (carbon
dioxide) from the air, with dust and other particles in suspension; and the
cold wave enters our places of habitation and drives out the thieving
accumulations of poisonous gases that would rob us of health and maintain
conditions of morbidity.
It cannot be too forcefully stated that oxygen, the life-sustaining principle
of the air, decreases, and carbon dioxide, a poison, increases in air that is
breathed, or in air in which lamps or gas jets are burning; and that all places
of habitation, especially sleeping rooms, should have a continuous supply
of fresh air.
Water Vapor. It is only a little over one half as dense as atmospheric air.
In the arid regions of the west it may form only a fraction of one per cent.
of the air by weight; while in the humid regions in the eastern part of the
United States it may constitute as much as five per cent. The temperature
being the same, the same amount is required to saturate a given space,
whether it be a vacuum or whether it be filled with air. Air doubles its
capacity for water vapor with each increase of eighteen to twenty degrees.
On a hot day in summer, near large bodies of water, it may constitute as
much as one twentieth by weight of the lower air, while on a cold day in
winter it may form no more than one thousandth part. When the air contains
all the water vapor it can hold, it is said to be saturated; no more can be
added to it until its temperature is raised, and but a slight lowering of its
temperature will precipitate a part of its water vapor in the form of dew,
frost, rain, hail, or snow. This is the reason it is usually called water vapor
instead of a gas. Under the influence of heat that is below the freezing
point, ice and snow may be changed from the solid to the gaseous form, and
water vapor may be precipitated as frost or snow without passing through
the liquid state.
The Dew Point is the temperature of saturation,—the temperature to
which a body of air must be reduced before condensation can occur and
some of its water vapor return to the liquid or solid state.
 The Relative Humidity is expressed in percentages of the amount
necessary to saturate. At a temperature of 32° air may continue to increase
its vapor of water until it contains 2.11 grains per cubic foot, when it will be
saturated and its relative humidity be one hundred per cent. If this same air
be suddenly raised in temperature to 51° its capacity per cubic foot will be
increased to twice what it was at 32°, the 2.11 grains will be equal to only
one half the number necessary to saturate, and the relative humidity be
expressed by fifty per cent. instead of one hundred per cent. In this way
does the capacity of air for water vapor increase. Thus it is seen that the
relative humidity of the air may increase during the cooling of nighttime
without the addition of any vapor of water, and, in fact, with a decrease.
The increase of relative humidity after nightfall is greater in the country
than in the city, where the presence of pavements and brick buildings
retards the loss of heat.
The Absolute Humidity is expressed in grains the cubic foot. The
hygrometer is employed to measure the amount of water vapor.
Hydrogen is the lightest of all known gases. Its density in comparison
with ordinary air is only .0692. It is combustible, and when five volumes of
atmospheric air are mixed with two volumes of hydrogen the mixture
explodes when ignited. It is supplied to the air by active volcanoes and in
other ways, but the speed of its molecules is such that it readily escapes
from the earth’s attraction and passes outward into space.
Ozone (Greek, ozo, I smell) is highly electrified oxygen, in which the
molecules are broken up and reformed so as to contain additional atoms. It
is formed by the disruptive discharge of lightning and by the great amount
of electricity present in the high levels of the atmosphere, and possibly in
minute quantities by the evaporation of fog and water near the earth. It is
always found in the presence of waterfalls and spraying fountains. It is a
powerful sanitary agent, readily entering into union with decaying matter.
This fact accounts for the total absence of ozone from the air of large cities.
 Ozone, in the minute quantities found in nature, is healthful, but when
breathed in a condensed form it has a highly irritating effect on the mucous
surfaces of the respiratory passages, and the quantity is not large that will
cause death. The healthfulness of mountain air may be due largely to the
increase with elevation in the quantity of ozone and electricity in the air, as
well as to the less number of disease germs and dust motes. The
invigorating effects of the crisp air of the frosty morning and of the cold
wave in winter may be increased by the activities of ozone.
Ozone has two daily maxima, the principal one occurring between 4 and
9 A.M. The minima occur between 10 A.M. and 1 P.M., and between 10 P.M.
and midnight. The winter furnishes an amount greatly in excess of the
summer, due not only to the less amount of decaying matter to take up the
ozone in winter, but to the higher and more persistent winds mixing the
lower and upper air. The amount is greater over the sea than over the land,
probably due to the absence of oxidizable matter, which allows the ozone to
accumulate over the water. It is more abundant with westerly than with
easterly winds, due to the fact that westerly winds have a downward
component of motion; but if the westerly winds be weak and the easterly
winds come from over a large body of water the conditions may be
reversed.
Microbes of the Air. The air transports vast armies of unseen workers.
Some are enemies; others are benefactors of the human family. The useful
varieties are energetic in clearing away the refuse of animal and vegetable
life, in fixing fertilizing gases in the soil, in giving flavor to fruits and
proper growth to leguminous crops, in transforming the crudest must into
the best claret, and the poorest tobacco leaf into the fragrant Havana; in
curing cheese and butter and fermenting beer, and in a multitude of other
useful employments. The malevolent varieties, if they gain lodgment in
suitable human tissues before sunlight weakens their virility, disseminate
certain forms of disease.
 In picking a permanent place of abode, remember that there are many
less disease microbes in the air of the open country than in that of the city,
and that few are found in the air of mountains, or in that of the ocean. The
average number of bacteria in a cubic meter of air in the city of Paris has
been found to be 4790, while ten miles away in the country the number was
only 345.
Accurate analyses of the air of crowded tenements always have shown
large numbers of bacteria, but the number was found to be small in well-
ventilated city houses that let in an abundance of sunshine to their interiors.
It is better to have color in the cheeks of the occupants than in the
furnishings of a house. Curtains and heavy drapery not only furnish a refuge
for the microbes of disease, but they may be so hung as to exclude the
purifying sunshine. The amount of sunshine is nearly as important as the
quantity of air, for most of the microbes of disease quickly die, or are
rendered less virulent, under its influence.
Bacteria exist in small numbers, if at all, at altitudes where snow forms,
but snow gathers them as it falls through the lower air. Ice contains bacteria,
but not in any such quantity as the water from which it freezes. Ice forms in
the open at the surface of the water, or about numerous small particles of
matter in suspension, which rise at once to the top as soon as the ice
congeals about them in the form of a buoyant covering; meanwhile
sediment is continually settling to the bottom, carrying bacteria with it. Ice
forms more readily in quiet water, where sedimentation has been most
rapid, and where, therefore, there are the fewest bacteria in position to be
included. More disease germs exist in river water in winter than in summer,
which may be due to the greater disinfecting power of the sun’s rays during
summer.
Dust Motes of the Air. As the earth pursues its course about the sun,
dust rains into its atmosphere from outer space. Meteors that are burned
through the heat generated by striking into our air contribute to the supply,
as do volcanoes, combustion, spray from the ocean, and matter lifted up by
the action of the wind.
Dust from the eruption of Krakatoa was wafted entirely around the earth,
falling upon the decks of ships in all the seas of the world. It affected the
colors of the sky for two or three years after the explosion.
As in the case of microbes, the number of dust particles is far greater in
cities than in the country, being least on high mountain tops and over the
oceans. The air in large cities invariably shows hundreds of thousands of
dust motes to the cubic centimeter, that of the village thousands, and that of
the open country some hundreds. Dust-free air is also germ-free. Many
experiments have shown that air freed of dust motes has at the same time
been cleared of the microörganisms that cause disease, putrefaction, and
fermentation; and that germ-free flesh or liquids may be indefinitely
exposed in such air without fermentation or decay.
How Dust Motes Are Counted. Many of the particles are too small to be
seen by the highest powers of the microscope, yet Aitken, by a most
ingenious method of making them centers of condensation—that is, making
them the nuclei of small raindrops—was able to count the number in a
given volume of air. When ordinary air is saturated and then cooled the
cloud formed is so dense that it is impossible to count the tiny droplets that
form the cloud. But we can make the number of dust particles (and
therefore the number of visible points of condensation) in a given volume
of air as small as we wish by mixing a little dusty air with a large amount of
dustless air, and we can allow the particles to fall on a bright surface and
can count them by means of a lens or microscope. By simply allowing for
the proportion of the dustless to the dusty air, and making a corresponding
allowance for the dilution, we calculate the number of particles.
Dust Motes and Illumination of the Atmosphere. One of the most
important functions of dust motes is the diffusion or scattering of sunlight.
What a different world this would be without these tiny inanimate friends of
man! If there were no dust in suspension in the air, nothing would be visible
except what received direct light, or light reflected from some illuminated
surface, and the air occupying space between illuminated objects would be
practically dark. If the observer be in a room with a powerful electric light
he would see the walls and the objects in the room, but if the air were free
of dust motes, he would find that the space between him and the walls and
between the various objects would be as inky black as is the space between
the twinkling stars on a clear night.
Figure 2 is a cubical box, with a glass
front. If a glutinous substance be spread over
the bottom and the box allowed to remain
quiescent for from five to seven days the
dust motes will slowly settle down and
attach themselves to the bottom. The air then
will be what is called “optically pure.” Now,
if it be taken into a dark room and an
inclosed lamp at a be allowed to send a
beam of light into the window at b and out at
c, it will be found that the interior remains
FIG. 2.—Showing light from lamp a dark no matter how powerful the light from
passing into dust-free air at b, and
passing out at c without illuminating the
the lamp. The light is seen to enter and to
interior. leave but where it encounters the dust-free
air there is nothing to scatter the light rays
and they remain invisible to the eye.
Dust Motes Prolong Twilight. The bending or refraction of light as the
sun’s rays pass obliquely through the air at sunrise and at sunset displaces
the apparent position of the sun, elevating it by an amount about equal to its
own apparent diameter, so that one may see it and receive its light when
geometrically it is entirely below the horizon. A little later in the evening
and its rays fall upon the upper air too obliquely to be bent down to the
earth by refraction; but darkness does not yet ensue, for the rays are
scattered by the dust motes and possibly by the molecules of the gases and
sent downward from particle to particle, resulting in a soft shimmering light
that almost imperceptibly fades away, and which in higher latitudes may
last for hours.
 CHAPTER V
LIGHT, HEAT, AND TEMPERATURE

MORE WONDERFUL THAN ANY FICTION ARE THE FACT OF INVISIBLE LIGHT,
AND THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

The heat that escapes from the earth’s interior is minute in comparison to
that received from the sun, which is the main source of the earth’s supply.
Heat is manifested by the motions of the molecules of matter, whether solid,
liquid, or gaseous. It is transmitted through space in some mysterious
manner, for space is practically void of an atmosphere. One cannot conceive
of motion taking place in a void, for there is nothing to move. Therefore it
is assumed that interstellar space must be filled with a transmitting medium;
to this the name of ether has been given. Nothing is known of its structure,
but it is believed that it penetrates all bodies and fills the space between
their molecules.
How Heat and Light Reach the Earth. The heat of the sun is some
forty-six thousand times as intense as is the heat of the earth. The violent
agitations of the molecules of the sun’s hot atmosphere impart vibrations to
the ether of space, which decrease in effectiveness inversely as the square
of the distance; that is to say, that if the earth were twice as far from the sun
as it is, the intensity of the solar rays would be one fourth of what they are
now. These vibrations are called solar energy. They pass through space
without perceptibly warming or lighting it. When they encounter the
molecules of the earth’s atmosphere, and the dust and cloud in suspension
in the air, or impinge upon the solid matter of the earth, they are transmuted
back into molecular agitations, and manifest themselves in a multitude of
forms, such as heat, light, chemical rays, electricity, etc.
 The Difference between Heat and Temperature. The agitation of the
molecules of a substance set up by the absorption of heat is indicated by
temperature, which gives no measure of the quantity of heat absorbed, the
quantity varying widely for different kinds of matter. The amount of heat
necessary to raise one pound of water 1° F. is the heat unit generally
employed in commerce; but in scientific research the amount necessary to
raise one gram of water 1° Centigrade is the unit of heat best adapted to use.
It is called the gram-calorie.
Let us take a glass filled with boiling water. You see the glass and the
water because they reflect to the eye light waves received from some
source,—possibly the sunlight that is diffused by the dust motes of the air
into the room through the window. But the glass and the water radiate other
waves to which the eye is not sensible; these invisible long heat waves may
be felt by the nerves of the hand. They warm all matter upon which they fall
by adding to the agitation of the molecules of which it is composed; but
they do not warm all matter equally. The waves that reach dark bodies are
broken up; that is to say, absorbed. Their energy is transmuted into sensible
heat, and in the place of the waves we have molecular vibrations in the
matter, which are made manifest by a rise in its temperature. Dark rough
surfaces more completely absorb the waves and therefore rise to a higher
temperature than the same surfaces when smooth. When the waves
encounter bright and highly polished surfaces the effect is quite different;
then most of them are reflected away and therefore warm the matter but
little. These reflected waves are not broken up, but on the contrary start off
in some new direction, possibly falling upon and warming some matter
more receptive to their influence. The higher the polish the more
completely are the waves reflected.
Difference between Light Waves, Heat Waves, and Sound Waves.
The light and the heat waves of the ether are infinitesimal ripples as
compared to the backward and forward pulsations that constitute the sound
waves of the air. Within a space of one inch there are sixty-six thousand of
the violet waves of light, which are the shortest etheric vibrations to which
the human eye responds, and over thirty thousand of the red waves, the
longest that affect the eye; while the sound waves of the air vary from about
one foot for the shrill notes of the human voice to four feet for the middle C
of the pianoforte. A shrill whistle produces waves of about one half inch.
There are twenty-two thousand of certain heat waves to the inch, and these,
like some of the light waves of the ether, are invisible.
There is also a vast difference between the velocity of vibration of the air
waves and those of the ether. The human ear is sensitive to sound waves of
somewhere between twenty-nine per second to thirty-eight thousand per
second; while the eye responds to light waves of from five hundred million
to one billion per second. Some ears are better adjusted to the low
vibrations and some to the high, and the ears of no one hear any but a small
part of the melody of a great symphony. Tyndall could hear the sharp chirp
of thousands of insects that were inaudible to his guide as the two climbed
the Alps, but the guide’s ears responded to the long, slow waves that came
from the dull tread of the donkey’s hoofs farther up the mountain, which
waves the scientist was unable to hear. Likewise some eyes are able to
penetrate far into the violet, or the red, or both, and some are unable to
distinguish between certain colors.
Chemical Rays of Light. The chemical or photographic rays have still
shorter waves than the violet. They produce special physiological effects in
vegetable and animal tissues, and, acting upon particular kinds of matter,
they cause fluorescence, which is the property possessed by some bodies of
giving off, when illuminated, light of a color different from their own and
from that of the light that illuminates them. These chemical rays are
sometimes called ultra-violet rays.
Invisible Light. From a reading of the immediately preceding paragraphs
one may be prepared for the startling statement that there is such a thing as
invisible light. Vibrations of the ether that move slower than those that give
to the eye the sensation of red are invisible, as are those that move faster
than the violet rays, and it is certain that neither the eye of man nor of
animal ever will see but a small part of the beauty of a landscape or the
delicate coloring of a flower. The eye only takes in and renders sensible to
the brain the red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet, and their
various tints, but the delicate instruments of science reveal many other
colors. One sees as through a glass darkly, for the gentle signals that might
reveal the beauties of Paradise fall upon the eye unheeded. A keener vision
and a more complete appreciation of the beauties and the wonders of the
universe await one on the other side of the gauzy veil of immortality. The
finger tips of the outstretched arms may span the river of life and the
ethereal breath of loved ones may be caressing one’s cheek. The music of
the spheres is not a myth; the lily or the rose as it opens its petals to receive
the benediction of the morning sun may give forth a veritable pæan of joy.
A rose bush may be a grander symphony than anything that Beethoven ever
wrote. What to us is the invisible light may be the illumination that guides
the sweep of the angels’ wings.
How Heat Moves through or Is Transmitted by Matter. Heat passes
by contact from the warmer to the colder molecules of a body. This action is
called conduction. When one end of a bar of iron is held in a fire, the end
away from the fire soon becomes too hot to hold in the hand, because heat
is rapidly transferred from the hot portion of the bar to the cooler portion by
conduction, showing that iron is a good conductor. On the other hand, the
end of a stick of wood can be held in the fire until it is completely
consumed without the other end becoming too warm to hold, indicating that
wood is a poor conductor. Metals are the best conductors, silver leading the
list, with copper second. Snow and ice and fibrous and porous substances
are poor conductors, and are called insulators. Air and water are also poor
conductors. The fur of animals and the feathers of birds protect against the
rapid loss of heat because they contain numerous interstices filled with air, a
poor conductor. Heat is lost by radiation when the molecules of matter set
up vibration in the ether. The atmosphere itself performs this function on a
large scale when the sky is cloudless, so that radiated heat is not absorbed
by the cloud covering and its loss into space restricted. When air or water is
not evenly or homogeneously heated a circulation is set up in which the
colder part settles down and the warmer rises. This is called convection.
The air that is heated by contact with a stove rises and passes along the
ceiling to the colder parts of the room, gradually parting with its heat until it
is no warmer than the air next adjacent to it, and slowly settling to the floor
as the cold air beneath it moves toward the stove, is warmed and sent aloft,
the first air finally making a complete circuit and returning to the stove
again. In this way the heat is distributed by convection throughout the
whole room. When one part of the earth’s surface becomes hotter than
another a similar action takes place on a large scale. The region of greater
temperature warms the air above it, and the surrounding denser air flows in
along the surface, forcing the lighter air to rise, when it in turn is similarly
warmed and driven up.
The clear waters of lakes and rivers and of the ocean permit the passage
of heat waves to a considerable depth before they are completely absorbed.
On a cold day in winter, when the sun is shining brightly, a room with
spacious windows may become as warm as though heated by a furnace,
simply by the capacity of the glass in the windows to transmit the heat
waves of the sun without considerable absorption, and at the same time
prevent the escape of the longer heat waves that are radiated from the
interior walls of the room. This capacity of matter to transmit heat waves
without absorption is called diathermancy. The clear atmosphere is an
exceedingly good transmitter, and rock salt is one of the best of all solids.
The capacity of a body to transmit light without absorbing it and
becoming luminous is called transparency. Air freed of dust motes is almost
perfectly transparent. In this state it is said to be optically pure. But the
ordinary air of nature, with its moisture and dust, absorbs most of the blue
wave lengths and also many of the longer ones of the other colors of the
spectrum.
The capacity of a body for heat is called its specific heat. With but few
exceptions the specific heats of liquids are much greater than those of solids
or gases. It requires ten times the quantity of heat to raise a pound of water
one degree that it does a pound of iron. Ice has the greatest specific heat of
any of the solids, except paraffin and wood.
When a solid is melted or a liquid vaporized a large amount of heat
becomes latent, insensible to the touch; it disappears as heat. This is one of
the most wonderful of the phenomena of nature. It matters not how long the
time may be, an hour, a day, a year, or a thousand years after the solid is
melted or the liquid turned to vapor, so soon as the vapor returns to the
liquid state or the liquid to a solid condition, the latent heat becomes
sensible in exactly the same degree in which it previously existed. Let us
illustrate with a pound of ice at zero F. Sixteen heat units, or sixteen times
as much heat as is required to raise one pound of water one degree, must be
absorbed by this pound of ice to raise its temperature to the melting point
(32°); and then one hundred forty-four more heat units must be absorbed to
so far overcome the tendency of the molecules to adhere, or remain
together, that the molecules may roll the one about the other in the liquid
form, but with this important difference: the one hundred forty-four units
become latent and do not, therefore, cause any increase in temperature, as
the sixteen heat units did in raising the temperature of the ice. The large
quantity of heat required to change the ice to a liquid is called the latent
heat of melting. Any further addition of heat after the melting is complete
causes an increase in temperature, and one hundred eighty heat units will
raise it to the boiling point. Water boils at 212° at sea level and normal
pressure; that is to say, at that temperature the agitation of the molecules of
water is so great as to overcome both cohesion and the weight with which
the air presses down upon them, and cause them to fly away in the form of
steam, which is invisible when confined inside a boiler. But the entire
pound of water is not instantly changed to the gaseous condition, for with
the sending off of the first few molecules some heat is rendered latent, and
more must be supplied or the boiling ceases; in fact the enormous quantity
of 964.62 heat units must be supplied to entirely change the pound of water
to steam, but at no time does the temperature rise above 212°. As in the
former case of changing the solid to a liquid, a large amount of heat
becomes latent; in this case it is called the latent heat of vaporization.
Now carefully fix in the mind that a liquid does not need to be raised to
its boiling point before vaporization begins, for it operates at all
temperatures, even after the liquid is frozen, but much more rapidly from
the liquid. If one wishes to test this: weigh a piece of ice during very cold
weather. Then leave it out in a temperature that is below freezing for several
days, and on weighing again it will be found that the ice has lost weight. All
evaporation produces a cooling effect because of the heat that is rendered
latent in the process of changing the liquid or the solid to a gaseous form.
The drier the air the greater is the cooling effected by keeping the surface
wetted, and the cooling is accelerated by placing the wet object where there
is a free circulation of air.
A wooden water bucket that has been soaked for a day or two so that
every part of the wood is saturated with water, will, if kept closed, keep
water all day in the open field practically as cool as when it left the deep
well, and often cooler. Not enough use is made of cooling by evaporation
by those who have not ice in the summer. Inexpensive and fairly effective
refrigerators may be made, by any mechanic, of lattice-work sides covered
with any thick fabric and kept moist, which would keep milk, butter, fruit,
vegetables, and cooked meats in good condition if placed in a hallway with
a good circulation of air, or in any shady place with good ventilation.
Most solids expand with gain in temperature and therefore possess
greater volume in the liquid form than in the solid, and the temperature of
their melting points rises as they are subjected to increasing pressure. The
law reverses when applied to ice, which contracts in melting. To few is it
known that a skater on ice really rides upon water molecules, for the sharp
edge of the skate, when applied to the ice under the weight of one’s body, is
lubricated by the slight melting of the ice in immediate contact with the
skate, the molecules of water returning to the form of ice as soon as the
skater passes and the pressure is relieved. The strange phenomenon may be
witnessed by passing a wire through a block of ice without severing it into
two pieces, by attaching heavy weights to the two ends of the wire and
suspending it across the ice, the ice slowly melting as the result of the
pressure applied by the underside of the wire and freezing molecules
closing the space on top of the wire. By this process do we account for the
moving of glaciers down tortuous valleys as though they were liquids.
Altitude Measured by Change in Boiling Point of Water. The boiling
point of water at sea level and ordinary air pressure is 212°. If the pressure
of the atmosphere were increased to about thirty pounds, instead of about
fifteen to the square inch it would be necessary to raise water to 250° before
boiling would begin. The changes of air pressure due to the passage of the
severe storms of winter may cause the boiling point of water to vary from
207° to 215°. This knowledge may be useful in measuring the heights of
mountains, although the method does not give close results. The decrease of
pressure with altitude lowers the boiling point, the amount being
approximately one degree for each 555 feet of ascent. The best results may
be secured by having a person at the base of the mountain, where the
elevation above sea level is known, determine the boiling point at the same
time that a person on the mountain top does. The thermometers should be
read closely to the fraction of a degree.
With the barometer at its normal height of thirty inches, air at 60° will
instantly rise to the phenomenal temperature of 175.50 if it be confined and
its pressure doubled, and it will diminish to one half of its former volume.
But if its pressure be diminished one half, its volume will expand to double
its original size and its temperature will fall from 60° to 2.4°. From these
facts the reader would naturally expect to find low pressure of the
atmosphere accompanying cold waves and high pressure to be coincident
with warm conditions, which is exactly the reverse of what actually occurs
in the free air of nature. This apparent contradiction will be made plain in
the treatment of cold waves, page 124.
A temperature of -459° on the Fahrenheit scale and -273.1° on the
Centigrade represents what is called absolute zero. It is supposed to be the
temperature at which there is no motion of the molecules of matter. Bodies
or planets without atmospheres have temperatures approaching absolute
zero, for there is no protecting envelope to absorb heat or to prevent the
instant radiation into space of that which impinges upon the body. Our
moon is an illustration, and notwithstanding the fierce beating upon its
surface of the solar energy it remains incased in the intense cold of space.
The thermometer is the instrument that measures temperature. It was not
until eighty-seven years after Columbus discovered America that Galileo
discovered the principle of the thermometer. This first instrument was
crude. It consisted of a glass bulb, containing air, terminating below in a
long glass tube, which dipped into a vessel containing colored water. When
the temperature fell the contraction of the air in the bulb caused the water to
rise in the tube, and when the temperature rose the expansion of the air
forced the water to a lower level. Galileo also invented the alcohol
thermometer in 1611, but the determination of the zero and some fixed
point above it, by which to graduate the scale, took years to evolve. The
modern alcohol and mercury thermometers consist of a bulb filled with the
liquid, and a tube partly filled, the upper part being a tolerably complete
vacuum, allowing the liquid freedom of movement up and down the tube.
When a tube is broken one is surprised to see that the diameter of the bore
is less than that of the smallest fuzzy hair from the back of the hand. The
size of the column of mercury is magnified by the action of light passing
through the glass of the tube.
 Temperatures are usually taken in the shade. The instrument should be
free from all bodies that could conduct heat to it, and it should have free
circulation of air about it.
In a complete meteorological station automatically recording
instruments, too complicated for the use of the layman, record for each
moment of time the temperature of the air and its pressure, the periods of
sunshine, the duration and the amount of rainfall, and the direction and
velocity of the wind.
 CHAPTER VI

THE ADVANTAGE OF TAKING WEATHER

OBSERVATIONS AND APPLYING THEM TO

ONE’S PERSONAL NEEDS

FORECASTS MADE FROM THE ANEROID BAROMETER—COLDS PREVENTED BY
MOISTENING AIR IN LIVING ROOMS—A CRIMINAL HANGED AND AN INNOCENT
MAN FREED BY WEATHER RECORDS

Observations from Kites. It is strange that the Chinese, who have been
flying kites many thousand years, should not have made improvements in
the primitive construction of these devices. It remained for Wendham, in
1866, to perceive the advantage of superimposing two or more planes, one
above the other, for the purpose of securing a larger area of sustaining
surface. After examining Figure 3 almost any one can build an efficient
kite. Heights of two to three thousand feet may be reached by using cable-
laid twine No. 24, but in order to gain great altitudes pianoforte wire must
be used. Soft pine is the best and most available material. Spruce is
stronger, but more difficult to secure. The sticks should be straight-grained.
The cloth may be silk or the stronger and finer grades of cotton. It should be
torn, not cut. The ends will then be true and square with the fiber of the
cloth. Kites are used not only to secure weather observations, but they have
been used to draw sleds in the Arctic region, and to draw wagons and boats.
By adjusting the points at which the pulling cords are attached to the boat
an ingenious sailor is able to proceed nearly at right angles to the direction
of the wind.
 FIG. 3.—STANDARD WEATHER BUREAU KITE.

When it is known that a box kite having only sixty square feet of
sustaining surface, flying at a considerable height, may lift a person of
ordinary size, one is impressed with the idea that vessels of commerce
might employ kites of large dimensions to increase the speed of sailing
ships. The kites would fly in a stratum whose velocity is not restricted by
friction with the surface of the water.
To launch a kite: run out about one hundred and fifty feet of the cord or
wire while the kite is held by an assistant, who should give the kite a toss
upward in the direction in which it must go. It is important that it be cast off
directly in line with the wind. If the wind is light it may be necessary to run
a short distance with a long line out in order to effect a launching.
Voluntary Weather Observers. There are more than three thousand
voluntary or coöperating observers in the U. S. Weather Bureau. They
receive no compensation other than the publications of the Bureau. They
are required to read their instruments but once each day, as maximum and
minimum thermometers record the highest and the lowest temperatures
since they were last read and set. About sunset is the most satisfactory time
for making the readings, since the thermometers will then show both the
extremes for the past twenty-four hours. As a rule but one voluntary
observer is accepted for a county. They are furnished without charge with
maximum and minimum thermometers, instrument shelters and rain gauges,
but not with wind vanes, anemometers for recording direction and velocity
of wind, or barometers. But those who desire to become expert in
forecasting the weather, as all may who study the chapter on forecasting,
should equip themselves with an aneroid barometer, so that they may note
the changes in the pressure of the air.
 COMPARISON OF THERMOMETER SCALES
A little study of the accompanying information and diagram
will enable any one to form a clear idea of the various
thermometer scales and to convert temperatures from one scale
to another.

Table of fixed points.

No. of degrees
Temperature Temperature
between melting
Scale. of of
ice
melting ice. boiling water.
and boiling water.
Centigrade 0 100 100
Reaumur 0 80 80
Fahrenheit 32 212 180

Only Fahrenheit and Centigrade scales are in general use, and

the accompanying plate is designed to enable observers to
convert temperature readings from one scale to the other without
resorting to a mathematical formula.
For accurate and precise reductions between the different
scales the following rules should be used:
FIG. 5.—Comparison of
the Thermometer Scales. 1. To convert Fahrenheit to Centigrade: Subtract 32 and
multiply by five ninths.
2. To convert Centigrade to Fahrenheit: Multiply by nine
fifths and add 32.
3. To convert Fahrenheit to Reaumur: Subtract 32 and
multiply by four ninths.
4. To convert Reaumur to Fahrenheit: Multiply by nine
fourths and add 32.
5. To convert Centigrade to Reaumur: Multiply by four fifths.
6. To convert Reaumur to Centigrade: Multiply by five
fourths.
 An instrument shelter (Figure 4) is employed to screen off the direct and
reflected sunshine, and to keep the thermometers dry. This shelter is a box
with louvered sides, constructed in such form that there is a free circulation
of air through it. It should be exposed in an open space as far away from
buildings as may be convenient, or on a housetop, and be as free from
shadows as possible. If such position cannot be secured, then place it on the
north side of a building.
Comparison of Centigrade and Fahrenheit. Only
Fahrenheit and Centigrade are in general use. Figure 5 is
designed to enable observers to convert temperature
readings from one scale to the other without resorting to
a mathematical formula. For precise reductions the
following rules apply:
To convert Fahrenheit to Centigrade: Subtract 32 and
multiply by five ninths.
To convert Centigrade to Fahrenheit: Multiply by
nine fifths and add 32.
Humidity Affects Health and Complexion. The
importance to health of maintaining a proper humidity
FIG. 6.—Dry and Wet in living quarters during the winter months and during
Bulb Thermometers. all months in the arid and semi-arid regions of the West

is not fully appreciated. Each habitation should be

supplied with one to several hygrometers (Fig. 6), and frequent readings
should be taken of the dry and the wet bulb thermometers so as to be
familiar with the conditions under which one is living.
 RELATIVE HUMIDITY TABLES
Temperature Readings in Degrees Fahrenheit. Relative Humidity Readings in Per Cent.
Barometric Pressure 29.0 inches.

READINGS
OF DRY DIFFERENCE IN DEGREES FAHRENHEIT BETWEEN WET AND DRY BULB THERMOMETERS.
BULB
THERMO-
METER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

20 85 70 56 42 28 14
21 86 71 57 44 30 17 3
22 86 72 59 45 32 19 7
23 87 73 60 47 34 22 10
24 87 74 61 49 36 24 12 0

25 87 75 63 50 38 27 15 4
26 88 75 64 52 40 29 18 7
27 88 76 65 53 42 31 20 9
28 88 77 66 55 44 33 23 12 2
29 89 78 67 56 45 35 25 15 5

30 89 78 68 57 47 37 27 17 8
31 89 79 69 58 49 39 29 20 10 1
32 90 79 69 60 50 41 31 22 13 4
33 90 80 71 61 52 42 33 24 16 7
34 90 81 72 62 53 44 35 27 18 9 1

35 91 82 73 64 55 46 37 29 20 12 4
36 91 82 73 65 56 48 39 31 23 14 6
37 91 83 74 66 58 49 41 33 25 17 9 1
38 91 83 75 67 59 51 43 35 27 19 12 4
39 92 84 76 68 60 52 44 37 29 21 14 7

40 92 84 76 68 61 53 46 38 31 23 16 9 2
41 92 84 77 69 62 54 47 40 33 26 18 11 5
42 92 85 77 70 62 55 48 41 34 28 21 14 7 0
43 92 85 78 70 63 56 49 43 36 29 23 16 9 3
44 93 85 78 71 64 57 51 44 37 31 24 18 12 5

45 93 86 79 71 65 58 52 45 39 33 26 20 14 8 2
46 93 86 79 72 65 59 53 46 40 34 28 22 16 10 4
47 93 86 79 73 66 60 54 47 41 35 29 23 17 12 6 1
48 93 87 80 73 67 60 54 48 42 36 31 25 19 14 8 3
49 93 87 80 74 67 61 55 49 43 37 32 26 21 15 10 5
 RELATIVE HUMIDITY TABLES—Continued
Temperature Readings in Degrees Fahrenheit. Relative Humidity Readings in Per Cent.
Barometric Pressure 29.0 inches.

READINGS
OF DRY DIFFERENCE IN DEGREES FAHRENHEIT BETWEEN WET AND DRY BULB THERMOMETERS.
BULB
THERMO-
METER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

50 93 87 81 74 68 62 56 50 44 39 33 28 22 17 12 7 2
51 94 87 81 75 69 63 57 51 45 40 35 29 24 19 14 9 4
52 94 88 81 75 69 63 58 52 46 41 36 30 25 20 15 10 6 0
53 94 88 82 75 70 64 58 53 47 42 37 32 27 22 17 12 7 3
54 94 88 82 76 70 65 59 54 48 43 38 33 28 23 18 14 9 5 0

55 94 88 82 76 71 65 60 55 49 44 39 34 29 25 20 15 11 6 2
56 94 88 82 77 71 66 61 55 50 45 40 35 31 26 21 17 12 8 4
57 94 88 83 77 72 66 61 56 51 46 41 36 32 27 23 18 14 10 5 1
58 94 89 83 77 72 67 62 57 52 47 42 38 33 28 24 20 15 11 7 3
59 94 89 83 78 73 68 63 58 53 48 43 39 34 30 25 21 17 13 9 5 1

60 94 89 84 78 73 68 63 58 53 49 44 40 35 31 27 22 18 14 10 6 2
61 94 89 84 79 74 68 64 59 54 50 45 40 36 32 28 24 20 16 12 8 4
62 94 89 84 79 74 69 64 60 55 50 46 41 37 33 29 25 21 17 13 9 6
63 95 90 84 79 74 70 65 60 56 51 47 42 38 34 30 26 22 18 14 11 7
64 95 90 85 79 75 70 66 61 56 52 48 43 39 35 31 27 23 20 16 12 9

65 95 90 85 80 75 70 66 62 57 53 48 44 40 36 32 28 25 21 17 13 10
66 95 90 85 80 76 71 66 62 58 53 49 45 41 37 33 29 26 22 18 15 11
67 95 90 85 80 76 71 67 62 58 54 50 46 42 38 34 30 27 23 20 16 13
68 95 90 85 81 76 72 67 63 59 55 51 47 43 39 35 31 28 24 21 17 14
69 95 90 86 81 77 72 68 64 59 55 51 47 44 40 36 32 29 25 22 19 15

70 95 90 86 81 77 72 68 64 60 56 52 48 44 40 37 33 30 26 23 20 17
71 95 90 86 82 77 73 69 64 60 56 53 49 45 41 38 34 31 27 24 21 18
72 95 91 86 82 78 73 69 65 61 57 53 49 46 42 39 35 32 28 25 22 19
73 95 91 86 82 78 73 69 65 61 58 54 50 46 43 40 36 33 29 26 23 20
74 95 91 86 82 78 74 70 66 62 58 54 51 47 44 40 37 34 30 27 24 21

75 96 91 87 82 78 74 70 66 63 59 55 51 48 44 41 38 34 31 28 25 22
76 96 91 87 83 78 74 70 67 63 59 55 52 48 45 42 38 35 32 29 26 23
77 96 91 87 83 79 75 71 67 63 60 56 52 49 46 42 39 36 33 30 27 24
78 96 91 87 83 79 75 71 67 64 60 57 53 50 46 43 40 37 34 31 28 25
79 96 91 87 83 79 75 71 68 64 60 57 54 50 47 44 41 37 34 31 29 26
 RELATIVE HUMIDITY TABLES—Continued
Temperature Readings in Degrees Fahrenheit. Relative Humidity Readings in Per Cent.
Barometric Pressure 29.0 inches.
READINGS
OF DRY DIFFERENCE IN DEGREES FAHRENHEIT BETWEEN WET AND DRY BULB THERMOMETERS.
BULB
THERMO-
METER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

80 96 91 87 83 79 76 72 68 64 61 57 54 51 47 44 41 38 35 32 29 27 24 21 18 16 13 11 8 6 4
82 96 92 88 84 80 76 72 69 65 62 58 55 52 49 46 43 40 37 34 31 28 25 23 20 18 15 13 10 8 6
84 96 92 88 84 80 77 73 70 66 63 59 56 53 50 47 44 41 38 35 32 30 27 25 22 20 17 15 12 10 8
86 96 92 88 85 81 77 74 70 67 63 60 57 54 51 48 45 42 39 37 34 31 29 26 24 21 19 17 14 12 10
88 96 92 88 85 81 78 74 71 67 64 61 58 55 52 49 46 43 41 38 35 33 30 28 25 23 21 18 16 14 12

90 96 92 89 85 81 78 75 71 68 65 62 59 56 53 50 47 44 42 39 37 34 32 29 27 24 22 20 18 16 14
92 96 92 89 85 82 78 75 72 69 65 62 59 57 54 51 48 45 43 40 38 35 33 30 28 26 24 22 19 17 15
94 96 93 89 86 82 79 75 72 69 66 63 60 57 54 52 49 46 44 41 39 36 34 32 29 27 25 23 21 19 17
96 96 93 89 86 82 79 76 73 70 67 64 61 58 55 53 50 47 45 42 40 37 35 33 31 29 26 24 22 20 18
98 96 93 89 86 83 79 76 73 70 67 64 61 59 56 53 51 48 46 43 41 39 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20

100 96 93 90 86 83 80 77 74 71 68 65 62 59 57 54 52 49 47 44 42 40 37 35 33 31 29 27 25 23 21
102 96 93 90 86 83 80 77 74 71 68 65 63 60 57 55 52 50 47 45 43 41 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22
104 97 93 90 87 84 80 77 74 72 69 66 63 61 58 56 53 51 48 46 44 41 39 37 35 33 31 29 27 25 24
106 97 93 90 87 84 81 78 75 72 69 66 64 61 59 56 54 51 49 47 45 42 40 38 36 34 32 30 28 27 25
108 97 93 90 87 84 81 78 75 72 70 67 64 62 59 57 54 52 50 47 45 43 41 39 37 35 33 31 29 28 26

110 97 95 90 87 84 81 78 76 73 70 67 65 62 60 57 55 53 50 48 46 44 42 40 38 36 34 32 30 29 27
112 97 94 90 87 84 82 79 76 73 70 68 65 63 60 58 56 53 51 49 47 45 43 41 39 37 35 33 31 30 28
114 97 94 91 88 85 82 79 76 74 71 68 66 63 61 59 56 54 52 50 48 45 43 41 40 38 36 34 32 31 29
116 97 94 91 88 85 82 79 77 74 71 69 66 64 61 59 57 55 52 50 48 46 44 42 40 38 37 35 33 31 30
118 97 94 91 88 85 82 79 77 74 72 69 67 64 62 60 57 55 53 51 49 47 45 43 41 39 37 36 34 32 31

120 97 94 91 88 85 82 80 77 74 72 69 67 65 62 60 58 56 54 51 49 47 46 44 42 40 38 38 35 33 31
122 97 94 91 88 85 83 80 77 75 72 70 67 65 63 61 58 56 54 52 50 48 46 44 42 41 39 37 36 34 32
124 97 94 91 88 86 83 80 78 75 73 70 68 65 63 61 59 57 55 53 51 49 47 45 43 41 40 38 36 35 33
126 97 94 91 89 86 83 81 78 75 73 71 68 66 64 62 59 57 55 53 51 49 47 46 44 42 40 39 37 35 34
128 97 94 91 89 86 83 81 78 76 73 71 69 66 64 62 60 58 56 54 52 50 48 46 44 43 41 39 38 36 34

130 97 94 92 89 86 84 81 78 76 74 71 69 67 65 62 60 58 56 54 52 50 49 47 45 43 42 40 38 37 35
132 97 94 92 89 86 84 81 79 76 74 72 69 67 65 63 61 59 57 55 53 51 49 47 46 44 42 41 39 37 36
134 97 94 92 89 86 84 81 79 76 74 72 70 67 65 63 61 59 57 55 53 51 50 48 46 44 43 41 40 38 36
136 97 94 92 89 87 84 82 79 77 74 72 70 68 66 64 61 59 58 56 54 52 50 48 47 45 43 42 40 39 37
138 97 94 92 89 87 84 82 79 77 75 72 70 68 66 64 62 60 58 56 54 52 51 49 47 45 44 42 41 39 38

140 97 95 92 89 87 84 82 80 77 75 73 71 68 66 64 62 60 58 56 55 53 51 49 48 46 44 43 41 40 38

A relative humidity of between sixty-five and seventy per cent. should be

maintained in all living and sleeping rooms, if one is to escape colds,
catarrh, and possibly pneumonia. Some nervous disorders are aggravated if
not actually caused by the dryness of the air in steam and other heated
apartments during the time that the windows are closed in cold weather. The
vanity of the female sex is appealed to with the statement that nothing is
more essential to securing and preserving a good complexion than the
maintaining of a proper humidity in one’s own room. Efficient and simple
and inexpensive humidifiers are now coming on the market. They are
almost as necessary to the health of a household as stoves and furnaces.
Often a right degree of moisture can be created by leaving clean water in
the bathtub and in all wash basins and sinks. One may be surprised on
taking humidity observations to find how quickly it increases in rooms two
or three removed from the bathroom after water is run into the tub, and
especially if the shower spray is turned on and allowed to operate for a few
minutes.
In cold weather we maintain the aridity of the Sahara Desert in our hot,
steam-heated apartments, with a relative humidity of less than thirty per
cent. Is it any wonder that when we step from this atmosphere into the cold
outside air, with a humidity of seventy per cent., the violent change is
productive of harm, particularly to the delicate mucous membranes of the
upper air passages, which have been irritated and their powers of resistance
weakened by the dryness within? The period of pneumonia is the season of
artificial heat in living rooms—or, more properly speaking, the period of
indoor desert aridity.
Save Fuel by Moistening Air. If a room at 68° is not warm enough for
any healthy person it is because the humidity is too low, and water should
be evaporated to bring the moisture up to sixty-five or seventy per cent. of
saturation. Water instead of coal should be used to make rooms comfortable
when the temperature has reached 68°. Ten to fifteen per cent. of fuel could
be saved in the heating of places of habitation if the air were properly and
healthfully humidified. The reason for this is that if the air is dry the heat
passes through it and warms it but little. Moisture stops the radiated heat
that would be lost, absorbs it, and holds it at the place where it is needed. It
has precisely the same effect as a soft wool blanket wrapped about the body
of each person. The dry air permits such a rapid evaporation from the
human body that one may actually feel colder with a dry air heated to 75°
than in a moist air at 66° or 68°. Water is cheaper than coal, and in this
matter much more healthful.
 The cooling effect produced by a draught does not necessarily arise from
the wind being cooler, for it may be actually warmer, but arises from the
rapid evaporation it causes on the surface of the skin. Vapor of water forms
a blanket about the earth and prevents it from scorching during the day and
freezing during the night.
How to Forecast Weather with Only an Aneroid Barometer. No one
except an expert observer should use the mercurial barometer. The aneroid
will answer as well for the purpose of forecasting from a single instrument;
it is cheaper and less complicated. First learn your elevation above sea
level; then add to the observed reading of your instrument .10 for each one
hundred feet elevation. Note the fall or rise and the direction of the wind
and with the aid of the table on page 76 highly satisfactory forecasts may be
made by any intelligent person. Skill will come with practice. Write down
your forecasts each day as you make them and the following day note in a
blank space left for the purpose the success or failure of your effort. Thus
will you profit by your mistakes.
As a rule winds from the east quadrants and falling barometer indicate
foul weather, and winds shifting to the west quadrants indicate clearing and
fair weather. The rapidity of the storm’s approach and its severity are
indicated by the rate and the amount in the fall of the barometer. This
applies to the Mississippi Valley and eastward to the Atlantic Ocean.
Conditions are different in the Rocky Mountains, on the plateau of the
mountains, and on the eastern Rocky Mountain slope, where precipitation
seldom begins until after the barometer begins to rise after a fall, and the
winds have shifted to the northwest.
Keep in mind that storms are great atmospheric eddies drifting from the
west, with the winds blowing cyclonically toward the center; that when
your wind is northeast the center of the storm is southwest of you; that
when it is east the center is west; when it is south the center is north; when
it is southwest the center is northeast, and when it is west or northwest the
center is east of you.

WIND BAROMETER REDUCED CHARACTER OF WEATHER

DIRECTION TO SEA LEVEL INDICATED
SW. to NW. 30.10 to 30.20 and steady. Fair, with slight temperature changes, for 1 to 2
days.
SW. to NW. 30.10 to 30.20 and rising Fair, followed within 2 days by rain.
rapidly.
SW. to NW. 30.20 and above and Continued fair, with no decided temperature
stationary. change.
SW. to NW. 30.20 and above and falling Slowly rising temperature and fair for 2 days.
slowly.
S. to SE. 30.10 to 30.20 and falling Rain within 24 hours.
slowly.
S. to SE. 30.10 to 30.20 and falling Wind increasing in force, with rain within 12 to
rapidly. 24 hours.
S. to SW. 30.00 or below and rising Clearing within a few hours, and fair for several
slowly. days.
S. to E. 29.80 or below and falling Severe storm imminent, followed, within 24
rapidly. hours, by clearing, and in winter by colder.
SE. to NE. 30.10 to 30.20 and falling Rain in 12 to 18 hours.
slowly.
SE. to NE. 30.10 to 30.20 and falling Increasing wind, and rain within 12 hours.
rapidly.
SE. to NE. 30.00 or below and falling Rain will continue 1 to 2 days.
slowly.
SE. to NE. 30.00 or below and falling Rain, with high wind, followed, within 36
rapidly. hours, by clearing, and in winter by colder.
E. to NE. 30.10 and above and falling In summer, with light winds, rain may not fall
slowly. for several days. In winter, rain within 24
hours.
E. to NE. 30.10 and above and falling In summer, rain probable within 12 to 24 hours.
rapidly. In winter, rain or snow, with increasing
winds, will often set in when the barometer
begins to fall and the wind sets in from the
NE.
E. to N. 29.80 or below and falling Severe northeast gale and heavy precipitation;
rapidly. in winter, heavy snow, followed by a cold
wave.
Going to W. 29.80 or below and rising Clearing and colder.
rapidly.
 Difference between Weight and Pressure of the Air. Air at sea level
and at 32° temperature weighs one and one third ounces per cubic foot. A
room twenty by twenty by ten feet contains some 333 pounds of air. The
pressure of the air is a quite different thing. It is the sum of the weights of
all the cubic feet of air that are stacked up, one on top of the other, clear to
the top of the atmosphere. This is why the higher one goes, the less the
pressure of the air, because there are a less number of cubic feet above. And
then each cubic foot weighs a slight fraction less than the one just beneath it
because the air has expanded. The room afore-mentioned sustains a
pressure of 5880 on its floor and a like pressure on its ceiling, and a half of
this pressure on each of the sides of the room. The room does not collapse
because the air exerts a like pressure on the outside of the room and the two
pressures are equal—one inward and the other outward.
The Principle of the Barometer. In 1643 some Florentine gardeners
found that they could pump water only thirty-three feet high. This is
because the entire volume of air, if it were compressed to the density of
water, would equal a covering around the earth of that depth. When the
gardeners first began to work the plungers in their pump up and down they
did not get water; it was necessary for them first to pump out all the air in
the pipe leading down to the water in the well; then the water rose into the
vacuum thus created, and it rose to a height that just balanced the weight or
pressure of the whole body of air that rests upon the earth. Now, if the
atmosphere surrounding the earth could be reduced to the density of
mercury it would equal a covering only thirty inches deep; this is why the
mercury normally stands at thirty inches high in the vertical vacuum tube of
the barometer. (Figure 7.) In the complete barometer a graduated scale is
attached so as to measure the fluctuations in the height of the mercury. If
one were to ascend in a balloon it would be found that the mercury would
steadily fall with increasing altitude, until at eighteen thousand feet one half
of the atmosphere would be left below and the instrument would read only
fifteen inches instead of thirty. In ascending to the top of the Washington
 Monument, 555 feet, the pressure of the air decreases
over one half inch.
The barometer rises and falls with the passage of
storms because wind movement displaces air and causes
it to accumulate at some places and become deficient at
others, but in order to compare barometers exposed at
many different elevations with the view of determining
the geographic position of storm centers—of cyclones
and anti-cyclones—it is necessary to reduce all
barometric readings to sea level.
Weather Records Turn the Scales of Justice. How
trivial the incident that may change the whole course of
a lifetime and lead to peace and happiness or to discord
and sorrow! Likewise the parting of the clouds and the
coming through of the sunshine, or the moment of the
beginning of rainfall, or the amount of rain that falls
within a given time, or the direction of the wind, or the
velocity of the wind, or the temperature of the air, or the
depth of the snowfall literally thousands of times has
FIG. 7.
furnished the evidence in courts of law that has turned
—Mercurial Barometer.
the scales of justice in civil suits involving large sums of
The glass tube on
right is filled with money, and in criminal cases where a prison sentence or
mercury. With the the hangman’s noose threatened the defendant.
thumb over the open
end, it is reversed so For illustration let us say that a ship breaks from its
that its open end rests mooring, crashes into another ship in the harbor and
under the surface in a
basin of mercury on sinks it. If the force of the storm is no greater than has
the left, and the previously occurred in that harbor, the first ship is liable
mercury in the tube
for the loss of the second ship. But if the automatically
falls to n, at which
point it is sustained recording instruments of the Weather Bureau show that
by pressure of the air at that time the velocity of the wind was greater than
 on surface of theever had been known before, then the loss is due to “an
mercury in the basin.
act of God” and the ship that broke her mooring is not
liable for damages to the ship that was sunk, provided
proper provision was made for such velocity of wind as reasonably might
be expected to occur with the passage of a storm.
To cite a case that actually occurred: A railroad company was sued for
the loss of a million dollars’ worth of lumber that was burned, as alleged,
by sparks from one of its locomotives. Here came in the wind records of the
Government and proved that at the time of the starting of the fire the wind
was steadily and forcefully blowing in a direction opposite to what would
carry the sparks to the lumber, and the company was protected against an
unjust verdict.
Again heavy rain fell in excess of the capacity of the sewers of a city to
carry away the water, and private property was damaged by the flood. In
this case the city was compelled to pay for the damage to property, because
the records of the Weather Bureau showed that previous rainfalls had been
of equal or greater amount in the same period of time, and the city should
have constructed its sewers of sufficient capacity to carry away such
precipitation as experience showed was liable to occur.
The writer was once an expert witness in what then was a famous case.
The defendant, a young and handsome woman previously of unimpeachable
character, was being sued for divorce. Two witnesses swore that they had
seen her come to an open window, facing south, at seven o’clock in the
morning, in a house in which she should not have been, stand for several
minutes looking into the garden upon which the window faced, clad only in
her night robe. Unfortunately the woman was not able to establish a
satisfactory alibi for the morning in question, and she stood facing a terrible
calamity with no power to establish her innocence. Her accusers had given
as a reason why she stood so long at the open window that the morning was
warm and balmy. But, fortunately for the innocent woman, the weather
records came to her defense when her case seemed hopeless and her life
was about to be blighted with a scandal from which she never would be
able to free herself, and proved that at the very time when she was supposed
to have been standing in the open window a torrential rain was falling and a
wind of fifty miles per hour was beating upon the outside of the window
panes. The woman was acquitted and one of the witnesses spent several
hundred balmy mornings behind prison bars.
At another time the writer came into a case where a robber had shot and
killed a citizen who surprised him in the committing of his crime. The
robber was on trial for murder and his lawyers were attempting to clear him
by the introduction of evidence to prove that the day was so foggy that the
State’s witnesses had blundered and seized the wrong man when they
chased the murderer around a corner. The weather expert destroyed the only
evidence that tended to raise a doubt in the mind of the jury as to the man’s
guilt, by testifying that fog could come to the surface of the earth only when
the air was abnormally light and the wind calm or only gentle; while at the
time of the murder the barometer was unusually high and the wind brisk.
Here again the meteorological records aided in vindicating the right, and
secured the conviction and execution of a brutal murderer.
A remarkable case was that in which a tramp was being tried for the
murder of a miserly old woman who was believed to carry a large amount
of money about her person. The tramp came to her door and asked for food.
She took him in and fed him and soon thereafter he was seen hastily to
leave the house. An hour after he had gone the woman was found murdered
and her clothing rifled. The tramp was overtaken, found to have a large
amount of money of small denominations in his pockets, indicted, and
placed on trial. The principal witness for the State was a man who was
repairing a frozen water pipe in a trench by the side of the house opposite to
that by which the tramp entered and left. He saw the blow struck, ran in fear
to his home, and then informed the police. In explaining how he came to
see the criminal act, he testified that he climbed out of the trench to get a
drink from a bucket standing near by, and as he raised the bucket his eye
came in line with a window of the house, through which he witnessed the
murder. The case seemed clear against the tramp, as other witnesses had
seen him enter and leave the house and positively recognized him. Just here
his lawyer asked the trench digger how long the water bucket had been
sitting by the side of the trench. The latter said it had been there from 7
o’clock until 10. Then the weather records came in to confound the falsifier
and to vindicate innocence, for the automatic tracing of the pen that records
every movement of the temperature proved that the temperature had not
been above zero any time during the three hours that the bucket had been
exposed and that it contained a solid chunk of ice if it contained anything.
The trench digger then confessed that he himself was the murderer. He had
seen the tramp enter and leave and thought it a favorable opportunity to
commit the crime and put the evidence on another.
 CHAPTER VII
FROST

There is nothing in the study of the atmosphere that so intimately

concerns the horticulturist and the gardener as knowledge of the conditions
under which frost forms, and the methods that may be pursued to gain
immunity from its disastrous effects, or to lessen the loss.
Frost does not necessarily form from air that has fallen to the freezing
point, as many suppose. On the contrary, the air ten feet or less above the
vegetation may be several degrees above freezing when there is a heavy and
destructive frost upon vegetation. The fact is that vegetation radiates heat
towards a clear sky faster than does the air and may fall to the freezing
point or below; while the air, except the molecules actually in contact with
the vegetation, is considerably warmer. Frost is not frozen dew. The water
vapor is precipitated, or rather congealed, upon the vegetation without
passing through the liquid state at all. Frost is spoken of as light, heavy, and
killing. Tomato plants are killed by only a light touch of frost, while fruit
blossoms will stand several degrees of cold below freezing. Therefore the
tomato grower would consider as killing a frost that to the fruit grower
would only appear as light.
The radiation of heat from the earth is continuous both day and night
when there are no clouds to obstruct the passage of the heat rays. The
amount received from the sun during the day is greater than the loss by
radiation from the earth and the temperature of the air rises. After the
setting of the sun the radiation of the earth goes on but there is no incoming
heat from the sun to offset the loss and the temperature of the air falls. As
previously stated, the soil and vegetation radiate faster than the air and the
air in immediate contact with the soil is cooled by conduction to it. Thus
over a level plain on a clear calm night there is found a relatively thin layer
of cold air near the ground, which increases in temperature up to two
hundred or three hundred feet, or which may be only five or ten feet deep.
Over sloping ground the force of gravity tends to cause this thin surface
layer of cold air to move down the slope and to gather in depressions in
somewhat the same manner as water would move. Such movement is called
Air Drainage. Of course this air is slowly gaining heat by compression as it
passes to lower levels, but it is hugging closely to the cold earth and losing
by conduction much or all that it thus gains by compression.
After a study of the contour of the region with respect to air drainage the
writer purchased a considerable tract of land near Rockville, Montgomery
County, Maryland, and planted extensive orchards thereon, with the result
of harvesting nine successful crops of fruit in a period of ten years after the
trees became large enough to bear. With the composition and the surface
covering of the soil the same, the low places in a field are always the ones
that suffer most when frost is possible. Figure 8 shows a minimum
temperature of 25° to have occurred at the base of a steep hillside when on
the higher ground at an elevation of but fifty feet the lowest temperature
was 44°, and at two hundred and twenty-five feet up the mountainside the
minimum was 52°.
In selecting a location for an orchard it is not so much a problem of
elevation above sea level as elevation above the surrounding region. The
direction in which the slope faces makes little difference. The prime
consideration is to get sufficient air drainage to gain the greatest protection
against frost without selecting land with such a steep slope as to furnish
excessive soil drainage and which would be difficult to cultivate and move
about upon in the spraying of trees and in the picking of fruit. In the
Maryland orchard the elevation was only five hundred feet above sea level
and only about two hundred feet above the surrounding region, and the
slope was so gradual as almost to be imperceptible to one passing over it.
FIG. 8.—Continuous records of the temperature from 4 P.M. to 9 A.M. at the base and at different
heights above the base of a steep hillside, showing the great differences in temperature that
sometimes develop on a clear, still night. Although the temperature at the base was low enough to
cause considerable damage to fruit, the lowest temperature 225 feet above on the slope was only
51°. Note that the duration of the lowest temperature was much shorter on the hillside than at the
base.—Weather Bureau.

After nightfall the air on mountain peaks and on hills and ridges soon
becomes cooler than the air at the same elevation out over the open valley,
due to contact with the elevated earth, which radiates heat and cools faster
than the air.
Water vapor has a great capacity for heat. It is the most effective of the
various gases present in the atmosphere in obstructing radiation of heat
from the earth, as well as in absorbing incoming radiation from the sun. The
night temperature, therefore, falls more slowly when the relative humidity
is high than when it is low, that is to say, when the air is nearer saturation,
or nearer its dew point. Drops of water that collect on the outside of a
pitcher of ice water on a warm day are formed through the chilling of the air
in contact with the pitcher; they begin to form as soon as the temperature of
the pitcher reaches the dew point of the air, which temperature varies in
accordance with the amount of water vapor present in the air at the time.
After sundown the temperature of exposed objects falls, of some faster than
others, depending on their capacities for radiation. Vegetation radiates
freely and often falls to the dew point of the air, at which time dew begins
to form on it and continues to be deposited as long as the temperature
remains above freezing. Now, here carefully note that if the dew point is
above 32° the condensation of water vapor in the form of dew liberates
latent heat, which usually will be sufficient to check the fall of temperature
and prevent the formation of frost. If the dew point of the air is 32° or lower
frost forms. If the dew point is very low the temperature may fall low
enough to cause much damage without the formation of any frost. As an
example, if the dew point be 20° and the temperature falls to 24° much
damage might be done to growing crops and no frost appear. This
phenomenon is called black frost; it seldom occurs. From the foregoing it
might be assumed that the possibilities of frost might safely be forecast
from an observation to determine the relative humidity taken early in the
evening, but unfortunately experience has shown that reliance cannot be
placed in such method of forecasting, as the humid air of early evening may
be displaced by much drier air before the hour of minimum temperature the
next morning.
One of the best locations to gain immunity from frost at the critical
period of plant growth is immediately to the leeward of a considerable body
of water. Wind blowing from a large body of water is always heavily laden
with moisture, which decreases the rate of radiation both day and night, but
especially during the period of cold in the early morning when frost is liable
to occur. Such winds, largely affected by the temperature of the water over
which they have passed, modify the temperatures of both day and night.
 The all-important condition for the formation of frost is an atmosphere
already cool, with a gentle northwest wind and a clear sky, which condition,
with more or less coolness, always accompanies the high barometric areas
that follow the low-pressure areas of warmth, cloudiness, and moisture.
At an expense of two millions of dollars per annum the Government
maintains some two hundred observation stations of the Weather Bureau,
and twice daily telegraphs observations to all the large cities of the nation,
but unfortunately in many cases these are not published for the benefit of
the people who could make valuable use of them. The Bureau’s own
deductions from these observations, in the form of forecasts and warnings,
are extremely valuable, but an even greater service could be rendered the
public by neatly lithographing an evening weather map and mailing it from
all large cities each night, so that every intelligent person whose business is
affected by the weather could, through a study of the chapter on Forecasting
in this book, judge for himself as to the effect that the coming weather may
have on his particular interests. One could then watch the movements of the
high barometric areas and the low areas and become weatherwise himself,
and he who studied these charts the most diligently would have an
advantage over less progressive competitors.
Evaporation goes on at all temperatures, even below freezing and from
solid ice, its rate, of course, being diminished by low temperatures. At
times, in spring or fall, the temperature of the air over rivers, when there is
little wind, falls so far below the temperature of the water that the water
vapor rising from the river by evaporation is quickly condensed in the form
of fog, which may cover a part or all of the low contiguous land, checking
radiation and preventing a further fall in temperature.
In valleys near the ocean, fog sometimes drifts in from the water when
frost is imminent and prevents its formation. On nights with fog, contrary to
the usual condition, the hillsides are always colder than the lowlands, unless
the fog extends high enough to cover them.
 In 1891-1894 the writer, in studying the conditions under which frost
forms on the cranberry bogs of Wisconsin, was impressed with the fact that
the occurrence of frost on a given field depended as much on the character
of the surface and its covering as it did on the temperature of the air a few
feet above, one place receiving an injurious frost, another a light frost, and
still another none at all, while each had the same conditions as to
temperature, wind velocity and direction, and all were at the same
elevation, so that the differences could not be accounted for by air drainage.
In one case the marsh was cleanly cultivated and covered with sand, in
another there was clean cultivation but no sand, and in still another case
there was a thick growth of vegetation. As the result of a long series of
observations conducted by Professor H. J. Cox, working under the
directions of the writer, minimum thermometers were placed among the
vines over newly sanded surfaces in two marshes, one at Cranmoor and one
at Mather, Wisconsin. The locations selected for this inquiry represented the
best results that could be secured from sanding, draining, and cultivating.
Comparison was made at each marsh between the readings taken close to
the vines of the clean part of the marsh and those taken close to the surface
over the unsanded peat bog. The average lowest night temperature over the
sand for the four months was 5.9° higher than over the peat at Cranmoor,
and 4.2° at Mather. On one night the minimum over the surface at
Cranmoor was 12° higher than over the peat, while at Mather a difference
of nine degrees was recorded on another night.
Through cultivation the marsh may be kept free from weeds, moss, or
other rank growth, thus permitting the sun’s rays to reach the soil and
increase its temperature during the day, while a growth of thick vegetation
screens the soil from the sun’s rays, and there is consequently less heat in
the latter soil to be given out during the hours of low temperature at night.
Drainage lowers the specific heat of the soil and decreases the cooling
effect of evaporation. Therefore, under sunshine, the dry soil becomes
warmer than the wet and, whether or not it has a greater quantity of heat to
give off at night, it has a higher temperature and therefore radiates more
freely to the air above. A covering of sand likewise lowers the specific heat
of the surface and thereby causes it to gain a higher temperature during the
day than an unsanded surface receiving the same solar rays. It therefore
radiates more rapidly at the critical time when heat is needed to prevent the
temperature of vegetation from falling to the freezing point and gaining a
deposit of frost.

FIG. 9.—Continuous records of the temperature 5 feet and 35 feet above ground on a tower in a pear
orchard. Note the large difference in temperature at the two levels before the orchard heaters were
lighted at 4 A.M. By 5 A.M. the temperature was practically the same at the two levels, showing
that the heat from the burning oil had been nearly all expended in raising the temperature of the
air within 35 feet of the ground. This point is further illustrated by the fact that at 5 A.M. when
most of the heaters were extinguished, the temperature at the 5-foot level fell rapidly, while it
remained practically stationary at the 35-foot level.—Weather Bureau.

In many orchards in the Rocky Mountain States, where fruit growing is

highly profitable and the injury from frost more than probable every year,
an extensive use is made of oil and other fuel-burning heaters between the
rows of trees. Those who wish further information with regard to this matter
should send to the Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C., for Farmers’
Bulletin No. 1096. At first thought it would seem that heat so applied would
be blown away or instantly escape upward. But on frosty nights there is not
much wind; if there is, there is little danger from frost. And then, as
previously stated, on such nights there is what is called temperature
inversion, and the temperature actually rises with the first few feet of
ascent, and the heated air soon reaches air of its own temperature, when no
further ascent occurs. When the air forty feet from the ground is ten degrees
warmer than it is around and in contact with vegetation, as often occurs on
frosty nights, the heat from the fires is nearly all expended in raising the
temperature of the air within this forty feet. Figure 9 furnishes the result of
an experiment illustrating the correctness of the foregoing theory.

FIG. 10.—Average dates of last killing frost in spring.

 FIG. 11.—Average dates of first killing frost in fall.

Figures 10 and 11 show the average dates of the last killing frost in
spring, and of the first killing frost in fall.
 CHAPTER VIII
WIND AND PRESSURE OF THE GLOBE

CAUSE OF LOCAL WINDS AND OF GENERAL CIRCULATION

General Circulation. Differences in temperature, changing the specific

gravity of the air, are the cause of the general circulation of the atmosphere
about the earth, modified by the rotation of the earth; likewise the local
circulation between land and water is caused by the different quantities of
heat radiated by the two widely differing forms of matter, each attaining to
a different temperature under the influence of the same solar radiation; and
the inflow of winds to the cyclone and the outflow from the anti-cyclone are
due to the same forces that cause the general and the local circulations.
If there were no difference in temperature between the equator and the
poles the atmosphere would soon adjust itself in accordance with the laws
of gravity, modified by the centrifugal force developed from the rotation of
the earth, and the atmosphere forever would be at rest relative to the earth,
moving with it as if it were a part of the solid sphere throughout its diurnal
rotation on its axis and its annual movement about the sun. But there is a
decided difference in temperature between the equator and the poles and
between land and water surfaces; hence a general circulation, modified and
distorted by numerous local movements, which, in turn, may be modified
by the height of hills and mountains and the direction of their trend.
FIG. 12.—Trade wind circulation and reason for belts of high pressure at latitudes 30° N. and S. that
extend around globe as shown by Figure 13.

Let us trace a current of air through its course as shown in Figure 12 and
the reason for the blowing of the trade winds will be apparent, as will the
reason for the location of a belt of high pressure at latitudes 30° north and
south encircling the globe. At the equator there is a belt of calms. Here the
air gently ascends under the intense heat of vertical sunshine. It is humid,
for there is much water surface in the region of the equator, and the air
carries vast quantities of water vapor aloft, later to be precipitated as
torrential rains in the Tropical Zone, as the air cools by expansion in its
ascent. This air expands or bulges upward and overflows aloft northward
and southward, causing low air pressure at the equator, because of the
quantity of air moved to other latitudes, which more than compensates for
the amount banked up over the equator by the centrifugal force of the
earth’s rotation.
 CHART 1.—HIGH AND LOW CENTERS OF ACTION AND PREVAILING WINDS OF THE GLOBE FOR JULY
(Buchan).

Since air, passing away from the equator, must pass successively over
parallels of latitude having less easterly velocity than that with which it
started its journey, it runs ahead of the earth, and, relative to the surface of
the earth, has a direction from the southwest north of the equator, and from
the northwest south of the equator. Our current was divided at an altitude
probably of six miles above the equator, one half following the northern and
the other half the southern circuit. It was cooled by elevation and by
radiation outward to space and as a result gained in weight and gradually
descended, reaching the earth at about latitudes 30° north and south, and
causing an accumulation of air at those latitudes and the belt of high
pressure that irregularly surrounds the earth. In descending in the belt the
air breaks up into a number of anti-cyclonic systems, sub-permanent highs
or Centers of Action, which have so much to do with initiating the
migratory Highs and Lows that create the weather of the earth, as will be
fully explained in the Chapter on Weather Forecasting. The intensity of
these centers of action is modified and their geographic positions shifted
with change of season. (See Charts 1 and 2.)

CHART 2.—HIGH AND LOW CENTERS OF ACTION AND PREVAILING WINDS OF THE GLOBE FOR JANUARY
(Buchan).

Trade Winds. But to return to the current that we left as it divided above
the equator (Figure 12) and descended on an inclined plane to latitudes 30°
north and south. It is cooler and dryer and heavier than when it started to
ascend and it has lost the thousand miles per hour and more easterly
velocity that it had at the equator and now only has the velocity that belongs
to latitude 30°; therefore as it moves toward the equator from either side it
lags behind latitudes whose easterly velocity is greater, and it takes up a
direction partly toward the west, which, relative to the earth, makes it a
northeast wind in the Northern Hemisphere and a southeast wind in the
Southern Hemisphere. And thus is established a circulation the lower part
of which is known as the “trade winds.” (Figure 13.)
Navigators profit largely by availing themselves of the west winds in the
middle latitudes and of the east winds in the tropics. To the daring and
persistence of Columbus, and the force and constancy of the trade winds
which blew him westward, we owe the discovery of America.

FIG. 13.—Average surface winds and pressure of the globe.

Winds of Middle Latitudes. Now study Figure 12 and associate the

information it conveys with that of Figure 13, and observe that from the two
belts of high pressure the air is pushed outward on both sides. In each case
it starts as a true north or south wind, but, due to the rotation of the earth, is
always and everywhere deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere
and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere, and this deflection increases
until what started as a poleward wind in the middle latitudes soon becomes
almost a due west wind. In this region of west winds cyclonic storms are
more frequent than in any other part of the globe. Now get clear in the mind
the fact that no matter what may be the direction of the wind inside a
cyclonic or anti-cyclonic whirl (often one thousand miles in diameter), the
whirl is carried toward the east by the general drift from the west of the
winds between latitudes 30° and 60°, and toward the west in the region of
the trade winds.
Low Barometer at the Poles. Even though the air is contracted and
rendered denser by the great cold of the Arctic regions, the pressure remains
low because of the quantity of air driven equatorward by the centrifugal
force both of the earth and of the winds themselves as they rim ahead of the
earth and encircle the globe in the middle latitudes.
Data too Meager to Show Full Circulation Aloft of the Atmosphere
of the Globe. Many charts have been published in the attempt to show how
the atmosphere circulates below and aloft through the whole world. They
only have speculative value, as our knowledge is too limited to permit us to
unravel the complexities of all the upper movements.
Rain Winds of the Tropics. The trade winds, mostly moving over water
surfaces, are laden with moisture, but, gaining temperature as they move
towards the equator, their capacity to hold water vapor steadily increases,
and therefore they do not become rain winds unless forced to ascend by the
interposition of mountains, or until cooled by ascension at the equator. In no
part of the world does the air rise so steadily and in such great volume as in
the equatorial belt of calms and low pressure. Hence this is the region of
greatest rainfall. During the two rainy seasons, spring and fall, the day
opens clear; near midday the clouds gather and rain falls early in the
afternoon; after which it quickly clears. This is so regular a program that
one lays his plans accordingly. There is almost no rain in December and
January; this is because the belt of calms and the inflowing trade winds
move northward and southward with the migrations of the sun, and in
December and January, the sun being far south, the northern trades, with
their rainless winds, cover the equator and the region formerly occupied by
the belt of calms. In midsummer the sun is far north and then the southern
trades move up and give dryness to the equator. In the northern trades, of
the moderate amount of rain that falls, the greater quantity falls in summer;
in the southern trades the order is reversed.
Rain of the High-Pressure Belts and of the Regions of West Winds. In
the high-pressure belts the air is settling down and gaining heat by
compression and there is not much horizontal movement. These are,
therefore, regions of but little rainfall, and all the great deserts occur in or
near them. The belts of west winds are the regions of most frequent
cyclonic activities. Here the rainfall is quite equally distributed throughout
the year and is the result of the mixing of the air by storms and its cooling
by expansion as it is carried upward in the migrating whirl.
Circulation between Continents and Oceans. In Chapter X, under the
sub-caption “Influence of Continents and Oceans on Climate”, the
circulation between them is well explained. In general the movement is
from the continent to the oceans in winter, with the air flowing inward aloft
to settle down and take the place of that which passes out to sea. In summer
the directions are reversed.
Daily Variation in Coastal Winds. In summer, when there are no
forceful storm winds blowing steadily from one direction for several hours
at a time, there will daily spring up gentle to fresh winds from the surface of
oceans and large lakes to the land, because of the influence of the sun’s rays
in heating the land to a higher temperature than it does the water. These
winds will not appear on cloudy days and they will extend inland but a few
miles.
Monsoon Winds. During winter the vast continent of Eurasia (Europe
and Asia) cools to such an extremely low temperature as to develop a High,
or center of action, of great energy and extent, which drives a steady dry
monsoon into the Indian Ocean and China Sea. Unlike the trade winds,
these winds reverse their direction in the summer; then the intense heat of
the continent to the north develops an extensive Low, which draws the
ocean winds inland and extends its influence so far south as to attract the
southeast trade winds of the Southern Hemisphere and, turning them so that
they flow from the southwest, continue them far into the interior of Asia.
Since the summer monsoon blows from a tropical sea it comes heavily
laden with water vapor and as it rises over the mountains of the great
Himalayan system copious rains are precipitated. In Australia, Africa,
South America, and some parts of the North American continent monsoon
influence in various degrees is felt, but in no place is the monsoon so
important as in the countries bordering the Indian Ocean. (Charts 15 and
16.)
Föhn Winds. This is a hot wind that sometimes blows down a mountain
side in the Alps. In the Rocky Mountains it is called the Chinook Wind. It is
caused by moisture-laden air being drawn over a high mountain so quickly
that the heat liberated in condensation does not have time to escape by
radiation. The air cools by expansion as it ascends on the west side of the
mountain, but it gains this all back by compression as it descends, and it has
added to its temperature much of the heat of condensation. It is dry and
greedily evaporates snow from the ground in winter, clearing off a deep
covering within a few hours.
How Winds Are Deflected by Earth’s Rotation. Every free-moving
thing, whether wind or projectile, is deflected to the right of its initial
direction by the rotation of the earth in the Northern Hemisphere and to the
left in the Southern Hemisphere, unless the object be moving exactly along
the line of the equator. Winds moving inward to a Low are therefore so
deflected as to cause the cyclone to gyrate in a direction contrary to the
movements of the hands of a watch. In an anti-cyclone the movement is
with the watch. In the Southern Hemisphere these wind directions are
reversed.
Figure 14 gives an illustration of what would be the movement of air
inward to a cyclone on a non-rotating earth. The winds would blow along
 radial lines for a time, but,
converging together as they began to
ascend, they doubtless would soon
set up a gyration about the center. On
a non-rotating earth this gyration
would be clockwise as often as it
would be anti-clockwise, but on a
rotating earth the gyration can be in
but one direction. (Figure 15.) Even
tornadoes, whose diameters of
rotation are never but a few hundred
feet, obey this law. In little dust
whirls, in which the movements of
FIG. 14.—How winds would blow into a cyclone
on a non-rotating earth.
air may be comprehended from the
motion of the trash that is whirled
about and which are tornadoes in miniature, the direction of gyration may
be either way. They are too small for the deflecting force to be appreciable,
and it may be that the tornado is forced to take its direction of gyration from
the cyclone in whose southeast quarter it has its origin.
How Wind Velocity Increases with Altitude. Figure 16 shows how the
velocity of the wind increases with elevation in the free air up to five
thousand meters (about three miles). The average for the year, for the
summer and for the winter, is given. It increases most rapidly up to six
hundred meters in summer and up to eight hundred meters in winter. From
these two heights there is a steady and pronounced slowing down of the
wind up to one thousand meters; after which it increases up to five thousand
meters, and how far beyond we know not. In winter there is a singular
acceleration of velocity in the stratum between two thousand and twenty-
five hundred meters and then no increase for the next five hundred meters;
after which there is a uniform and steady gain up to five thousand meters.
Starting at two hundred and seventy meters, the average velocity for the
year is 3½ meters per second, or
about 7¼ miles per hour. At five
thousand meters altitude the average
for the year is 11¼ meters per
second, or about 27 miles per hour.

FIG. 15.—Deflection of wind due to earth’s

rotation.
FIG. 16.—Annual, summer, and winter wind velocities, with altitude. 1,
1850 feet; 2, 2467 feet; 3, 3083 feet; 4, 15,417 feet.
 CHAPTER IX
HOW TO FORECAST FROM THE DAILY WEATHER MAP

IT IS NOT DIFFICULT TO BECOME WEATHERWISE AND THEREBY TO GAIN

ADVANTAGES IN HEALTH, HAPPINESS, AND BUSINESS

The person who will take the time to learn to interpret the daily weather
map has a decided advantage over those who are less progressive. The maps
may be secured by applying to any Weather Bureau station. Many members
of commercial associations, having the advantage of seeing the large glass
weather map that is made each morning by an observer of the Weather
Bureau and displayed on the floor of the association, have become expert
weather forecasters. The value of the principal crops of the country is
largely influenced by the weather, as are the prices of transportation and
industrial stock; and there is hardly a business that directly or indirectly is
not influenced by the prospects of coming weather.
Vessel masters, long accustomed to forecast the near approach of storms
from the action of their “glass” (barometer), now have learned that the daily
weather map shows them at a glance the height of not one but of many
barometers scattered over a wide area and read at the same moment of time.
They see that the direction and the force of the wind are the results of
differences in air pressure; that the air flows from a region where the air
pressure is great, that is to say, where the barometers are high, towards a
region where the pressure is less, or where the barometers are low; and that
the velocity of the wind will be in proportion to the difference in the
pressure of the air. Coast-wise and lake shipping are therefore not only
affected by the forecasts made by the Weather Bureau but by the forecast
made by the masters themselves when they can get access to the daily
weather map. Their own lives and the lives and property of others are in
their keeping. But the great mass of intelligent people have no idea of the
methods employed in the making of the weather map and of the many and
widely diversified uses to which a study of its data would lead.
One first must learn of the simple manner in which the map is
constructed; then, by a comparison of the map each day with the preceding
chart, he soon will be able to detect the beginning of storms, trace them
through their various migrations as they cross the continent and finally pass
out to sea, bidding them bon voyage as they go in quest of a more eastern
continent on which to bestow their blessings of rain and active, purified air;
or, as it often may happen, shuddering for the fate of the mariner who is
caught in their fierce vortical whirls, and for the land areas that may be laid
waste by their gyrating force.
How the Weather Map Is Made. At 8 A.M. to-day Washington time,
which, by the way, is about seven o’clock at Chicago, six at Denver, and
five at San Francisco, the observers at some two hundred stations in the
United States and contiguous territory were taking their observations and
from carefully standardized instruments noting the conditions of the
atmosphere. By 8:20 A.M. the barometers at each station have been reduced
to sea level, that is to say, they have been made to read what they would if
they were located at the level of the ocean. Thus differences in air pressure
that are due to differences in elevation are eliminated, so that they may not
obscure those due to storm conditions. Then, for purposes of brevity and
accuracy, the observations are reduced to cipher form, and each filed at the
local telegraph office. During the next thirty or forty minutes the
observations, with the right of way over all lines, are speeding to their
destinations, each station contributing its own report, and receiving in
return such observations from other stations as it may require. The
observations from all stations are received at such important centers as
Washington, New York, Chicago, and other large cities having Weather
Bureau stations, and from these centers daily weather maps are printed and
issued at 11 A.M. each day.

CHART 3.—WINTER STORM, DECEMBER 15, 1893, 8 A.M.

Black lines connect places having equal barometric pressure; arrows point in direction wind is
blowing; figures at end of arrows show wind velocity, when it is more than light.
○ clear; ◓ partly cloudy; ● cloudy; R rain; S snow.
HIGH indicates center of anti-cyclone, or high-pressure area; LOW indicates center of cyclone, or
low-pressure area.
Large figures show average temperature in each quadrant of cyclone.

Now turn to Chart 3. Heavy black lines (isobars, meaning equal pressure)
are drawn through places having the same barometric reading. The readings
are omitted from the printed Chart. By drawing lines for each difference of
one tenth of an inch, the high and the low-pressure areas (called Highs and
Lows) are soon inclosed in their proper circles. These lines run in oval or
circular form, indicating that storms operate in the form of great
atmospheric eddies; that there are central places of attraction towards which
the air is drawn if the disturbance be a low-pressure area, with its usual
accompaniments of warm, moist, and often rainy weather, and from which
the air is driven if it be a high-pressure area, with cool, settled weather.
The word “High” is written inside the isobar marked 30.6, located in
southern Oregon, and the same word is written inside the isobar marked
30.4, located on the South Atlantic coast, and also inside the isobar 30.04,
which traverses Nova Scotia. These are the regions of great air pressure.
The word “Low” is written at the center of the area inclosed by the isobar
29.6, which is situated in the State of Iowa. The latter is the region of least
pressure. Sometimes there are several such regions shown on the weather
map.
Why the Wind Blows. Under the pull of gravity the atmosphere presses
downward and outward, thus causing it to flow from the several regions of
great pressure towards regions of less pressure. Observe the arrows, which
fly with the wind, and it will be seen how generally this law is obeyed. The
velocity with which the wind moves from the High toward the Low
depends on differences in air pressure, modified in the lower stratum by the
friction offered in passing over surfaces of varying degrees of roughness,
the speed being greater over a water surface with the same difference in air
pressure than over a level unwooded prairie, and greater over the open
prairie than over an irregular wooded area. To illustrate:
If the barometer were 30.5 at Bismark, Dakota, and 29.5 at Chicago, it
would press upon the earth with a force of about seventy pounds greater per
square foot at the first place than at the second. This difference in pressure
would cause the air to flow from Bismark towards Chicago so rapidly that
after allowing for the resistance due to friction on the earth there would
remain a velocity of some fifty miles per hour, and Lake Michigan would
experience a severe “Northwester”; and if the wind continued from the
same direction for twenty-four hours a mighty sea would beat upon the
eastern shore of the lake, and mariners and marine property would be at the
mercy of a destructive tempest unless the Weather Bureau forecaster were
alert and gave warning as soon as he saw such a juxtaposition of pressure
distribution in the process of formation.
We will give careful attention to this chart, for when its details are
understood, others will be easily read.
The chart shows a winter storm central in Iowa on December 15, 1893.
The word “Low” marks the storm center. It is the one place in all the United
States where the barometer reading is the lowest. The heavy black lines,
oval and nearly concentric, about the Low, show the gradation of air
pressure as it increases quite uniformly in all directions from the center of
the storm outward.
The arrows fly with the wind, and, as will be seen, almost without
exception are moving towards the Low, or storm center, clearly
demonstrating the effect of gravity in causing the air to flow from the
several regions marked “High”, where the air is abnormally heavy, toward
the Low, where the air is lighter. As the velocity of water flowing down an
inclined plane depends both upon the slope of the plane and the roughness
of its surface, so the velocity of the wind, as it flows along the surface of
the earth towards the storm center, depends on the amount of the depression
of the barometer at the center and the resistance offered by surfaces of
varying degrees of roughness.
Storms and Cold Waves Simply Great Eddies in the Atmosphere.
Now picture in your mind that all the air inside the 30.2 isobar, as it flows
inward, is rotating about the Low in a direction contrary to the movements
of the hands of a watch, and you have a fair conception of an immense
atmospheric eddy. Have you ever watched the placid waters of a deep-
flowing brook and observed that where the waters encountered a projecting
rock little eddies formed and went spinning down the stream? Well, our
storms are somewhat similar eddies in the atmosphere, more or less perfect,
that are carried along by the general easterly movement of the atmosphere
in the middle latitudes of both hemispheres. But they are not deep eddies;
the Low marks the center of an atmospheric circulation of vast horizontal
extent as compared with its thickness or extension in a vertical direction.
Thus a storm area extends from Washington, D. C., to Denver, Colorado,
and yet extends upward only about six miles. The whole disk of whirling
air, six miles thick and two thousand miles in diameter, is called a cyclone,
or low-pressure area. It is important that a proper understanding be had of
this fundamental idea, since the weather experienced from day to day
depends almost wholly upon the movement of these migrating cyclones, or
areas of low pressure, and the anti-cyclones, or areas of high pressure.
The temperature readings are omitted from each station, but the average
temperature of each quadrant of the Low is shown by the large black
figures. The greatest difference in temperature is seen to be between the
southeast and the northwest sections. This is due in part to the fact that in
the southeast quadrant the air is drawn northward from warmer latitudes,
and in the northwest quadrant it is drawn southward from colder latitudes,
and to the further fact that winds blowing into the west side of a Low have a
downward component of motion, and those blowing in on the front, or east
side, have an upward component.
One should gain a clear idea of the difference between the movements of
the air in the cyclone and the movement of the cyclone itself, or its
translation from place to place; how the wind must blow into the front of
the storm in a direction partly or wholly contrary to the movement of the
storm itself, and into the rear of the storm as it passes away; how the wind
increases in velocity as it spirally gyrates about the center and approaches
nearer and nearer the region where it must ascend; how the higher layers of
air move spirally away from the center and thus cause an accumulation of
air about and over the outer periphery of the Low, which in turn presses
downward and impels the surface air inward. This whole complex system
of motion moves eastward. Think of the sun drifting in space, while at the
same time each of the planets maintains its respective orbit, and it will help
one to visualize the phenomena of a migrating cyclone or anti-cyclone.

CHART 4.—WINTER STORM, DECEMBER 15, 1893, 8 P.M.

Black lines connect places having equal barometric pressure; red lines connect places having equal
temperature; arrows point in direction wind is blowing; figures at end of arrows show wind
velocity when it is more than light.
○ clear; ◓ partly cloudy; ● cloudy; R rain; S snow.
HIGH indicates center of anti-cyclone, or high-pressure area; LOW indicates center of cyclone, or
low-pressure area.
Large figures show average temperature in each quadrant of cyclone.
Shading shows precipitation area of last 24 hours.

Chart 4, constructed from observations taken twelve hours later, shows

that the Low has moved from central Iowa since 8 A.M., and is now, at 8
P.M.,central over the southern point of Lake Michigan. The shaded portion
of the chart shows that rain has fallen during the past twelve hours
throughout nearly the entire region covered by the cyclone. This was due to
the mixing of the air as the storm progressed, to the cooling by expansion as
the air ascended, to the more rapid rotation about the storm center, because
of the further lowering of the barometer at the center of the disturbance
since the preceding chart was made, and especially to the more humid air
encountered as the storm moved eastward and came nearer to the supply of
moist winds,—the Atlantic Ocean.
 CHART 5.—WINTER STORM, DECEMBER 16, 1893, 8 A.M.
Black lines connect places having equal barometric pressure; red lines connect places having equal
temperature; arrows point in direction wind is blowing; figures at end of arrows show wind
velocity, when it is more than light.
○ clear; ◓ partly cloudy; ● cloudy; R rain; S snow.
HIGH indicates center of anti-cyclone, or high-pressure area; LOW indicates center of cyclone, or
low-pressure area.
Large figures show average temperature in each quadrant of cyclone.
Shading shows precipitation area of last 24 hours.

On Chart 5 a line of arrows extends from the storm center westward to

Wyoming, where the storm originated. A small cross inclosed by a circle
marks its western extremity. Another cross located near Cheyenne shows
where the storm center was located twelve hours after its origin. A third
cross gives it location near Des Moines twenty-four hours after it started
eastward. It was here that we began the study of this storm on Chart 3. A
cross near Chicago indicates the distance traveled by the center during the
third twelve hours, and Chart 5 shows its progress during the fourth twelve-
hour period. When the storm was central at Cheyenne the danger warnings
for mariners were displayed at all ports of the Great Lakes, as the forecaster
knew that in accordance with general laws the storm must move toward the
east. When it was centered at Chicago, danger warnings were displayed on
the Atlantic coast from North Carolina to Maine, as it was known that long
before the storm reached the ocean the in-rush of wind toward the storm
center would cause a dangerous on-shore gale and the breaking of heavy
seas on the shore line. All craft that could be reached with the danger
signals made safe in port, except the great ocean liners, which are of such
strength as to safely withstand almost any storm. A special set of
observations ordered by the Washington office of the Weather Bureau from
its stations in the region of the storm, and well in advance of it, kept the
chief forecaster informed as to the progress of the cyclone, and before the
storm center reached the coast the danger signals communicated to mariners
the fact that the winds would soon shift to northwest as the center of the
disturbance passed out to sea.
The reader’s attention will now be directed to the red lines on Chart 5;
they pass through places having the same temperature, but for simplicity the
readings of temperature, whereby these lines were located, are omitted from
the printed chart. Observe the line marked 40°; it passes across southern
New England to western New York, but when it reaches the center of the
storm it encounters the cold northwest winds blowing into the storm on its
west side and is forced southward to Texas.
Charts 3, 4, and 5 give a graphic history of one severe winter storm. In
summer such general storms do not often occur. They are frequent in spring
and fall, but of higher temperature and less severity than in winter. In
summer Lows drift sluggishly across the continent; the barometer at the
center of the cyclone is usually not more than two to four tenths of an inch
below the pressure of the Highs, and the rain, instead of falling in a broad
sheet, as shown by the shading of charts 4 and 5, falls in numerous sporadic
outbursts, each of which is but a few square miles in area, their combined
surfaces usually covering only a part of the region over which passes the
Low.
Cold Waves and the Speed of Storm Movement. Highs and Lows drift
across the continent from the west towards the east at the average rate of
about six hundred miles per day, or about thirty-seven miles per hour in
winter and twenty-two miles in summer, the first at about the rate of an
express train, and the second approximating the speed of a freight. The
Highs are attended by dry, cool, and settled weather. By a vortical action at
their centers they draw down the cold air from great altitudes above the
clouds. In winter, when vortical action is vigorous, they may reach upward
to an altitude of seven miles. Air starting downward from this region has a
temperature of some 70° below zero. We know this from the records
secured by sending aloft free balloons carrying automatic thermometers.
(Chapters II and III.) This air heats by compression because in its
downward movement it is continually leaving more and more air above it to
exercise pressure upon it. It gains about twenty degrees with each mile of
descent, and if there were no other factors to the problem it would be hot air
when it reached the surface of the earth instead of cold air. But early in its
descent it gains such heat as to melt and evaporate the ice spiculæ floating
at the height of the fleecy cirrus clouds; then it evaporates and clears away
the moist clouds lower down and finally creates such diathermancy (the
capacity to transmit heat without absorption; see Chapter V) that the heat
lost by radiation to a clear sky causes what we call a “cold wave”, and this
notwithstanding the heat of compression.
The forecaster first observes a cold wave in the northern Rocky Mountain
region, in the form of an intense High. It will travel southeastward to the
center of the continent, and often to the Gulf if it is preceded by an active
Low that is located on a low latitude, as the latter will draw southward the
frosty air of the High; after that the course of the storm will be more nearly
eastward. Now it is of rare occurrence that a cold wave gains entrance to
any considerable area of our territory without warning, but in the early days
of the Weather Bureau they too often reach Iowa, or States farther east,
without any notice whatever. It was then discovered that a certain type of
weather map preceded such failures of the forecaster. One who is interested
in gaining early knowledge of the approach of a cold wave to the United
States should watch not only for the appearance of abnormally high
barometer readings, from the stations of the Canadian Northwest, or from
Montana and North Dakota, but especially for a crescent-shaped Low, with
one horn of the crescent touching Lake Superior and the other extending
into the middle Rocky Mountain region, at about Colorado. This Low will
appear to be an innocent affair; there may be a small secondary Low in each
end of the crescent, and no High of any importance in the northwest, for
which one ordinarily would look in anticipating a cold wave. But when this
crescent-shaped Low appears on the morning weather map, a High of
marked intensity invariably will develop with great suddenness over
Montana and North Dakota and bring a cold wave to the Middle Mississippi
Valley before the next morning, if the time of year be winter.
Do not forget that the Low is as important as the High in causing a cold
wave, for the High that brings the cold air must follow in the track of the
Low and will be attracted by the latter in proportion to its lowness, as
indicated by the isobar inclosing the center of the Low. A cold wave will
reach the Gulf only if the preceding Low originate in Texas; it will be
confined to the Ohio Valley as the limit of its southern influence if the
preceding Low originate in Colorado; and it will only skirt the northern
border of the United States and the Lake region if the Low begin in
Montana.
More and more is man applying science to commerce and industry. When
the weather map, which was unknown but little more than half a century
ago, indicates the formation of a heavy body of cold air in the extreme
northwest, the chief official forecaster at Washington is on the alert; he
orders special observations every few hours from the Weather Bureau
stations directly within and well in advance of the cold area, and as soon as
he becomes satisfied that a cold wave is on its way, the previously arranged
system of disseminating warnings is brought into action, and by telegraph,
telephone, flags, whistles, bulletins, and other agencies, the people in every
city, town and hamlet, and many in the stock and farming regions, are
notified of the advancing cold twelve to twenty-four hours before it reaches
them.

CHART 6.—COLD WAVE ZONES, MARCH TO NOVEMBER. AMOUNT OF FALL AND VERIFYING LIMIT.

Charts 6 and 7 show how the Weather Bureau defines a cold wave. There
must be a fall of sixteen degrees, eighteen degrees, or twenty degrees within
thirty-six hours and a certain degree of coldness must be reached. The
charts show that what is a cold wave in the Gulf region is far from one in
the northwest.
CHART 7.—COLD WAVE ZONES, DECEMBER, JANUARY, AND FEBRUARY. AMOUNT OF FALL AND VERIFYING
LIMIT.
 CHART 8.—LOWEST TEMPERATURES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1871-1913.

Chart 8 shows the lowest temperatures experienced in the United States

since the founding of the Weather Bureau, 1871 to 1913. Note the influence
of the Pacific Ocean in forcing the zero line from Arizona northward to
British Columbia.
 CHART 9.—NUMBER OF COLD WAVES, 1904-1914, INCLUSIVE.

Chart 9 shows the number of times that a cold wave occurred at each
station of the Weather Bureau for a period of ten years. The number is
greater for northern New England than for the Red River of the North
Valley, because practically all the cold waves that cross Minnesota reach
New England; and the latter also receives fierce boreal visitors that come to
it from the Hudson Bay region lying directly northeast, which do not visit
any portion of Minnesota or the region farther west. During the period not a
single technical cold wave occurred at the coast stations of California,
Oregon, or Washington, while Red Bluff and Sacramento were the only two
places in California west of the Sierras, and Roseburg, Oregon, the only
station west of the Cascade Range that had any, the numbers being one,
two, and five respectively. In the Florida peninsula south of Jacksonville,
Tampa had two, while none occurred at Miami. Sometimes the temperature
falls lower than that required for a cold wave, but not within the period of
twenty-four hours required by the regulations. A notable case in point is the
severe cold wave in California in January, 1913, the lowest temperature
ever observed being recorded at San Diego on the 7th, when the minimum
fell to 25°.
Cold Waves Tempered by Great Lakes. The severity of cold waves is
markedly modified by the Great Lakes, especially in the fall and the first
part of winter, before much of the water surface is covered with ice and
snow. Not only is the number of cold waves much less at stations of the
Lakes than at near-by places in the interior, but there is a marked variation
in the number that occur at the Lake stations, depending upon which side of
the lake and how close to the water the station is located. The most striking
differences are noted in the Lake Michigan region, the number on the west
shore being five or six times as great as on the east side. Milwaukee shows
a count of forty-seven as compared with nine at Grand Haven. This lake
influence affects the entire Lower Michigan peninsula, but it is not so great
in the interior and eastern sections as along the west shore, Grand Haven’s
nine standing out against fourteen, fifteen, and twenty-three for Grand
Rapids, Detroit, and Port Huron. A similar condition is noted in New York
State; Buffalo, Rochester, and Oswego, near the lake shore, had twenty,
twenty-seven, and twenty-nine cold waves respectively, while the interior
stations of Ithaca, Binghamton, and Syracuse had thirty-eight, forty-five,
and fifty-two.
Cold Waves Tempered by the Heat of Cities. Another reason for the
lack of uniformity in the recorded number of cold waves in the various
sections of the country is the difference between city and suburban
temperatures. Stations located in small villages or in the open land will
show a greater number of recorded cold waves than those located in large
cities, where the heat stored up by pavements and brick buildings during
sunshine each day, and where the heat from thousands of chimneys, and
maybe millions of human beings, holds the minimum temperature of night
much above that of the free air in the open country. Charles City, where the
instruments have open country exposure had sixty-five cold waves, which
far exceeds the number recorded at any other station in Iowa.
No matter how severe may be the cold wave that appears in the
northwest, it will not extend over Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and any
region south of them, unless the center of the High extends well over the
Rocky Mountain Divide. Otherwise it will come down the east slope of the
mountains and the cold will not cross them.
In the Lows the conditions of the air and its movements are exactly the
reverse of what they are in the Highs; the air is warmer and moister, it is
drawn spirally inward from all directions instead of being forced outward as
in the High, and it ascends as it approaches the center of depression,
sometimes causing rain or snow as it cools by expansion during its ascent.
While the air cools with ascent in the Low at the same rate that it warms
with descent in the High, the earth experiences a general warming effect
with the passage of the Lows, because the air falls but little in temperature
as it rises before it reaches its dew point, and then there is a liberation of the
latent heat of condensation (see Chapter V); and what is more important,
there is formed a covering of clouds that checks or wholly stops radiation
outward from the lower air. However there are times when the passage of
Lows produces a cooling effect. This is when abnormally hot weather has
prevailed for some days; then the air may be mixed, washed, and cooled by
thunder-showers.
 CHART 10.—STORM TRACKS FOR AUGUST FOR TEN YEARS.

Highs and Lows alternately drift across the continent in periods of about
three days each. They are a part of the divine economy that provides for the
seedtime and the harvest, for, as previously stated, the Lows draw the
warm, vapor-bearing currents inland from the Gulf and the ocean and cause
them to deposit their moisture far to the north and west. Four sevenths of all
our storms come from the middle or the north plateau regions of the Rocky
Mountains, or at least enter our field of observation from those regions, and
pass from this arid or sub-arid section of the continent easterly over the
Lakes and New England, producing but little rainfall. The greater part of the
remaining three sevenths are first observed in the arid regions of our
southwestern States; they always move northeastward and can be depended
on to give bountiful rainfall so soon as or a little before they reach the
Mississippi River. Some of them cross the Atlantic and affect the continent
of Europe. Charts 10 and 11 show the courses of storms in this country, and
where they originate, or are first brought under the survey of our system of
observation.

CHART 11.—STORM TRACKS FOR FEBRUARY FOR TEN YEARS.

West Indian Hurricanes. A few of the most severe storms that touch
any portion of our continent originate in the West Indies and travel in a
northwesterly direction until they touch our Gulf or South Atlantic coast,
when, passing from the influence of the northeast trade winds which carried
them westward, they recurve and pass along our eastern coast, usually with
their centers offshore and following the Gulf Stream. These violent
atmospheric convulsions are usually detected in the process of formation
through the effectiveness of the storm-warning service established by the
writer during the Spanish-American War, under the direction of the
President, for the purpose of giving warning to our fleet before the coming
of a hurricane. The President realized the great part played by storms in
many of the naval battles of the past, and it may be surmised that he was
more afraid of a West Indian hurricane than he was of the Spanish Navy.
But Cervera was beaten and the blockade was raised before the hurricanes
of 1898 began.
Galveston Hurricane. The new Weather Service, with a cordon of
stations down the Windward Islands and along the north coast of South
America, surrounding our fleet, and inaugurated as a war measure, so
demonstrated its value in locating and giving warning of the coming of a
hurricane soon after the end of the war that Congress continued it as a
permanent instrument of peace; and when the destructive Galveston
Hurricane occurred in 1900 it detected the storm at its inception and so fully
advised shipping of the storm’s movements that not a vessel was lost as the
storm roared and gyrated across the Gulf of Mexico and crashed upon the
Texas coast, destroying a large part of the city and drowning six thousand
people.
The hurricane is simply a rapidly gyrating cyclone; it usually is only one
to three hundred miles in diameter. The storm that destroyed Galveston
moved across the Caribbean Sea at the rate of only about eight to ten miles
an hour. It increased its rate as it moved northward, crossing the Gulf at
about fifteen miles per hour. The speed of translation was so slow and the
velocity of gyration so rapid that immense swells were propagated outward
from the center of the storm; they reached the Texas coast some sixteen
hours before the storm itself reached Galveston. As it moved northward to
Iowa its velocity of translation increased and its rate of gyration decreased,
so that it crossed the Lakes with both movements at about sixty miles per
hour. At Galveston the anemometer blew to pieces after recording one
hundred and thirty miles per hour.
 Danger to Atlantic Coast Summer Resorts. The writer frequently has
been asked as to the possibilities of a populous Atlantic coast resort being
submerged by the waters driven inshore by a hurricane, or being lifted up in
the center of the storm as the result of decreased air pressure inside the
cyclonic whirl. The answer is that such a catastrophe is possible to any
Atlantic coast city (more especially those south of Norfolk) that is not
protected by a heavy breakwater of ten to twenty feet above sea level, and
whose building foundations and walls are not of brick or concrete for at
least ten feet above the water level. It would be necessary for a West Indian
hurricane of unusual intensity—one similar to that which wrecked
Galveston—to be considerably deflected westward out of its normal track
in order to hit one of our coast cities north of Chesapeake Bay so that the
center of the storm would pass over it, or near enough to cause destruction.
In Galveston there was little damage to strongly constructed buildings of
brick or stone.
The Breaking of Droughts. It is most important for the forecaster to
know when and how droughts may be broken. He will observe that when
the great cereal plains are famishing for moisture the Lows all originate on
the middle or north Rocky Mountain plateau, in the region of Colorado or
Montana, and that the drought continues until the Lows begin to form in the
extreme southwest—in Arizona, New Mexico, or Texas. As previously
stated such Lows always bring rain as they move northeastward.
Warm Waves. There come in summer periods of almost stagnation in
the drift of the Highs and the Lows across the continent. At such times if a
High be centered in the South Atlantic Ocean, with its center at Bermuda,
and its western limits extending into the South Atlantic coast States, there
will result what is popularly known as a warm wave, for the air will slowly
and steadily move from the southeast, where the pressure is greater, towards
the northwest, where it is less; it will receive constant accretions of heat
from the radiating surface of the earth, and finally attain to a temperature
that is extremely uncomfortable to all forms of life, that lowers the physical
stamina, and that largely increases the death rate. This superheated
condition of the lower stratum of air in which we live continues until a Low
develops in the southwest and a High in the northwest, which relation, as
we already know, soon brings rainfall to the interior of the country.
V-shaped Lows are reasonably sure to cause precipitation, and if the
barometer at the center of the Low be five to seven tenths below the outer
limits of the depression, heavy precipitation and destructive local storms
may be expected.
Thunderstorms. The thunderstorm is caused by cold and heavy air from
above breaking through into a lighter and superheated stratum next the
earth. Some of them have a horizontal rolling motion which throws forward
the cool air in the direction in which the storm is moving. It seldom is more
than five or ten miles in width and twenty to thirty miles in length. In
general, thunderstorms move from the west toward some eastern point,
more often southwest to northeast.
The frequency of thunderstorms is the greatest with ill-defined Lows
whose pressure is but little below the normal air pressure of thirty inches.
Any depression of the barometer slightly below the level at surrounding
stations—such as occurs when a weak High of only thirty inches, or thirty
and one tenth inches, breaks up into two or more areas, with slightly lower
pressure between them—is fruitful of thunderstorms. A High of but modest
intensity advancing eastward into a region of slightly lower pressure and
much higher temperature causes thunderstorms along its eastern front. A
temperature of 80° on the morning weather map, with a high humidity,
seldom can endure beyond the second day without a break and the coming
of cooling thunder-showers. Any Low with abnormal heat and humidity in
its southeast quadrant is usually attended with numerous thunder squalls in
the regions of high temperature and moisture.
Of the thunderstorm days in the United States few occur in the Rocky
Mountain regions or in northern New England. The greatest number is in
Florida and the Gulf States and thence northward up the Mississippi Valley.
The Moon Has No Influence on the Weather. The moon used to be the
farmer’s most valued friend as a forecaster of the weather and as a guide in
the planting of crops, but a higher order of intelligence is causing this
fallacy to pass away. The moon’s nearness to the earth and the fact that its
phases occur in about seven days, which is about twice the period of storm
recurrence, in the minds of many have endowed it with potency in the
influencing of our weather. Rain may occur on the same day of the week for
several weeks in succession, but only occasionally, while the moon is
constantly progressing from one phase to another. The few cases that prove
the mistaken theory are taken as proof conclusive, while the many cases
that do not prove acceptable to the moon forecaster are ignored and not
mentioned to his friends nor even acknowledged to himself. One is
reluctant to have a belief disproved, no matter how ridiculous it may be. In
fact, the more untenable it is, the more tenaciously some adhere to it, as
though they were loyally standing by an old friend who had made mistakes,
but who still was good at heart. The attraction of the moon, because of its
nearness and notwithstanding its small mass, is far more potent in the
raising of the tides of the ocean than is the sun, but its attraction on our
atmosphere produces a tide of only four thousandths of an inch of the
barometer, an influence that is shadowy and without the least influence in
causing storms, or changes of any kind in the weather; and there is no
possible way in which the moon could influence the germination of seed or
the growing of crops.
Equinoctial Storm. As the summer wanes the Lows become more
pronounced and the sporadic showers give place to general rain storms
along in September. There is no objection to these storms being known as
“Equinoctial”, except that any date in the latter half of September is as
liable to show a beginning of these storms as is the 21st or the 22d. The
equinox simply marks the middle period in the transition from one type of
weather to another.
 Forecasting from Halos. The halos that sometimes surround the sun or
the moon indicate the coming of precipitation to the extent of making
manifest the presence in the upper air of large quantities of vapor of water
in a congealed state. When the vapor of water cools quietly in the
laboratory it frequently forms minute spheres of water, which, strange to
relate, may remain liquid all the way down to zero and below; but if
touched or jostled they instantly turn to ice, in the form of spiculæ, or
needles; they are simply hexagonal slender prisms capped by hexagonal
pyramids. These needles rotate or spin about as they fall. The geometrical
relations of the facets of the crystals to the axis of rotation and to the line
along which they fall are a complex problem in optics. Suffice to say that
the observer, looking through a filmy cloud of such crystals, would see in
one part of the sky a halo, in another part an arc of light, and in other
directions bright spots like the sun, all of them arranged symmetrically with
regard to the sun and the observer’s zenith. A lunar halo is a large ring
concentric about the moon. A secondary halo surrounds the first. Mock suns
or mock moons may appear coincident with solar or lunar halos. The ice
prisms through which one sees the phenomena both refract and diffract the
light as it passes through the cloud and by partly decomposing the rays
render visible a part of their elementary colors. The red is on the inside,
next to which is a little yellow or green, with bluish white on the outside. In
coronas, which are much smaller, the red is on the outside. A detailed
description of these phenomena may be found in Moore’s “Descriptive
Meteorology” (Appleton).
Tornadoes. The cyclone has a diameter of a thousand to two thousand
miles, the hurricane about one to three hundred and the tornado only one to
ten hundred feet. The hurricane is much more destructive than the cyclone,
and the tornado is incomparably greater in velocity of gyration and rending
force than the hurricane. New England, Florida, and the wide region
including the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains westward to the Pacific
are nearly free from the atmospheric convulsions that cause the tornadoes,
and they are infrequent in any Atlantic coast State, but numerous in the
States bordering on the Mississippi River, and in the eastern halves of
Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska. During a year of great frequency of
tornadoes, about ninety storms occurred, while during some other years the
number has been as low as twenty. The direction generally is toward the
northeast. The average rate of movement of the tornado cloud is about
twenty-five miles per hour and the width of its destructive path only five
hundred to one thousand feet; the time of passage is less than half a minute.
It does not come upon one unseen and unheralded. Many times the
advancing funnel-shaped clouds may be seen, and they always are
accompanied by a great roar which may be heard for miles. Except a
tornado cellar, the cellar of a frame house is the safest place. The writer has
examined either the wrecks or the records of hundreds of tornadoes and
does not know of a single case of a person being killed by a tornado in the
cellar of a frame house. If one is in the open and a tornado approaches,
never flee to the north or to the east, but rather to the northwest, and one
needs to travel but a short distance to pass out of the track of the monster.
The tornado always twists counter clockwise, the same as the cyclone in
whose southeast quadrant it nearly always occurs. On the southeast side of
the path there are indrafts; so that it is safer, unless the track of the
oncoming storm is clearly seen to be well to the north of the observer, for
one to run toward the northwest. Persons have stood near to the north side
of a tornado track during its passage without suffering injury. If a cave, the
cellar of a frame house, or a narrow ditch cannot be reached, the best thing
to do is to lie flat on the ground as far from buildings and trees as possible.
The tornado is essentially an American storm, doubtless caused by the
running together, in the southeast quadrant of a cyclone, of cold northwest
currents and warm winds from the southeast, at a time when the latter are
saturated with moisture. They are confined almost entirely to the region
between the two great mountain systems of the continent, none occurring in
the Rocky Mountains and but few east of the Alleghanies. The north and
south trend of our mountain systems, quite different from the systems of
Europe and Asia, facilitates the coming together of conflicting winds of
widely different temperatures in the lower reaches of the atmosphere where
there is an abundance of water vapor; no tornadic whirls probably can occur
without an abundance of water vapor and the energizing effect of the heat
liberated in the whirling cloud as this vapor is suddenly carried aloft and
liberated by condensation right in the center of the disturbance. Because of
the relation of the trend of its great mountain systems to its oceans, the
United States occupies a somewhat unique position meteorologically in the
world. Its atmospheric conditions are more active than those of any other
continent, which conditions are beneficial to the people of this country.
When to Watch the Weather Map for Tornadoes. The four conditions
essential to the formation of tornadoes are as follows:
1. A cyclone, the center of which is to the north or northwest;
2. An isotherm of 70° or over extending from the southeast well up
into the center of the cyclone, and then passing outward toward the
southwest, all inside the southeast quadrant of the Low;
3. Excessive humidity;
4. Time of year March 15 to June 15.
 FIG. 17.—TORNADO CLOUD.

If any one of the four foregoing conditions be absent, tornadoes are not
liable to occur. The reason why spring and early summer is the time when
tornadoes are most frequent is because the earth and a thin stratum of air
immediately next the earth are heated up rapidly with the gaining heat of
the sun’s rays in the spring, while the air a short distance aloft still retains
much of the cold of winter. At this time cyclonic action may bring together
air masses of widely different temperatures, especially when the upper
layers on the west side of the Low are drawn down and commingled with
the hot and humid surface winds of the southeast quadrant.
Tornadoes Not Increasing. The writer does not indorse the theory that
the number of these storms is increasing; that the breaking of the virgin soil
of the prairie, the planting or the cutting away of the forests, the drainage of
land surfaces by tiles, the stringing of thousands of miles of wire, or the
laying of iron and steel rails have materially altered the climate or
contributed to the frequency or the intensity of storms. To be sure, as
population becomes more dense greater destruction will ensue with the
same number of storms.
Difficult to Forecast Tornadoes. It is not possible for the forecaster to
warn the exact cities and towns that will be struck by tornadoes without
unduly alarming many places that will wholly escape injury. What we know
is that tornadoes are almost wholly confined to the southeast quadrant of a
cyclone, and that when the thermal, hygrometric, and time conditions are
favorable, a region about one or two hundred miles square will be sacrificed
by a number of these atmospheric twisters. One of the most destructive
tornadoes of record devastated St. Louis in the afternoon of May 27, 1896.
The abnormal heat and humidity of a rather small and weak cyclone
centered in eastern Kansas on the morning weather map of that day, caused
the Weather Bureau to distribute tornado forecasts at 10 A.M. throughout all
of Missouri. The schools of St. Louis were dismissed and the children sent
home on receipt of the warning, and although some eight or ten separate
tornadoes touched various parts of the State and the people were prepared
for their coming, so many people were terrorized by the warning in
communities that were not harmed, that the writer, then Chief of the
Weather Bureau, at once issued orders forbidding the specific forecasting of
tornadoes in the future. Under tornadic conditions the forecast is for
“conditions favorable for severe local storms.”
Freaks of the Tornado. The writer was in St. Louis the day after the
storm and spent much time in examining the wreckage. He was impressed
with the fact that some buildings were burst outward and that all four walls
fell away from their bases, indicating that the tornado cloud must have
lifted and dropped down over them in such a way that the partial vacuum
that is created by the rotating cloud through centrifugal force so reduced the
pressure of the air on the outside of the houses that the normal pressure of
fifteen pounds per square inch exploded them. He saw bricks in a plastered
wall that were neatly cleaned of all plaster by the expansion of the air inside
the brick, as the air pressure from the outside was reduced. He saw a two by
four pine scantling shot through five eighths of solid iron on the Eads
Bridge, the pine stick protruding several feet through the iron side of the
roadway, exemplifying the old principle of shooting a candle through a
board. He saw a six by eight piece of timber driven four feet almost straight
down into the hard compact soil, a gardener’s spade shot six inches into the
tough body of a tree, a chip driven through the limb of a tree, and wheat
straws forced into the body of a tree to the depth of over half an inch. Such
was the fearful velocity of the wind as it gyrated about the small center of
the tornado,—a velocity exceeding that of any rifle bullet. (See Figures 17,
18, 19, and 20.)

FIG. 18.—THE ST. LOUIS TORNADO OF MAY 27, FIG. 19.—THE ST. LOUIS TORNADO OF MAY
1896, SHOT A PINE SCANTLING THROUGH THE IRON 27, 1896, SHOT A SHOVEL SIX INCHES INTO
SIDE OF THE EADS BRIDGE. THE BODY OF A TREE.

Some have advocated the planting of trees to the southwest of cities in

the regions where tornadoes are frequent, so that the tornadoes may expend
their energy in uprooting the trees before they come to the city, but this
storm traveled through several miles of brick buildings, razing them to the
ground and almost pulverizing them and still left the city apparently with
greater force than it had on entering. The largest trees would offer no more
resistance to a tornado cloud than would so many blades of grass.
When the official forecasts contain the statement that conditions are
favorable for “severe local storms” it would be well to carefully observe the
formation of portentous clouds in the west and southwest, between 3 and 6
o’clock in the afternoon, and if one with black, ragged fringes on its lower
edge and accompanied with a noise like several railroad trains makes its
appearance, seek safety in the cellar of a frame house.

FIG. 20.—THE ST. LOUIS TORNADO DROVE STRAWS

ONE HALF INCH INTO WOOD.
 General Rules for Forecastings. What has gone before in this chapter
gives an idea of what guides the weather forecaster in making his
deductions. In brief, he studies the developments and the movements of the
Highs and the Lows during the past two or three days, as shown by
preceding weather maps, and from the knowledge gained forecasts the
future course and intensity of the fair and the foul weather areas for one,
two, or three days in advance. By preserving the weather map each day and
noting the movements of the Highs and the Lows, any intelligent person can
make a fairly accurate forecast for himself, always remembering that the
Lows, as they drift towards him, will bring warmer weather and sometimes
rain or snow, and that as they pass his place of observation the Highs
following in the tracks of the Lows will bring cooler and fair weather,
except during periods of extreme summer heat, when the Lows bring
showers that cool the parched earth; and except in the north Rocky
Mountain plateau, where most of the precipitation occurs after the center of
the Low has passed and northwest winds are blowing.
The amateur weather forecaster can closely anticipate the temperature of
his region by remembering that the weather will be cool and the humidity
low so long as the center of the predominating High (the High inclosing the
greatest area within the thirty-inch isobar) is north of his latitude, either
northeast or northwest, and that it will be warm so long as the High is south
of the parallel of latitude that passes through his section of country.
He will find that the centers of the Lows will follow closely the direction
indicated by the isotherms that lead eastward out of their centers, and that
they move across the country from the west in quite regular succession, and
that the frequent changes from sunshine to clouds and from warm to cold
are the result of the mixing of the air by these atmospheric eddies.
Experience will teach him that Lows from the southwest are reasonably
sure of causing precipitation, and that if his temperature be sufficiently low
—anywhere from zero to 20°—the fall will be in the shape of snow; that
Lows that only skirt our northern border will be deficient in precipitation,
even if they cause any at all; that the slow settling of a High over the South
Atlantic States means heat for all the rest of the country east of the Rocky
Mountains in degree that will be dependent upon the magnitude and the
intensity of the southern High; that the heat will continue, even if
temporarily interrupted by showers, so long as this High retains its location
in the southeast; that tornadoes occur in the spring of the year when Lows
have excessive heat and humidity in their southeast quadrants; that V-
shaped Lows cause violent local storms, if not tornadoes, and often deluges
of rain; and that frosts may be expected in the country when a minimum
temperature of 40° is forecast for the city; and that the severity of cold
waves modifies as they come eastward, and that they will only flow as far
south as the area covered by the Low that preceded them,—that is to say, by
that part of the Low included in the thirty-inch isobar, or by a close
approximation to such area.
National Forecaster E. H. Bowie, known to the writer as one of the ablest
forecasters ever developed by the Weather Bureau, in a recent most
valuable publication by the Bureau, entitled “Weather Forecasting in the
United States”, formulates rules for forecasting as follows:
1. When there is an area of high pressure over the southeast and a cold
wave in the northwest threatens, there will be a storm development in the
southwest and precipitation will be general.
2. If a storm form in the southwest and be forced to the left of a normal
track (Charts 10 and 11), another storm will immediately begin to develop
in the southwest and it becomes a sure rain producer. Storms that develop in
the southwest and move normally are quickly followed by clearing weather.
3. Troughs of low pressure moving from the west are of two types—the
narrow and the wide. The former moves eastward slowly and storm centers
develop in the extreme northern and the extreme southern ends. When the
trough is wide, the development of an extensive storm area is not
uncommon, especially if the wide intervening area between the Highs
shows relatively high temperatures.
4. When the northern end of a trough moves eastward faster than the
southern end, the weather conditions in the south and southwest remain
unsettled and the chances are that a storm will form southwest of the High
that follows. When the southern end moves faster than the northern end,
settled weather follows.
5. Storms that start in the northwest and move southeastward do not
gather great intensity until they begin to recurve to the northward. At the
time of recurving they move slowly, as a rule, and care must be exercised in
predicting clearing weather.
6. Marked changes in temperature in the southeast and northwest
quadrants imply an increase in the storm’s intensity. Small temperature
changes do not indicate a further development of the storm.
7. Abnormally high temperatures northwest of a storm indicate that it
will either retrograde or remain stationary.
8. East of the Rocky Mountains, a storm which moves to the left of its
normal track increases in intensity.
9. Storms with isobars closely crowded on the west and northwest
generally move slowly and to the east or southeast, and the precipitation
and high winds are maintained unusually long in the northern and western
quadrants.
10. Storms with the isobars closely crowded in the south and southeast
quadrants move rapidly northeastward and the weather quickly clears after
the passage of the storm center.
Rules for Making Local Forecasts. As an illustration of what may be
done by the local observer or the layman in formulating rules of weather
forecasting for his immediate vicinities, the following rules, which were
evolved by the writer in 1892, while serving as the Weather Bureau local
forecaster for Milwaukee, Wisconsin, are subjoined:
1. In summer warmer weather occurs after the center of the Low has
passed a little to the east, and southwest winds are blowing, because the
easterly winds, which otherwise would be the warmest winds, are cooled by
passing over the lake.
2. A Low from the northwest that reaches western Minnesota and
western Iowa without precipitation or clouds will pass over Wisconsin as a
dry Low, unless the isobars are closer than five eighths of an inch.
3. Light frosts will occur on clear, quiet nights in the cranberry marshes
when minimum temperatures at Duluth and La Crosse fall to 40° and 45°
respectively. When these stations record five degrees lower the frost will be
killing in the cranberry marshes and light in the tobacco fields of the
southern counties of the State.
4. No frost will occur in the counties bordering on Lake Michigan until
the temperatures at the Weather Bureau stations fall close to the freezing
point, such is the influence of the lake in storing up heat and slowly
radiating it during the night; and on the eastern side of the lake its
protecting influence is much greater.
5. When the wind sets in from points between south and southeast and
the barometer falls steadily, a storm is approaching from the west or
northwest, and its center will pass near or north of the observer within
twelve to twenty-four hours, with wind shifting to northwest by way of
south and southwest. When the wind sets in from points between east and
northeast and the barometer falls steadily, a storm is approaching from the
south or southwest, and its center will pass near or to the south of the
observer within twelve to twenty-four hours, with wind shifting to
northwest by way of north. The rapidity of the storm’s approach and its
intensity will be indicated by the rate and the amount of the fall in the
barometer.
 Vast Extent of the Area Brought Under Observation. It is a wonderful
panoramic picture of atmospheric conditions which, by the aid of the
electro-magnetic telegraph and two hundred simultaneously reporting
stations, is presented to the eye of the forecaster. Each day the kaleidoscope
changes and a new graphic picture comes into view. Nowhere else in the
world can the student of the weather find such opportunities.
Early meteorologists studied only the storm of low levels and humid airs,
where convection only needed to carry the moist air currents to but a
slightly higher elevation before cooling by expansion would produce
condensation and an immediate acceleration of the cyclone by the liberation
of latent heat within the region of the upward-moving air in its central area.
They never had seen the cyclones of the arid northern Rocky Mountain
plateau move down to our Great Lakes with rapidly increasing energy,
notwithstanding the fact that there had been little condensation, and hence
no addition of the latent heat that Espy supposed was essential to a
continuation of storms.
The widely differing elevation, topography, temperature, and moisture of
the broad region under observation by the United States Weather Bureau
present conditions unequaled for the study of every phase of storm
development and translation, or at least such as may be comprehended from
data taken on the bottom of the atmospheric ocean; and it is but a matter of
a short time when the data for extremely high levels will be added.
Here we see summer cyclones formed under the intense solar radiation
that beats down through a nearly diathermanous atmosphere upon the
wastes of the Rocky Mountain plateaus; cyclones that, if they form in the
northern part of the plateau region, move eastward to our Lakes and thence
eastward to the St. Lawrence with scant rainfall; cyclones that, if they have
their origin farther south in the region of Colorado, move into the Ohio
Valley and thence to New England with considerably more precipitation;
and cyclones that, if they have their origin anywhere in our southwest States
or Texas, or enter our region of observation from the South Pacific Ocean,
can always be expected to cause general rainfall when they reach the Lower
Mississippi Valley and later as they pass up through the central portions of
the continent.
Here also one may view the great winter cyclones that originate in the
Pacific between Hawaii and the Aleutian Islands and come under our vision
as they successfully surmount the formidable barriers of the Rocky
Mountains with but little diminution of energy, sweep across our continent
with increasing force and heavy precipitation, and within three days pass
beyond our meteorological horizon at the Atlantic seaboard only to be heard
from several days later as boreal ravagers of Northern Europe.
The great anti-cyclones that constitute the American cold waves drift into
our territory from Canadian Northwest provinces, and are studied under
rapidly changing conditions during three thousand miles of their course.
West Indian hurricanes, at sea level and in humid air, which are the most
violent of all storms except the American tornado, intrude themselves into
the domain covered by the weather map at Florida or the East Gulf coast
and usually pass off to the northeast with high winds skirting our southern
coast stations.
Permanent Highs and Lows in the Pacific Are Great Centers of
Action. Near the end of Chapter XII reference is made to the fact that there
is a barrier in the Pacific Ocean that interferes with the movement of storms
from the Orient, but which does not entirely stop their progress. Extensive
Highs and Lows, sometimes called “Centers of Action” because they do not
migrate like the traveling Highs and Lows that cause the alternations of
weather that we experience from day to day, are also called Sub-permanent
Highs and Lows. They are the parent systems out of which come many of
the Highs and Lows that cross the North American continent, and they act
as a bar to the free passage of storms from the Far East. As these Sub-
permanent areas shift their centers a little to the north or to the south they
change the character and the line of movement of the storms and cool
waves that come to us, and they alter the general character of the weather
for thousands of miles to the east of them. In the region of Iceland is the
center of an extensive Sub-permanent Low that has much to do in
controlling the weather of Europe, and there is a Sub-permanent High
central at or near Bermuda in the southern part of the North Atlantic Ocean.
Whenever the latter is built up by having a migrating High from the North
American continent join with it, the whole United States experiences what
is called a “hot wave”, and the heat continues as long as this Sub-permanent
High remains unusually high and extends its western limits to include our
South Atlantic States.
The matter in the foregoing paragraph is so important that it will be
restated in slightly different form: Whenever either the High or the Low
Center of Action (Sub-permanent High and Low), out of which comes
nearly all of the migrating Highs and Lows, shifts its normal seasonal
position, then storms are erratic and unusual weather occurs over the North
American continent and farther eastward. The reason why much the greater
number of the storms that cross the United States, the Atlantic Ocean, and
Europe originate either in our Rockies, the Canadian Northwest, or just off
the Alaskan coast is due to the fact (Chart 1, page 99) that the Low center of
action is normally over the middle and northern Rocky Mountain plateau in
summer, and over the Aleutian Islands (Chart 2, page 100) in winter. The
High that follows the migrating Low in winter either separates from the
center of action central over the Canadian Rockies (Chart 2), or from the
one central at Honolulu; if from the latter, the weather will be simply cooler
after the passage of the Low, but if the High separates from the center of
action in the Canadian Rockies it will constitute a cold wave as it follows a
Low southeastward into the interior of the United States and then eastward
to the coast.
 CHAPTER X
CLIMATE

CHANGE OF SOLAR RAYS INTO LIGHT, HEAT, AND OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY AS
THEY ARE ABSORBED BY OUR ATMOSPHERE OR AS THEY ENCOUNTER THE
EARTH—TEMPERATURES OF WATER, EARTH, AND AIR—HOW SANITARY HOMES
MAY BE CHEAPLY CONSTRUCTED BELOW GROUND, COOL IN SUMMER AND
WARM IN WINTER

Difference between Climate and Weather. One may speak of the

weather of to-day or of some time that is past, but not of the climate of to-
day, or of any day, month, or year that is gone: for the climate of a place is
determined by a study of its weather records for a long period of years.
Climate changes so slowly that we speak of the movement as a mutation
rather than as a change. The time that has elapsed since the discovery of the
barometer and the thermometer—about two and a half centuries—is so
short as to show little if any change in climate, while the weather changes
from day to day.
The Sun Our Only Source of Appreciable Heat. Each one of the stars
visible to the eye and many of the millions that are not visible, are suns
accompanied by planets. Their conditions are similar to those of our sun,
except that most of them are larger than our sun, some a million times
larger. But their distance is so great that they exercise little or no influence
in the heating of the earth. Light travels at about the rate of 186,400 miles
per second, and yet these stars are so distant that if the nearest one had been
created at the time of the signing of the Declaration of Independence we
still would be in ignorance of its existence, for its first rays of light would
not reach us for many years yet to come; and light from some of the remote
suns that we call stars requires thousands of years to come. It is apparent
therefore that we depend exclusively upon our own luminary for the heat
that warms our atmosphere and gives life to the surface of the earth.
Different Temperatures with the
Same Quantity of Solar Heat. On
the same day of each year at the
same place practically the same
amount of heat falls upon and into
the earth’s atmosphere from the sun,
but rarely does the same temperature
and weather occur, and often there is
wide variation in the weather of the
same day of two different years. The
first of July may be cold enough to
wear an overcoat at midday, or the
first of January may be so temperate
as to permit the donning of summer FIG. 21.—Equinoxes, March 21 and September
habiliments, while, according to the 22. Axis perpendicular to Sun’s rays. Day and
night everywhere equal.
amount of heat received from the
sun, there would have occurred the usual seasonal conditions on the days
named had there been no other influence than the direct action of the sun’s
heat. The cause of these seeming inconsistencies is due to the motions of
the atmosphere in a stratum only five to seven miles in depth, air cooling by
expansion as it ascends in cyclonic whirls and heating as it descends in anti-
cyclonic movements. Condensation, in the form of cloud or rain or snow,
also introduces complications, usually producing a cooling effect in summer
and a warming in winter. In other words: interference in the uniform and
gradual change in temperature, of the lower stratum of air in which we live,
from the heat of summer to the cold of winter, and then the reverse process,
is due entirely to the heating and the cooling of the lower air by its upward
and downward motions.
 If the earth’s axis were vertical to
the plane of its orbit all places on its
surface always would have days of
twelve hours each and the nights
would be of the same length;
sunshine would just touch both poles
(Figure 21) throughout the entire
course of the earth around the sun
and there would be no seasons. One
would need to change one’s location
on the earth in order to get a change
of weather, which would be
FIG. 22.—Summer Solstice, June 21. North Pole monotonous and quite different from
leans towards Sun’s rays.
the active conditions of the
atmosphere that we now enjoy. The
whole conditions of life would be
altered for the worse. You have seen
a top tilt over to one side as it spun
on the floor. In the same way the
earth spins on its axis as it pursues its
course around the sun without
changing the direction towards which
its axis points, as shown by Figure
24.

FIG. 23.—Winter Solstice, December 21. North

Pole is dark now instead of light, as at
Summer Solstice. Pole leans in same direction
but Earth being on opposite side of its orbit
rays come from opposite direction. Refer to
Figure 24.
 FIG. 24.—Note that direction of axis does not change as Earth moves
around Sun. This causes variation in area of surface illuminated. If axis
were perpendicular to plane of orbit there would be no seasons.

FIG. 25.—As angle of incidence decreases from 90° to 10° the heat received on upper end of blocks
is spread over greater area at bottom, and its temperature diminished. (Abbe.)

The intensity of the sun’s rays at sunrise and at sunset is less than at
midday because the quantity of heat received at the outer limits of the
atmosphere on a given area, as for instance at the area of the upper ends of
the blocks in Figure 25, passes through a deeper stratum of air the lower the
angle of incidence, and because it is distributed over a larger area when it
reaches the surface of the earth.
As the heat of day increases from morning until midday and then
decreases, so does the heat of the year increase from midwinter to
midsummer and then decrease, and for the same reason: change in obliquity
of the sun’s rays, to which must be added change in distance from the
central luminary. Figure 26 shows that the sun reaches its greatest midday
altitude on June 21st and its least on December 21st.

FIG. 26.—Observer at center of picture at latitude 45°. Showing altitude attained by the Sun at
midday and length of its track above the horizon at the Summer and Winter Solstices and at the
two Equinoxes.

Solar Rays Absorbed by the Atmosphere. The atmosphere of the earth

absorbs about seventy-six per cent. of the solar rays that pass through it.
About one half is absorbed by a cloudless atmosphere, and nearly all is
absorbed or reflected away by a cloudy air. On the average about fifty-two
per cent. of the earth’s surface is obscured by clouds all the time, which
reduces the total amount of heat that reaches the earth to but twenty-four
per cent. But in regions like the high plateau of the Rocky Mountains,
where there is little cloudiness or moisture in the air, fully fifty per cent.
reach the earth. At the equator, when the sun is in the zenith at noon, the
rays strike the earth perpendicularly and reach the earth through the shortest
air distance possible; but for latitudes far north or south of the equator, the
rays are more oblique and must pass through an ever-increasing thickness
of air as the latitude increases. Consequently the heat that reaches the earth
at high latitudes decreases, not only on account of the greater obliquity of
the sun’s rays, but also because of the longer path of atmosphere traversed,
which causes a further loss by absorption.
The Lag of Earth Temperatures. The solar rays reach their greatest
intensity on June 21st, in the Northern Hemisphere, when the sun attains the
farthest point north, and the obliquity of its rays is the least, but the highest
temperature of the air for the year does not occur on the average for a
month or six weeks later, due to the capacity of the earth and air to absorb
heat; and the maximum for the earth does not occur until still later. The sun
is the farthest south on December 21st, but the minimum air temperature of
the year, on the average, does not occur until a month later, and at a later
period in the earth. At Munich, Bavaria, at a depth of four feet, the
minimum annual temperature occurs on the 2d of March, and the maximum
on the 24th of August. For each increase of four feet in depth the time of
occurrence of either maximum or minimum temperature is retarded twenty-
one days, the minimum not occurring until the 23d of May at a depth of
20.2°, and the maximum being retarded until the 17th of November.
Annual Range in Air Temperature. The difference in temperature
between winter and summer increases from the equator northward and from
all oceans toward the interior of continents, and is greater in the middle
latitudes on the eastern side of large bodies of land than on their western
side. Yakutsk, Siberia, has experienced 80° below zero in January and 102°
above in July, making a range of 182°. Dawson, Canada, has a record of 68°
below for winter and 94° above for summer, making a range of 162°. In
marked contrast with these large differences, shown in the northern interior
of continents, is the annual range at Samoa, from a maximum of 92° to a
minimum of 62°, a range for the year of only 30° for this island of the
Pacific, located near the equator.
Reversal of the Seasons in the Two Hemispheres. The summer is
shorter in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern and the winter is
longer, but the Southern Hemisphere is nearer to the sun in the summer and
farther away in winter, conditions that tend to add to the extremes of both
seasons. Because of the slowness of the earth in passing through one half of
its orbit, the northern summer lasts ninety-three days, while that of the
Southern Hemisphere lasts but eighty-nine days. The result is that during
like seasons and during the whole year the two hemispheres receive exactly
the same quantity of heat.
Only Water Vapor Protects the Earth from Death by Freezing. In
Chapter IV you are told that the earth is surrounded by four atmospheres
that conduct themselves each quite independently of the others, and that
water vapor (aqueous vapor) is one of them. Water vapor plays the most
important part in absorbing incoming rays and in absorbing and reflecting
back outgoing heat rays from the earth. Without the vaporous atmosphere
the sun’s rays would be but slightly absorbed as they entered and radiation
from the earth would readily escape through the atmosphere to outer space.
No matter how fiercely the sun might shine, life on the earth would be
entirely destroyed by cold.
When water vapor, clouds, or dust motes intercept certain portions of the
sun’s rays, they change them from vibrations in ether to the motions of
molecules, and the motions of these molecules are expressed in a rise in
temperature in the vapor, cloud, or dust. Earth radiations of heat, having
longer and slower wave lengths than those that come from the sun, are more
readily absorbed by the atmosphere.
One of the principal functions of the atmosphere is to protect the earth
from the intense cold of outer space, which must be near or at absolute zero
—459° below the zero mark.
 Why Should Not Mountain Peaks Be Warm? They Are Nearer the
Sun. The absorption by the atmosphere of both solar and terrestrial
radiation is greater in the lower levels of the air, where water vapor, cloud,
and dust are the densest, while the transmission of both incoming and
outgoing radiation is more rapid through the pure air aloft. Thus we account
for the coolness of all mountain peaks, and the perpetual freezing
temperatures of some, even though they be located in the tropics, and
though their tops occupy positions several miles nearer the sun than the
bases from which they rise.
How the Earth Cools at Night. Radiation from the earth goes on day
and night, winter and summer. During daylight the gain of heat is greater
than the loss, while at night the reverse is true. After sunset both the earth
and the air continue to cool by radiation unchecked by the incoming heat of
the daytime. The earth loses heat, even under a clear sky, more freely than
the air, with the result that the surface of the ground and of vegetation may
fall to a temperature ten to fifteen degrees lower than that of the air at a few
hundred feet elevation. This condition is called “temperature inversion.”
The greater difference will occur when there is little wind to mix the air. On
a clear night the radiation outward will be rapid; then, if the wind be light,
there may occur an increase in temperature up to a height of two hundred to
four hundred feet, and then a fall, reaching the surface temperature at about
two thousand feet elevation, unless the ground be wet, or the location be
adjacent to a considerable body of water.
A Cloud Covering Cools by Day and Warms by Night. One of the
principal functions of clouds is to conserve the heat of the sun. A covering
of cloud, fog, or dense haze may not only screen off the heat of day, but
greatly retard the lowering of temperature at night by reflecting and
radiating back to the ground much of the heat that it has lost.
The Temperature of Oceans, Lakes, and Rivers. The same quantity of
heat falling upon different kinds of matter produces different temperatures,
depending on the capacity (specific heat) of each kind of matter to absorb or
hold heat; this is notably apparent when the matter is land, water, or air; for
the same quantity of heat will raise the temperature of a water surface only
about one fourth as much as it will a land surface. Water rejects by
reflection a considerable amount of the solar rays that fall upon it, while
land reflects but a small part; and of that which is received upon the top
layer of water much is rendered latent in the process of evaporation and
does not impart warmth to the water. Solar rays also penetrate water to a
considerable depth and are quite uniformly absorbed by the whole stratum
penetrated. These conditions cause large water surfaces and the air
immediately over them to have a much lower temperature during the day
and a much higher temperature during the night; and also lower
temperatures during summer and higher temperatures during winter, than
occur over a land surface of the same latitude.
Fresh Water and Salt Water Have Different Freezing Temperatures.
In the ratio of 93.5 to 100 the specific heat of sea water is less than that of
fresh water. Sea water is a better conductor of heat, so that it penetrates to a
greater depth in salt water in the same period of time than it does in fresh
water. Sea water regularly contracts with falling temperature until its
greatest density occurs at four degrees below freezing, when it becomes
solid ice and expands in the process of freezing; otherwise it would not
float.
A Wonderful Phenomenon. In this respect a most wonderful and
unexplainable phenomenon occurs with regard to fresh water. Not only sea
water but practically all other forms of matter—liquid, solid, and gaseous—
expand with increasing heat and contract with decreasing heat, except fresh
water between 39° and 32°, which actually expands with falling
temperature. It seems as though the Creator had gone over His work and
made revisions and corrections here and there, for unless the law with
regard to the contraction of liquids with falling temperatures had been
reversed for fresh water between 39° and 32° our rivulets, streams, lakes,
and rivers would freeze from the bottom upward and the life of inland water
be wholly or partly destroyed.
Even more calamitous would be the floods of springtime, for melting
snows and falling rains would spread over and erode the cultivated fields of
the husbandman instead of being carried away by the open channels of
streams, as is largely done now.
The Freezing of Fresh and of Salt Bodies of Water. The freezing of
water does not take place upon the surface of water only, as many suppose.
Congelation takes place about millions of minute atoms of matter carried by
the water in suspension. Water expands in the process of freezing and each
particle of ice, no matter in what part of the body of water it is formed,
immediately rises to the surface because of the gain in its buoyance as it
changes from the liquid to the solid form.
When the surface of water cools by radiation to a cooler air it gains in
specific gravity and sinks and warmer water comes up to take its place and
in turn be cooled and sink; thus a circulation is established which continues
in fresh water until every part of the body of water has fallen to 39° and in
salt water to 28°. At these temperatures the two waters reach their
maximum density. With the further cooling of salt water particles of ice
form and rise to the top, as already described. With the cooling of fresh
water below 39° the law that holds good for all higher temperatures is
reversed and expansion of volume begins, which continues until 32° is
reached. Therefore, fresh water of any temperature between 39° and 32°
may float upon water that is considerably warmer; in fact, it has less
specific gravity at 32° than at 46°. At 32° that which was a liquid becomes a
solid and still further suddenly expands its volume.
The Cold of Ocean Bottoms. Few have any idea of the enormous
volume of cold water that lies upon the surface of the earth, three fourths of
which is covered with oceans whose depths average two miles and in many
places are five miles. Below one mile in depth these oceans are always at
about the freezing point of salt water, which is 28°, except in the tropics,
where it is but little warmer, varying between 34° and 36°.
How Temperatures of Inclosed Seas Differ from Those of Oceans. We
will take the Red Sea as an example. It is 180 miles wide and extends in a
nearly north and south direction for 1450 miles, about one half of it lying
within the tropics. Evaporation takes place at a rapid rate, but only the
surface water of the Indian Ocean on the south is able to enter to take the
place of that which is lost, for a bar or sill at the entrance, extending from
the bottom to within twelve hundred feet of the surface, separates the deep
water of the sea from that of the outside ocean. Its surface temperatures
vary about as the Indian Ocean, being 85° in summer and 70° in winter.
Both bodies of water decrease in temperature at about the same rate down
to the level of the sill, where the temperature remains constant the year
through at 70°. Here a marked difference occurs, for the sea, which has a
depth of 7200 feet, maintains the same temperature of 70° all the way down
to the bottom; while the ocean continues to decrease in temperature down to
a depth of about six thousand feet, where a temperature of 34° to 36°
prevails throughout the year. A similar condition exists with relation to the
Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean. At the top of the sill, which is 1140
feet below the surface, the temperature of both bodies is 55°, and this
degree of heat is maintained all the way down to the bottom of the
Mediterranean, while in the Atlantic Ocean, at the same depth as the bottom
of the Mediterranean, the temperature is only 35°.
How the Temperature of Water Changes with Latitude, Season, and
Depth. It is impossible to name a given temperature as prevailing over
bodies of water at all places on the same parallel of latitude, because ocean
currents soon move water heated in one latitude to a higher or a lower
position. At the equator the surface temperature is between 82° and 84°; it
changes less than one degree between day and night, and not over five
degrees between winter and summer; and below twenty-four hundred feet
there is no difference between the seasons, the daily variation ceasing at
less than a hundred feet. Below six thousand feet the temperature is always
near the freezing point of fresh water.
In the middle latitudes the surface variation is from 50° in winter to 68°
in summer.
At latitude 70° N. the surface temperature has but a small daily variation,
and a yearly range of from 35° for winter to 45° for summer; at a depth of
twenty-four hundred feet it remains steady at 32°.
From this level there is a gradual decrease to a depth of six thousand feet,
where a constant temperature of 28° exists, and below this there is no
change. The temperature of Lake Superior decreases down to a depth of two
hundred forty feet, where a temperature of 39° continues throughout the
year, as it does downward for the remainder of the distance to the bottom,
which has an average depth of nine hundred feet.
Direction of Wind Affects Shore Temperature of Water. Onshore
winds skim off the warm surface water and drive it shoreward, where it
banks up, and, pressing downward, causes the colder water beneath to flow
back seaward. In like manner, offshore winds blow off the top water near
the shore and send it out to sea, and colder water rises to take its place.
Great Heat of the Earth’s Interior. We are ignorant of the conditions of
matter under the heating effect of the enormous pressure that exists near the
center of the earth, but it is probable that pressure prevents it from changing
from a solid to a liquid or a gaseous form. The surface of the solid earth
rises to a much higher temperature as the solar rays fall upon it than does a
water surface, or the air immediately above, because it is a poor reflector, a
poor conductor, and a poor radiator, and when dry does not get any cooling
effect from evaporation. Solar heat ceases to be apparent at a depth that
varies with the latitude and the conditions of the soil with regard to
moisture and specific heat, but everywhere at less than fifty feet.
 At the poles and for some distance away the earth is covered with ice or
snow the entire year and is frozen to a considerable depth. In the interior of
Siberia and some parts of Alaska only a thin stratum of soil thaws out under
the heat of summer. Beginning at about fifty feet, there is an increase of
temperature downward, but it is not the same for all places, varying from a
degree for forty feet to a degree for one hundred feet. Taking the average of
the increase with depth, water would boil at ninety-five hundred feet and
the hardest rock be molten at thirty miles. At a depth of 3490 feet near
Berlin, the temperature was found to be 116°, while it was only 108° at the
same depth at Wheeling, West Virginia, and in both places there is no
change from day to night or from winter to summer.
Soil Usually Warmer Than Air Next Above. In summer, June to
August, the bare, dry, top soil is warmer than the air ten feet above during
all hours of the day and night, at times the difference being as much as forty
degrees at midday. During winter, December to February, it is slightly
cooler, except between 9 A.M. and 3 P.M. when the excess is seldom more
than ten degrees. Evaporation from a wet soil lowers its temperature below
that of the air immediately above through the rendering latent of a large
quantity of heat. A melting snow surface also is below the temperature of
the air because of the heat employed in changing the snow to the liquid
form.
Let Mother Earth Cool and Refresh You During the Heat of
Summer. How little the average man realizes the possibilities for
improving his condition that lie close at hand. He does not know, or he is
indifferent to the fact, that only three feet from the surface of the ground it
is as cool at midday as at midnight, and that there is no diurnal variation in
temperature below that depth, and no annual variation below a depth of
from thirty to forty feet. If one were to set down the temperature of each
day, add the numbers at the end of the year, and divide the sum by 365 the
quotient would equal the temperature always found at that place at a depth
of about thirty feet. The temperature of a deep-flowing spring is always
about the mean annual air temperature of the place. Here is health-giving
coolness for summer and warmth for winter of which one takes little heed
and derives practically no profit.
Remarkable, is it not? And these beneficent conditions are universal and
available for all, except to those crowded into congested centers of
population. The temperature is 54° in the Mammoth Cave in Kentucky and
shows no change from day to day and from winter to summer.
During the extreme heat of summer and the cold of winter many could
profitably, healthfully, and pleasantly live below ground. During such
periods the cellar of the house, which should be deep and spacious, even
extending beyond the dimensions of the edifice above, if a continuous
supply of pure air could be forced through it, or natural ventilation
accomplished by the plan outlined below, should be the lounging, resting,
and sleeping place of the occupants of the household. It is not impossible or
extremely difficult to change the stagnant, moist, germ-laden, ill-smelling
air of the average cellar, in which it is positively dangerous to spend much
time, into active, pure, and delightfully healthful air,—air in which the worn
and weary worker from the heat of the farmer’s field, or the artisan and the
clerk from the debilitating temperatures of the factory and the office could
recuperate from the toil of the day, and from which they would go forth
each morning invigorated for another day’s efficient service, instead of
dragging weary limbs from hot, sleepless beds, each morning less in energy
than the day before. As is shown in other parts of this book, the researches
of Huntington have proven conclusively that man is at his lowest physical
and mental points of efficiency, and more subject to the contraction of
disease through weakness, in midsummer and midwinter, and that the hotter
the summer and the colder the winter the less is his energy and the lower is
his power of resistance.
The whole problem is one of ventilation. While this is simple, it must be
scientifically done. The ideal location for a living cellar is a hillside. It is
easy to install ventilators in the roof of a cellar no matter where located, but
these are of no avail whatever if there is not adequate air drainage at the
bottom of the cellar. From the cellar in a hillside a conduit can lead from the
bottom of the inclosure and have its opening at a lower level, thereby
accomplishing drainage and circulation, which are all-important in the
creating of a sanitary condition of air under the cool earth. For each
thousand cubic feet of cellar space there should project from the roof, to a
height of at least six feet above ground, a separate ventilator shaft of at least
one square foot cross-section dimension. A like ventilating capacity should
be provided from the bottom outward to a lower level, but here two or more
shafts may be combined in one, so the proper capacity is secured. During
the day the draft will be upward through this system. But at night, except
when the wind is brisk, the direction of movement of the air is reversed, and
the cool air of the minimum temperature of night or early morning, because
of its greater density, drops down into the cellar. The drainage shaft should
be provided with a damper, which should be closed in the early morning,
about daybreak, entrapping the cold air of night. The lower opening should
be covered with wire netting, to exclude small animals, and the whole
construction be of concrete, rendering it imperishable and rat-proof.
Inexpensive but Efficient Cold Storage. Such a sanitary cellar as
described above provides an excellent storage for fruits and vegetables,
comparing favorably with the much more expensive artificial refrigeration.
By an intelligent manipulation of the damper in the lower shaft, cool
storage may be provided for fruit and other produce in the early fall, and
protection secured against the extreme cold of winter.
Why Does Air Cool with Ascent and Heat with Descent? If a mass of
air be elevated 183 feet it will be found to have lost one degree in
temperature, because there is less air above to exert pressure upon it and it
therefore expands to greater volume, and in the process of expansion work
is performed which employs heat and renders it latent. One minute, one
hour, or a thousand years thereafter, if this same air be lowered to its former
elevation, it will be compressed into its previous dimensions and the heat
energy that formerly was employed to expand it will be restored to the
sensible condition. This ratio of 183 feet to one degree does not hold for
any extended movement, because, as soon as the dew point of the air is
reached, condensation in the form of cloud or rain occurs and the heat of
condensation is released; that is to say, the same quantity of heat employed
to create the water vapor at some previous time and thereby rendered latent
is now become sensible and partly makes up for the loss by expansion as
the air ascends. The average is therefore about three hundred feet for one
degree.
Height of Freezing Cold in the Free Air. The frost level remains
constant, winter and summer, over the equator at about eighteen thousand
feet. Elsewhere this level rises and falls with the seasons, the amplitude of
the movement increasing with latitude and being greater over land than over
water on the same parallel.
Daily Range of Temperature in the Free Air. The difference between
the temperature of day and that of night decreases with altitude in the free
air and ceases at about eight thousand feet. It is greatest during clear
weather and least in cloudy weather. Narrow valleys may show a greater
daily range than hilltops. When the sky is clear, radiation from the hillsides
may heat the air in a valley to almost furnace heat at midday, while at night
the air, coming in contact with cool vegetation higher up, chills and, gaining
in weight by contraction, flows down and collects in the valley, making the
bottom of the valley warmer during day and colder during night than the air
above. Often moisture-laden winds precipitate much of their water vapor as
the air cools by expansion in passing over a mountain range. These winds
carry a comparatively dry air over to the leeward side of the mountain,
where the daily range of temperature will be much greater than on the
windward side at the same elevation. San Francisco, where the prevailing
winds come from the ocean, has a less range than New York, where the
predominating winds are from the land; but New York is influenced by its
proximity to the ocean, for its range is much less than at Denver, in the
interior of the continent. The range is less on the east side of Lake Michigan
than on the west side, as it is with relation to all similar bodies of water.
Man Soon Adjusts Himself to Changes in Altitude. In Colonial days it
was noted that horses coming down from the mountains in North Carolina
ran swifter in the races the first day or two after changing to a lower level.
In going to a higher altitude an increase in the number of red corpuscles in
the blood enables it to absorb oxygen more readily, and thus compensate for
the loss in the density of the air. Because of this gain in the chemical
activities of the life current, one feels a marked increase in strength on
coming to a lower level, but the gain lasts for only a short time before there
is a readjustment to former conditions. Persons with weak hearts may not be
able to live at an altitude of four thousand feet, and most people experience
inconvenience, at least, on first reaching ten thousand feet; but nature is
accommodating, and a number of large cities prosper at altitudes of from
one to two miles.
 CHAPTER XI
HOW CLIMATE IS MODIFIED AND CONTROLLED

If the surface of the earth were all land, and the axis of the earth’s
rotation were perpendicular to the plane of the earth’s orbit, the day and the
night would be equal everywhere, and there would be no seasons. There
would be no wind, for the friction of the air against the rotating earth would
soon cause all levels of the atmosphere to take up the exact easterly velocity
of the solid body below. The atmosphere would be contracted by cold and
drawn downward so as to have less depth at the poles than at any place
having latitude, and it would be deepest at the equator, where the direct rays
of the sun would expand it to an altitude of probably twice what it could
have at the poles. Centrifugal force—the force that causes mud to fly off the
rim of a swiftly rotating wagon wheel—would further lower the height of
the atmosphere at the poles and cause it still more to extend outward at the
equator. The atmosphere would soon adjust itself to these constant
conditions and forces and thereafter remain at rest relative to the earth.
There would be no life, for there would be no vaporous atmosphere if the
surface all were without water. There would be extremely little heat to
disturb the atmosphere with motion, for the dry gases of the atmosphere are
practically diathermanous, and the heat of the sun would pass out by
radiation from the burnt and parched surface of the earth during daytime
without imparting more than a minute fraction of its energy to the
atmosphere; and at night the thin surface of the top soil that had been heated
to a furnace temperature during sunshine would be quickly locked in the
fastnesses of intense cold—probably 200° below zero.
 If we now incline the axis of our imaginary earth 23½°, we shall
introduce seasons whose only change, the one from the other, will be in the
duration of sunlight, as there is no water vapor to absorb and utilize the
sun’s rays in the initiation of motion and the creation of storms. We are
assuming that there would be enough heat absorbed to prevent the
atmosphere from liquefying, which it would do at any temperature lower
than 312° below zero. If the temperature were to fall below the liquefying
point of air, we would have the singular phenomenon of the air expanding
to a gas during daylight and condensing to a liquid during nighttime, and, of
course, that would mean motion and winds, but of such a nature that one
would hardly dare speculate as to their peculiarities.
We introduce these hypothetical cases for the purpose of conveying a
clearer idea of the overlapping of conditions and the combinations of forces
that influence and control the seasons, the climate, and the weather of the
earth.
If the surface of the earth were all water and its axis perpendicular to the
plane of its orbit, the day and the night would everywhere be equal and
there would be no seasons. With a water surface there would be an
atmosphere nearly if not quite saturated with vapor of water, in other words,
of practically one hundred per cent. relative humidity. It is doubtful if either
animal or vegetable life could exist; the first would die of internal heat,
because a saturated air would permit of no cooling by evaporation from the
pores of the skin, or from the tongue and mouth of animals that do not
perspire; and the second could not grow without the chemical action of
sunshine, which is a necessary part of the laboratory of the leaf of every
growing plant, the sunshine acting upon the green granular matter which
constitutes the chlorophyll of the plant. There would be little difference
between the temperature of day and of night—probably not more than one
degree. As the earth would everywhere and at all times be covered with a
deep stratum of cloud there would be little loss of heat to space by radiation
and the temperature would be excessive, rising in the tropics to near the
boiling point. We will assume that the atmosphere would reach a stable and
unchanged condition of great heat and humidity and be without motion or
precipitation.
If now we incline the axis of this water-covered earth and introduce the
complication of seasons, we shall not only have variation in the hours of
sunshine, increasing as we go from the equator toward the poles, but, the
capacity of air for moisture being less and less with falling temperature, we
shall have downpours of rain as the summer slowly merges into fall and the
latter into winter. Although the air will be saturated, there probably will be
no rainfall from the time when the temperature begins to rise after
midwinter until it reaches and passes the maximum heat of summer. It is
fair to assume that during the rainy period there will be cyclonic storms
with torrential precipitation, and that the anti-cyclones that are a necessary
concomitant of cyclones, while they may cause a temporary cessation of
precipitation in the area that they cover, by the dynamic heating of the air in
their downward motions, will be ineffective in fully clearing away the
clouds from a water-covered earth. It is doubtful if such an earth would be
suitable for life,—certainly not for man.
The Real Earth of Land, Water, and Inclined Axis. The different
manner in which land and water surfaces absorb, radiate, and reflect the
heat from the sun has a profound influence on climate, which also is
modified by latitude, elevation above sea level, elevation above a valley or
above a surrounding plane, direction of wind, height and trend of direction
of hills and mountains, the position of lakes and inland seas, the relative
position and magnitude of continents and oceans, storm tracks, and ocean
currents.
Influence of Continents and Oceans on Climate. Charts 1 and 2 (pages
99 and 100), constructed from observations taken on ships and on land, for
a long series of years, show certain Highs and Lows of vast extent,
sometimes called “Centers of Action”, because they do not travel across
continents and oceans, as do the migrating Highs and Lows that cause
weather. Rather do they slowly reverse their relative positions between
winter and summer. Continents cool by radiation in winter more rapidly
than do oceans; the air contracts, settles down and grows denser and air
flows in at the top from the oceans and outward at the surface of the earth
toward the oceans; thus is built up the winter Highs, or centers of action, on
continents. Continents heat up by absorption in summer more rapidly than
do oceans; the air expands, rises, and flows away in the upper levels to
oceans and flows in at the bottom from the oceans; and thus are the Lows,
or centers of action, established on continents in summer. It is apparent that
these processes must be reversed for the oceans, and that the Highs will be
found there in the summer and the Lows in the winter. Carefully follow the
illustrations of these principles by examining the whole region north of the
equator on Charts 1 and 2.
In the Southern Hemisphere there is not such a pronounced shifting of
the Highs and the Lows from oceans to continents and back again, with
change in the seasons, as there is in the Northern Hemisphere, because of
the small area of land in comparison with that of water; but in the midst of
the southern summer, which occurs in January (Chart 2), Lows are shown
over South America, Africa, and Australia. Note how the winds blow out of
all the Highs and into all the Lows. Also observe that the winds generally
blow from about latitude 30° north and south towards the equator, due to
the great heat of the tropics, which causes the air to rise and in the high
levels to flow northward and southward, settling down to the earth again
through the belts of high pressure that irregularly encircle the earth at
latitudes 30° north and south.
In the interior of continents the temperature falls lower at night and rises
higher during the day, and falls lower in winter and rises higher in summer
than on any of their coasts. On the coast of central California, for instance,
the ocean is so cool in summer and the winds blow so steadily from it that
the thermometer ranges between 55° and 70°, even when there are
temperatures of over 100° but a few hundred miles away in the great
interior valleys, or on the broad plateaus of the mountains. New York and
Boston, in nearly the same latitude, also have their summer temperatures
modified by ocean influence, but they are on the east side of a broad
continent, where the prevailing westerly winds give to them more the
character of a continental climate than one marine; but occasionally the east
wind, for a short time, gives to them the modifying influence of the ocean.
In the winter the influence of the oceans is to modify the extremes of cold,
the same as they do the excessive heat of summer.

CHART 12.—AVERAGE MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE FOR JULY (Henry).

Chart 8 (page 129) showing the lowest temperatures ever recorded at

Weather Bureau stations, and Chart 12, presenting the average of the
highest daily temperatures of July, graphically show, clearer than any text
can describe, the influence of continents and oceans on climate. On the
Atlantic the average maximum of day varies from 70° on the Maine coast to
85° on the coast of North Carolina; while on the Pacific, where the marine
influence is stronger, the average is from 65° on the Washington coast to
80° on the coast of southern California. But near the center of the United
States where the continental influence predominates, the average of the
highest daily temperatures varies from 85° to 90°. On Chart 8, showing the
lowest temperatures, the line of 20° below zero passes through Boston,
southwest to Chattanooga, west to Flagstaff, Arizona, and then irregularly
north to Seattle, showing the influence of both oceans in carrying the line
northward.

CHART 13.—OCEAN CURRENTS.

Because of the vast extent of the Eurasian (Europe and Asia) continent
the difference between continental and marine climates is more marked than
in the Western Hemisphere. Huntington and Cushing, in their splendid work
on “Principles of Human Geography”,[3] make a comparison between the
southern Lofoten Islands, off the coast of Norway, and Verkhoyansk in
Siberia, which probably furnish the greatest contrast to be found anywhere
between places of the same latitude. Although both are inside the Arctic
Circle, the influence of the Atlantic Ocean with its warm-water currents
coming all the way from the tropics (Chart 13) protects the Lofoten Islands
from the extreme cold that otherwise would come to them; vegetation
remains green and cattle are pastured every month in the year. But the
ocean retains nearly the same temperature in summer as in winter, and as a
result the Islands are too cold to grow trees or many crops. Verkhoyansk is
so different that one can scarcely believe that both places are in the same
latitude. At the Siberian town the winter temperature falls to 70° or 80°
below zero every winter, and has been known to register 90° below zero. It
is said that steel skates often will not “take hold” but slip sideways as well
as forward on the surface of the excessively cold ice. This doubtless is due
to the fact that under ordinary winter cold the weight of the skater melts a
thin film of water under the edge of the skate, which freezes instantly when
the skate passes and relieves the pressure. But here the cold is so intense
that the weight of no skater is sufficient to lubricate his movements with
water molecules. Remarkable to relate, the summer at Verkhoyansk is
warmer than in the islands off the Norwegian coast, due to the rapidity with
which the land surface warms up under the action of the solar rays in the
midst of a continental area remote from water, 75° to 80° frequently being
recorded during the long summer days. The ground never thaws for more
than a foot or so, but a number of crops are successfully grown.
In the interior of a continent like that of Siberia or of North America not
only the changes from season to season but from day to night are extreme;
while in mid-ocean the diurnal and the annual range of temperature is small,
day and night, winter and summer being much the same. A place is
influenced by the ocean in proportion to its distance from the sea, the
presence or the absence of hills or mountains between the place and the
water, and by the fact that the prevailing winds come from or go to the
ocean. Cities as far inland as Baltimore and Philadelphia have their
extremes of temperature somewhat modified by the Atlantic Ocean, and if it
were not for the Coastal and the Sierra Nevada Mountains the influence of
the Pacific Ocean would be felt at least as far inland as Denver, and the
great Rocky Mountain plateau would be one of the garden plots of the
world. The influence of the Pacific would reach inland farther than now
does the Atlantic because of the prevailing westward drift of the atmosphere
in all middle latitudes.
Exaggeration of the Forest Influence on Climate. Chapter XIII, on
Change of Climate, shows more in detail the process whereby the sun lifts
up the water vapor from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean and
how cyclonic storms draw this vaporous atmosphere northwestward far into
the interior of the continent, the Alleghany Mountains not being high
enough to offer serious obstruction.
The writer would again caution the reader not to be misled by any
pseudoscientist, no matter how worthy his purpose may be, who would
teach that the operations of men in changing forest areas to cultivated fields,
gardens, villages, and cities, has in the slightest degree harmfully affected
the climate, or augmented floods or intensified droughts. A field of grass, of
wheat, of corn; an orchard of fruit; a highway bordered with towering,
majestic oaks and elms; or a grove of cultivated trees about a prosperous
home is just as beneficial to the climate as the thickest and most
impenetrable forest and far more pleasing to the eye and helpful to
mankind. Forests should be protected, conserved, and grown because we
need timber, not because a lot of foolish people are writing nonsense about
them.
Influence of Lakes and Rivers. With the exception of contributing to
the formation of occasional fogs over their surfaces and the adjacent low
lands, through the rising of warm water vapor into the cold air that often
collects at the bottom of valleys during nighttime, rivers exercise little
influence on climate. Lakes exert a modifying influence on the temperature
of places near their shores but only for a few miles therefrom, and they are
too small to exert any appreciable influence on rainfall. If one examine
charts showing the average rainfall for the United States by seasons, he will
observe that the amount gradually shades off as the distance from the Gulf
or Ocean increases, without any relation whatever to the five Great Lakes.
Deserts exist on either side of the Caspian Sea, although it slightly increases
the rain of the Elburz Mountains to the south. If these great bodies of water
do not influence the rainfall, how ridiculous to assume that the changing of
forest areas to other forms of vegetation possibly can affect precipitation or
influence droughts. Stress is laid on the fact that some land is left bare and
then is eroded into deep gullies. This is true, but the fault is one that may be
corrected by a proper system of plowing and cultivation. And at most the
area so eroded is so infinitesimal in comparison to the vast regions changed
from forests to growing crops as to be negligible.

CHART 14.—MEAN ANNUAL ISOTHERMS (Buchan).

Influence of Ocean Currents on Climate. Climates are markedly

influenced by the currents of oceans. Charts 15 and 16 show the normal
wind circulations of the globe; note that the centers of the great swirls are
coincident with the location of the High and the Low centers of action
located on Charts 1 and 2. Next observe Chart 13, showing the ocean
currents, and it will be seen at once how closely the circulation of the great
ocean currents follows that of the winds, due to the friction of the air upon
the water, and to the interposition of bodies of land that turn about or deflect
the currents.

CHART 15.—NORMAL WIND DIRECTION AND VELOCITY FOR JANUARY AND FEBRUARY (Köppen).

CHART 16.—NORMAL WIND DIRECTION AND VELOCITY FOR JULY AND AUGUST (Köppen).

Water has a greater capacity for heat than nearly any other substance. It
requires ten times the quantity of heat to raise a pound of water one degree
that it does a pound of iron. The oceans therefore store up vast quantities of
the heat of the sun and, unlike the continents, distribute this heat northward
and southward without regard to latitude. Much of the heat of the tropics is
thus transported far northward and southward from the equator. The
extensive eddy-like circulation of the south half of the North Atlantic Ocean
sends currents northward along the coast of the United States which set
eastward at latitude 40°. A part of these reach the coast of Spain and then
turn south; the greater part spread out in mid-ocean and move northeast,
bathing the coasts of the British Islands, Iceland, and Norway. They still
retain some of the heat that they absorbed from a tropical sun, and they
therefore give to the coasts that they reach a higher temperature than they
would have if the ocean waters were moving from the north, or than they
would have if there were no currents at all. On Chart 14 note how the
isothermal lines are carried northward by these currents as they cross the
Atlantic Ocean. The Gulf Stream mingles with these northeast currents but
adds little to their temperatures, for the general ocean circulation would
produce practically the same effects if there were no Gulf Stream.
Follow the currents down the coast of Spain and of northeast Africa; then
note on Chart 14 the southward trend of the lines of equal temperature, as
the currents bring colder water southward to cool the air. Next examine the
currents of the Pacific and the isothermals. The currents moving northward
towards the equator along the west coast of South America, and those
moving southward, also toward the equator, along the west coast of the
United States and Mexico cause a bulging of the isothermal lines from the
positions that they would occupy if there were no currents coming from
colder regions.
Influence of the Gulf Stream on Climate. From either side of the
equator the surface winds (Charts 15 and 16) blow the water westward,
causing what are known as the “Equatorial Currents” (Chart 13). The
eastward projection of the coast of South America divides the Atlantic
equatorial current into two parts; one goes south along the coast of South
America and sets up the circulation in the South Atlantic, which sweeps
north along the southwest coast of Africa. The other passes to the
northwest, a part setting up the North Atlantic circulation and the remainder
sweeping through the Windward Islands and storing itself in the Gulf of
Mexico, whence it is driven out at a velocity of some five miles per hour
through the narrow channel between Key West and Cuba. Here it has a
depth of half a mile and a width of forty miles. Its velocity is accelerated
because it enters the Gulf in a broad sweep and passes out through a
constricted channel. It retains its individuality as a warm river passing
through the ocean because of its greater velocity and higher temperature
than the waters in which it finds itself soon after it leaves the Gulf; but it
gradually merges with the great Atlantic circulation as it passes to the
middle of the ocean. It is the opinion of the writer that its influence on
climate has been exaggerated, that the warming of Europe that is credited to
the Gulf Stream is accomplished by the mere presence of the ocean to the
westward and to the general circulation of that ocean without regard to the
wonderful phenomenon known as the Gulf Stream.
Effect of Valleys on Day and Night Temperatures. Valleys affect
temperatures in proportion to their depth and width. A deep, narrow valley
might have the effect illustrated by Figure 27, if the time were summer and
the sky clear. During the daytime radiation would warm the interior so that
the bottom of the valley would have a much higher temperature than the
free air at the top of the valley, and the movement of the air would be
sluggishly down the center and up the sides of the depression. During
nighttime all the conditions would be reversed. Vegetation, losing heat by
radiation much faster than the air, would cool the latter as it came in contact
with the sides of the valley. The air would slowly descend along the sides
through gain in specific gravity and collect at the bottom with a temperature
much lower than it had when it started its descent.
 FIGURE 27.

Summer day temperature in a narrow valley. Summer night temperature in the same valley.

Effect of Mountains on Climate. The rarity of the atmosphere of

mountains readily allows the rays of the sun to pass through it and thus the
surface of mountains is quickly warmed, but the same conditions permit a
rapid radiation at night, so that there are considerable extremes of
temperature. Air cooled by contact with a mountain may flow down its
sides at night and collect in depressions below, often causing frost on still
nights where the temperature higher up is much above freezing. Mountains
may be more cloudy and rainy than plains, for the currents of air that cross
them must rise, and in rising they cool by expansion and often reach the
dew point of the air, moisture being precipitated in the form of clouds, rain,
or snow. Often a peak is constantly capped with a crown of clouds.
Mountains may intercept vapor-bearing winds from oceans, force them to
such an elevation that their vapor is largely precipitated on the windward
side of the mountain, and receive them on the leeward side as dry, rainless
winds. Vast desert areas are often the result. A good example is presented in
the case of the Pacific coast mountains and the desert plateau to the east.
Mountain peaks may be covered with snow, even though they be located
in the tropics, if their elevation be sufficient. This is because the absorption
of both incoming and outgoing radiation is so much greater in the lower
reaches of the atmosphere, where the water vapor is densest. Wherever
observations have been made they have shown that the temperature of the
air on high mountain peaks and crests and for a distance of one to three
hundred feet above them is cooler than adjacent free air of the same height,
due to upward deflection of air currents and their cooling by expansion, and
to radiation from the peak.
The Himalayan Mountains exercise a profound effect on the climate of
Asia. The monsoon (any wind that alternates annually in direction or force)
of summer brings the moist air from the Bay of Bengal and precipitates
torrential rains from it as it ascends to higher and higher elevations in
passing over the great heights of the mountains. At a place four thousand
feet above the sea and not distant from Calcutta, the annual rainfall is 466
inches, while the average for most of the region east of the Mississippi
River is only forty inches. More than forty inches have been known to fall
in one day in the Himalayan Mountains. As in the case of all very high
mountains, the rainfall increases in these mountains up to a certain
elevation and then decreases. North of the mountains the monsoon passes
into the interior of Asia with withering dryness and vast deserts are the
result.
 FIG. 28.—Average Monthly Temperature and Rainfall of Typical Places in
North America. (Huntington and Cushing.)

Figure 28 graphically presents the average monthly temperature and

rainfall of typical places in North America, and Figure 29 of places in the
Old World. Here may be seen every phase of climate from tropical to
temperate and to cold, and from marine to continental. By studying the
winds on Charts 15 and 16 and the ocean currents on Chart 13, the reader
should be able to find an explanation for the different conditions shown. For
example: Mazatlan and Vera Cruz are both on the coast of Mexico, the first
on the west and the latter on the east. Each has a rainy period in the
summer, but at Vera Cruz the rain begins earlier and lasts later and is much
heavier. The reason is that they both have north winds in winter (Charts 15
and 16), but in summer Vera Cruz receives winds direct from the Gulf of
Mexico and at Mazatlan the winds continue to blow from the north, with
but a slight inclination landward. Again, the explanation for the fact that
Mazatlan has a monthly range of temperature from 60° in winter to 80° in
summer, while Vera Cruz has a range of only 70° to 80° is found in the
wind direction.
 FIG. 29.—Average Monthly Temperatures and Rainfall of Typical Places in
the Old World. (From “Principles of Human Geography.” John Wiley &
Sons.)

The City of Mexico is wonderfully favored by climate. Here a moderate

rainfall occurs from May to September. The oceans are not far distant on
either side, as distances are measured continentally, but its great elevation
on a table-land relieves it of the torrential rains usual to the tropics; and yet
it is close enough to marine influence so that its air has not the nerve-
irritating dryness of the plateau of the Rocky Mountains, and it has a
remarkable evenness of temperature between winter and summer, with a
monthly range between 50° and 60°. Its range between day and night is
sufficient to be stimulating.
Still looking at Figure 28, note the remarkable similarity between the
climate of Pittsburgh and Toronto. Each has about the same rainfall and it is
almost equally distributed throughout the months of the year. The only
difference is that Toronto is a little colder. St. Paul and Kansas City, typical
of the climate in the interior cities, have a small amount of precipitation in
winter, considerable in summer, and a wide range of temperature; while the
Pacific coast cities have dry summers, and winters that vary from three
inches of rain at Los Angeles to fourteen inches at Astoria, with no excesses
in temperature.
Temperatures Aloft in the Atmosphere. Kite and balloon observations
have not been continued long enough, nor have they been made at a
sufficient number of places, to give one the data from which the climate of
any considerable altitude in the free air may be determined, but from a large
number of free balloon observations made with self-recording instruments,
in the middle latitudes of this and foreign countries, Figure 1 (page 12) has
been constructed, which shows the manner in which the temperature
decreases with elevation up to eighteen kilometers (eleven miles). Note how
rapidly it falls with elevation up to eleven and a half kilometers (about
seven miles). This depth of air measures the thickness of the turbulent
stratum in which cyclones and anti-cyclones operate. At its top the
temperature always is about 64° below zero in winter and 70° below in
summer. And right here occurs a most wonderful phenomenon,—one of
which scientists were entirely ignorant less than two decades ago. At first it
was thought that there was something wrong with the recording
thermometers, for they failed to register falling temperature with gaining
altitude after the storm stratum was passed at seven miles. Then it was
noted that all instruments displayed the same peculiarity, and the
“Isothermal Stratum” (equally heated region) was discovered, in which the
temperature maintains the same degree of intense cold so far as exploration
had been made. From Mount Weather, under the direction of the writer, a
balloon was flown to nineteen and one tenth miles before it exploded and
sent a parachute gently down to earth with its precious record. This flight
showed practically no change in temperature after the isothermal stratum
was reached. (See Chapter III.) One is reasonably safe in assuming that
there is no oxygen beyond an altitude of thirty miles and that at fifty miles
the nitrogen becomes inappreciable, and that, therefore, the temperature
must shade away to practically nothing when the void of outer space is
reached, notwithstanding the presence of the newly-discovered isothermal
stratum nearer the earth.
 CHAPTER XII
CIVILIZATION FOLLOWS THE STORM TRACKS

THE MOST DOMINANT RACES—THOSE THAT BEST CO-ORDINATE THE MENTAL AND
PHYSICAL FACULTIES—ARE FOUND TO EXIST UNDER CERTAIN CLIMATIC
CONDITIONS—CHANGE THE CLIMATE AND YOU CHANGE THE MAN

In a climate where man needs little protection from the elements, where
he may lie upon his back in the shade and with his bare toes pick wild
growing fruit to nourish his body, one will find no great leaders in art,
literature, science, statecraft, or industry; likewise, in the Arctic, where man
simply gathers enough blubber to supply his animal wants and then burrows
beneath the snows of fierce winters, one will not find leadership or creative
genius. The regions of greatest human potential are limited to such portions
of the temperate zone as have an abundance of rainfall, frequent changes in
the weather, and an alluvial soil. In other words, the most perfect composite
of human resourcefulness is found where nature is neither so fierce as to
crush human aspiration, nor yet so gentle as to lull human desire.
Humboldt says: “Man is the product of soil and climate; he is brother to
the tree, the rocks, and the animals.” We shall endeavor to show that
civilization and the greatest human potential follow the storm tracks of the
world, and that climate is the most important factor in his environment, for
without its proper adjustment to his needs the richest soil and the most
beneficent form of government fail to bring out the best that is in him.
Empire is determined as much by direction and force of the wind and
changes in the weather as by the scheming of politicians, the deep-laid
plans of diplomats, or the marshaling of battalions.
 The first thing that vigorous man requires is active atmospheric
conditions and in his migrations he follows the climatic lines that appease
his desires. A climate of little change between day and night and between
winter and summer is soothing and at the same time deadening to the
human faculties; but changes should be frequent rather than violent. The
daring, the creative, the pioneering, the persistent spirits of mankind, like
snow birds showering themselves with icy crystals, revel in the cool air, the
perpetual oscillations of temperature, and the frequent changes from
sunshine to cloud that pertain to the regions where storms are most
numerous.
Some days the mind works with a joyous lucidity, the spirits are high and
the step elastic and vigorous. On another day the mind is turbid; it works
slowly and hesitates in reaching decisions; one is listless and lacking in
physical energy. On both days one may be in a perfectly normal physical
and mental condition, except for the effects of the weather.
Under the direction of the writer, comparison of the records of crimes of
violence with the weather records, by officials of the U. S. Weather Bureau,
showed a marked increase of crime of this sort during midsummer as
against midwinter, and the extremely hot summer showed more crime than
the cool ones. During recent years Ellsworth Huntington has made
exhaustive and extremely valuable studies of the records of piece workers
in factories and elsewhere from New England and the Middle Atlantic
States down to Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, and also of the mental
activities of the cadets at West Point and Annapolis, and of the students in
colleges, as shown by their recitation markings.[4] He has compared these
records with the weather day by day and hour by hour and definitely shown
a direct relation between variations in the meteorological conditions and
human efficiency. He finds that people’s health and strength are greatest
when the temperature falls to between 56° and 60° at night and rises to
somewhere between 68° and 72° during the day. He has determined the
optimum, or, in other words, the meteorological conditions best suited to
man’s health, happiness, and efficiency. For mental activity the optimum
temperature is much lower than for physical. People’s minds are more alert,
they reason with greater analytic precision, they have greater confidence in
their decisions and they are more optimistic, when the temperature falls to
about freezing at night and rises to 45° or 50° during the day. Except for
limited activities, the most efficient man is the one in whom the mental and
physical faculties are most perfectly coördinated. Broadly speaking, this
agreement may be best accomplished during times when the daily
temperature ranges between 45° and 65°.
Excessive humidity in midsummer—eighty per cent. or over—is harmful
and adds enormously to the death rate; on the other hand, some of the worst
colds may come from extreme dryness in summer. It may be found feasible
to dry the air in sleeping and living rooms in summer when the humidity is
too high, by closing the apartment and forcing the air over or through
calcium carbide or melting ice and salt. When the air is kept at 65 to 70 per
cent. humidity in winter one will feel comfortable in a much lower
temperature—about 68°—than when the air is extremely dry, as it usually is
in the average living apartment. With a relative humidity of 30 to 40 per
cent. which one now often finds in warm houses in winter, the temperature
may be forced up to 75° or over and still one may feel cold, because of the
rapid evaporation from the pores of the skin, and the cold created inside the
clothing by the heat lost in the process of evaporation. Bear in mind that
perspiration is going on at all temperatures, even if one is unconscious of
the fact.
In the most populous portions of the United States there are two periods
of maximum efficiency and two of minimum each year. Let us consider that
wonderful region including southern New England, the Middle Atlantic
States, the Ohio Valley, and westward to the Rocky Mountains. Again
referring to the records of Huntington we find that human energy is greatest
in October; the output of factory, mine, and counting room is greater per
man than at any other time of the year and the product of mental effort is
greater and of higher quality. Likewise disease is less and the death rate the
least. From this time there is a loss in energy until January or February,
when vitality and efficiency may have dropped twenty to thirty per cent.
Then there is a gain until May or early June, when the conditions of health
and efficiency are nearly equal to the most favorable time of the year in
October. Again there is a loss until the middle of July, when a second
minimum occurs; physical and mental energy are at a low ebb and the death
rate is high. Diseases are not quite the same as in winter, as stomach
troubles are more common than colds. The hotter the summer and the
colder the winter the less favorable are the conditions of human existence.
As there is a certain optimum beyond which diurnal and annual range of
temperature cannot increase without a loss in energy, so there is a limitation
in latitude beyond which the favorable climatic conditions decrease as one
goes northward or southward. As an example, Canada and northern Maine
have but one unfavorable period, which is the entire winter. The people of
these regions are at their greatest potential July to September, after which
they show a steady decline as the severity of the northern winter draws
upon their vitality, until in January and February their minimum is below
that of regions considerably farther south for the same period.
From the most favorable climatic area in the middle latitudes—and the
entire world possesses none more favorable or of greater extent than that
possessed by the United States—the loss of health and strength due to the
enervating effects of heat, high humidity, and insufficient temperature
oscillations increases as one goes toward the equator. In Florida and the
southern third of the Gulf States there is but one favorable period, the short
winter. The enervating conditions still further are manifest as one proceeds
farther southward.
In the “Principles of Human Geography”, it is stated that “in Central
France and Southern Germany the seasonal variations in health and strength
are much the same as in Boston, New York, Cleveland, and Detroit. That is,
people are most healthy and strong in October and early November and
again in May and early June, while they are weakest and most subject to
disease in January, February, and early March, and again in July and
August. Farther north, for example, in Scotland, Scandinavia, and Finland,
the summer is the best time of the whole year and the winter the worst. To
the south, on the contrary, in Italy, Spain, and Greece, the harmful effect of
the winter decreases and that of summer increases, until finally on the south
side of the Mediterranean the winter is much the best time of the whole
year, while the long summer greatly diminishes the people’s efficiency and
increases disease and death.”
As the highest mental activity is coincident with temperatures lower than
those that induce the greatest physical energy, it naturally follows that in the
Ohio Valley, southern New England, and the Middle Atlantic States the
mental worker is at his maximum in November instead of October, and
April instead of May.

CHART 17.—MAP OF CLIMATIC ENERGY. (Huntington and Cushing.)

 Chart 17 shows how human energy would be distributed over the earth if
it depended on climate alone. It is remarkable how almost exactly it agrees
with what we know to be the distribution of the great political power. Japan
is meant to be included in the region of high power, but the scale of the
chart is too small to make this plain.

CHART 18.—DENSITY OF POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES, 1910.

From the time when man began to lose his tribal instinct and to assume
national consciousness, in Egypt, the Mesopotamian Valley, and the region
between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf, he has been founding
empires of more or less enduring nature, and with few exceptions has
builded towards the west, in the face of the prevailing winds. The center of
Empire has steadily migrated along the paths of greatest storm frequency.
Examine Charts 10, 11, and 18 and note the relation between density of
population and the closeness of the storm tracks. The figures at the center of
each brace indicate the number of storms that originated in the region of the
brace during a ten-year period, and the lines leading from the brace show
the tracks followed by the centers of the storms. Bear in mind that each
storm covered an area of from five hundred to one thousand miles in
diameter, that it was a vast rotating eddy in the atmosphere, and that its
center of rotation followed one of these storm tracks. Twelve storms came
from the West Indies during these ten Augusts, fifty-seven from the Rocky
Mountains and none from the Pacific Ocean; while in the ten Januaries
none came from the West Indies and but twenty-two from the Pacific
Ocean. But the point to which your attention is directed is that, no matter
what the origin, the tendency of each storm was to move towards the Ohio
Valley, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, and New England. This
tendency gives to these regions the most frequent changes in weather, with
alternations of sunshine and clouds, and changes in temperature and air
pressure—conditions essential to the development of the greatest human
potential. Here population is the densest, civilization the highest, and the
products of man’s brain and hand greater and more diversified than
elsewhere in this country, and probably than elsewhere in the world. The
United States is abundantly blessed, for nearly its entire area is under the
influence of high atmospheric potential. Only the region adjacent to the
Gulf of Mexico and the southwest is outside of the favored area, and here
the conditions are charted as medium, and not poor; at least not poor in
comparison with many more purely tropical regions.
To-day the Empire of Human Greatness is centered over the United
States, that is to say, greatness as expressed in material wealth, population,
and homogeneously knit political institutions. Will it continue its westward
migration, or will it remain here indefinitely for the working out of a
civilization higher than yet has come to any of the nations of the past, or to
other of those of the present? So far as atmospheric activities have to do
with its translation from place to place, we may derive comfort from the
fact that storm tracks do not cross the Pacific Ocean as freely as they do the
Atlantic. In fact our Rocky Mountains are a barrier to the passage of
summer storms (Chart 10) and a reference to Chart 11 will show that of
ninety-five winter storms that crossed our continent during the ten Januaries
of which the chart is a record only twenty-two came into our area from the
Pacific; and we know that these twenty-two largely originated off our coast
somewhere between Hawaii and the Aleutian Islands. Let us hope that the
center of earthly power has reached the end of its westward journey and that
here it shall remain, always to exercise a just and beneficent influence upon
the less favored portions of the earth.
Enough has been said to indicate that climate is nearly as important to
animal life as it is to the vegetable existence, and that a cold climate, if it be
not so extreme as to limit the production of cereal crops, and has frequent
changes in temperature, pressure, sunshine, and cloud, favors the
development of hardy and resourceful races of men; in fact, that no
dominating race can exist without such stimulating conditions of climate.
 CHAPTER XIII
HAS OUR CLIMATE CHANGED?

POPULAR OPINION ERRONEOUS, AS THERE IS NO CHANGE WITHIN THE PERIOD OF

AN INDIVIDUAL LIFE, BUT MOMENTOUS CHANGES HAVE OCCURRED SINCE THE
BEGINNING OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA

One of the hallucinations entertained by nearly every adult person is that

the climate has changed since he was young. No matter what the scientists
may say, he knows that it has changed. Fifty years ago did he not trudge to
school for months every winter in snow knee-deep? Have not the old
swimming holes in the brook dried up? Yes, he is a positive witness to an
affirmative answer. Even the river of his boyhood, whose broad expanse he
conquered in a swimming contest at the tender age of ten—as he views it
after an absence of a quarter-century—has dwindled to little more than a
creek, across which one easily may hurl a stone. Talk to him about no
change in climate. He’s been right on the spot, and knows. For all this, there
has been no change during the lifetime of this man; nor has there ever been
during the life period of any individual. Mutations, to be sure, are going on
all the time, but they are so minute that they do not accumulate a
measurable quantity except in periods of hundreds or thousands of years. It
is not the climate that has changed; it is the man. The natural action of the
stream may have filled the swimming holes; or the stream may have
entirely disappeared through much of the contiguous area being brought
under cultivation and the water that formerly supplied its flow being
utilized in the production of cultivated crops, which actually make use of as
much if not more rainfall than the forest that formerly lined its sinuous
banks and covered the near-by lowland. And then, snow knee-deep to a boy
of ten hardly comes up to the ankles of a man of six feet two. Again, no one
can remember the climate of his boyhood; he cannot carry the average in
his mind; all that he can remember are a few instances of unusual
conditions which because of their unusual character left an impress upon his
mind. The river is just as wide as it ever was during the period of his
lifetime, or that of his father, or of his grandfather; but he has lived on the
broad Mississippi for many years, and when he goes back to the scenes of
his youth, his concept of what constitutes a river has undergone a
revolutionary change since he left the parental roof to go forth and conquer
the world.
An examination of the personal papers of Thomas Jefferson, in the State
Department at Washington, by an official of the Weather Bureau, revealed a
number of most interesting incidents in connection with the weather
observations made by the author of the Declaration of American
Independence. He says:
“A change in climate is taking place very sensibly. Both heats and
colds are becoming much more moderate within the memory of even the
middle-aged. Snows are less frequent and less deep. They do not often
lie below the mountains more than one, two, or three days, and very
rarely a week. The snows are remembered to have been more frequent,
deep, and of long continuance. The elderly inform me that the earth used
to be covered with snow about three months in every year.”
But Jefferson and his neighbors were mistaken. Never during the period
of authentic history has the snow covered the ground in Virginia an average
of three months per year, or three months for a single year. These old
inhabitants were like those of to-day, who remember only the abnormalities
of climate of twenty-five or fifty years ago, and in comparing the unusual
conditions of long ago with the average of the present time they are
deceived. I have known intelligent and well-meaning persons to declare that
they knew from personal recollection that the climate of their particular
places of residence had changed since they were young; that they had stable
landmarks to show that the streams were drying up, the rainfall growing
less, and the winters becoming milder, notwithstanding the fact that
carefully taken observations of temperature and rainfall for each day for
over one hundred years right at their places of abode showed no change in
climate. We have a continuous daily record for one hundred years at New
Bedford, Massachusetts, nearly as long records at several other places, and
numerous records for over half a century. From these we learn that there has
been no definite change in climate in this country during the past hundred
years. There have been variations, such as an excess or a deficiency of
rainfall over a considerable area, that have persisted for several years at a
time; but in each case the conditions would ultimately come back to normal,
or more often to an extreme of the opposite tendency to what had obtained
immediately before. In sections where the rainfall in bountiful years is
barely sufficient for good crops, the people in the past have been prone to
consider that the amount that they receive during the periods of excess is
that which normally is due them, and thus to be unprepared for the dry
periods that statistics tell us must certainly come. The matter of change of
climate is most important to our sub-arid West,—to the western parts of
Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas. Some years ago,
when the tide of emigration was strong into these regions, there were
several years of more than the average rainfall. The coming of population
and the coming of extra rainfall were accidentally coincident, but that fact
was probably responsible for the popular belief that civilization brings an
increase in precipitation; that the breaking of the virgin soil, making it more
permeable to the absorption of moisture; the planting of trees and the
growth of crops, restricting the run-off; the roots of the new vegetable life
drawing up the moisture from below the surface of the ground and
transpiring it to the air through the leaves of plants; the enormous quantities
of water vapor ejected into the air by the combustion necessarily incident to
a considerable population,—all had combined to increase the rainfall and
render the sub-arid plains more responsive to the efforts of the husbandman.
No one can fail to regret that this theory is not founded upon fact. But a
moment’s thought by the scientist will indicate to him that the volume of air
is so great, and under the heat of the growing period its capacity for
moisture so enormous, that the addition of vapor of water by the processes
herein described, great though it be, is ineffectual to appreciably change the
amount of the rainfall that nature beforehand had ordained should be
precipitated.
The size of continental areas, the height and the trend of mountain
ranges, the proximity of large bodies of water, and the direction of the
prevailing winds are the factors that determine the amount of the
precipitation of a region. Against these the puny efforts of man, stupendous
though we think them to be, are entirely unavailing. As an illustration: If the
Rocky Mountains were as old as the Appalachian Chain, and if they were
eroded down to the height of the latter system, the winds from the Pacific
Ocean, when they are drawn inland by the cyclonic storms of the Rocky
Mountain plateau, or of the Mississippi Valley, instead of depositing their
moisture on the west slopes of the first range of mountains, would carry the
water vapor of the Pacific clear to that place in the Mississippi Valley where
it would meet the moisture drawn by the same storms from the Gulf of
Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. This will appear clear when one
understands that cyclonic storms, such as are continually passing across our
continent in periods of about three days each, may embrace in their eddy-
like circulating systems areas one to three thousand miles in diameter, in
which the winds from all directions spirally flow towards the center of the
cyclonic system and the system itself is moving eastward.
The water vapor exists as a separate atmosphere from oxygen and
nitrogen. It is screened off from the interior of continents by mountain
ranges because it is condensed and precipitated as rain or snow at only
moderate elevations. The windward side of mountains may, therefore,
receive torrential rains while their leeward sides are entirely without
precipitation.
 It follows that if the Rocky Mountains were lowered as described, the
entire United States would be green with rich vegetation and there would be
no deserts anywhere within its broad boundaries. Also, if the Appalachian
Range were as high as the Rocky Mountains—as it may have been at one
time—and if it extended around the Gulf of Mexico as well as up through
our Atlantic Coast States, the vaporous atmosphere of the Atlantic Ocean
and of the Gulf of Mexico would be prevented from entering the interior of
the continent, and the power that to-day stands as the greatest bulwark of
civilization would not exist. There would be but a narrow fringe of
vegetation upon its east and its west coasts; the interior, with its vast cotton
and cereal plains, would be a barren waste.
But to revert for a moment to Jefferson. He took his thermometer to
Philadelphia when he proceeded there on a mission that would have caused
any less serene and courageous spirit to forget all the small details of life.
When the debates upon which hung the fate of a nation and, in fact, the
lives of those that participated, were in progress, he coolly hung his
thermometer on the wall and noted down its readings. Those historians who
have described the intense heat in Independence Hall on the Fourth of July,
1776, were mistaken, as will be shown by reference to his observations, the
early and the late ones of which doubtless were made at his lodgings. They
are as follows: 6 A.M., 68°; 9 A.M., 72¼°; 1 P.M., 76°; and 9 P.M., 73½°.
Jefferson had one of the only two barometers in this country at that time.
James Madison (the Bishop, not the President) had the other. They took
readings at the same hour of the day for a considerable period of time, and
Jefferson discovered that changes in the pressure of the air always began on
his instrument a few hours before they did on his friend’s instrument a
couple of hundred miles to the east of him. He came near discovering the
fact that no matter what the direction of the wind, storms almost universally
move from the west toward the east. When the British captured Washington
they also raided Monticello, Jefferson’s home in Virginia, and they
destroyed his barometer. It has been said that he was as much distressed
over the loss of his special instrument of science as he was over the burning
of the National Capitol.
In “Descriptive Meteorology” (Appleton), the writer expressed doubt that
there had been important changes in climate within the period of authentic
history, but recent researches cause him to change his opinion, for the
evidence now seems almost conclusive that marked changes have occurred.
The powerful kingdoms of Sumeria, Babylonia, Assyria, and Persia, each
ruling many centuries and dominating all or a large part of the vast region
from the Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea and westward to the
Mediterranean and Egypt, covering in their various reigns some four
thousand years before Christ, could hardly have built their many great
cities, supported their numerous millions of population, and developed the
trade and commerce that was theirs with the climatic conditions as they
exist to-day. As late as the opening of the Christian Era, Palmyra, in Syria,
had a population of from one hundred and fifty thousand to two hundred
thousand people, was opulent and adorned with a comparatively high
civilization. To-day we see the wreckage of its vast aqueduct and irrigating
systems, which are unable to gather enough water to wet their well-
constructed walls, and a few hundred people eke out a miserable existence
where once was a metropolis teeming with life under luxurious conditions.
The same picture is shown in more or less relief throughout the greater part
of the region that once maintained the greatest empires of antiquity. But we
must not assume that such dry and nearly barren conditions are to continue
forever; rather are we to imagine that within a cycle of a few thousand years
this region may have a rebirth of abundant vegetation and again throb with
the pulsations of abounding life.
The record inscribed by the waters on the abandoned and the submerged
shores of inland lakes and seas in the Rocky Mountains, and on the shores
of the Caspian Sea and other waters, is easy to read. It shows several great
oscillations of climate in the United States and the most civilized portions
of the world since the birth of Christ. For some time before and for several
centuries after the beginning of our era there was a wet period. The Caspian
Sea stood some one hundred feet higher than now and an abandoned beach
and a clearly marked shore line show that Lake Owens, in California, on the
east side of the Sierras, existed at a level nearly two hundred feet higher
than now. There was an abundance of water to irrigate the Holy Land, and
although the center of dominating human power had long since passed in
succession Babylon, Assyria, Persia, Greece, Macedon, and was working its
way towards the Atlantic, the Mesopotamian Valley was abundantly
fruitful.
Then, for six or seven hundred years, with short-period variations of from
thirty to fifty years, the world inhabited by civilized man and large areas in
the temperate zone not yet civilized, grew drier. The Caspian Sea fell to a
lower level than it now maintains, for the ends of great walls, constructed to
keep out barbarians, and other evidences of the handiwork of man, are now
many feet below the surface of the water. This is the driest time known to
history. Ellsworth Huntington of Yale, acting under the auspices of the
Carnegie Foundation at Washington, made an examination of many of the
stumps of the big trees of California, ranging in age from one to four
thousand years. The thickness of each ring of annual growth is a legible
record of the wetness or the dryness of the year. One would hardly think of
these towering giants of the floral kingdom as being both thermometers and
rain gauges, accurately measuring and recording the dry-hot and the wet-
cold periods for thousands of years, and now at the end of their majestic
careers revealing the hidden secrets of past ages. Huntington and Cushing,
in “Principles of Human Geography”, say:
“The rings dating from the time of Christ are thick and indicate that at
that time, when Palmyra had an abundant supply of water, when Owens
Lake overflowed and there was high water in the Caspian Sea, the big
trees also had plenty of water and grew rapidly. Six or seven hundred
years later, when Palmyra was abandoned and when the Caspian Sea
stood fifteen or twenty feet lower than at present, the trees formed only
 narrow rings, because the climate was dry. The way in which the growth
of the trees has varied is shown in Figure 30. The high part of the curve
indicates abundant rainfall. The black shading at the bottom indicates
periods of comparative aridity.”

FIG. 30.—Changes in Climate in California during the Christian Era. Black shading indicates
Drought.

Since the extensive system of observations by the Weather Bureau was

inaugurated, some fifty years ago, it has been revealed to us that frequently
the Ohio Valley would suffer a deficit in rainfall that would persist for
periods as great as five or six years, while New England and the South
Atlantic States, or other large areas of the country, had an excess. This is an
illustration that excesses in one part of the country were balanced by
shortages in other parts that occurred at the same time. But the long-period
oscillations in climate that are measured in hundreds of years instead of tens
—these changes seemed to have occurred simultaneously in the middle
latitudes of Europe and America. These changes were simultaneous in an
east and west direction. Now we have evidence of such long-period changes
in a north and south direction which were simultaneous, but of an opposite
character, indicating that during the Christian Era the eastward track of
storms has oscillated northward and southward. This would account for the
occurrence of dry and of wet periods simultaneously throughout the vast
stretch of territory between southern California and the Caspian Sea. In
Guatemala, Yucatan, and other Central American countries there are ruins
of cities and the evidence of an agriculture and a civilization that could not
have been established with the torrential rains and jungle growths that now
prevail in those regions. During the centuries when the big trees of
California were receiving a large rainfall and making a thick annual growth,
especially about the beginning of the Christian Era, because of a northward
shifting of the climatic zone, the precipitation in Yucatan and Guatemala
had so diminished as to leave only the amount of rainfall that could be
economically employed in agriculture and in the rearing of great cities; and
then, with a southward migration of the rain belt, these cities were
suffocated with excessive precipitation, agriculture rendered impossible,
and their temples and palaces buried beneath the gloom of a tropical
growth.
If we are to reason from the records of the past it seems highly probable
that at least the middle latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere are slowly
passing out of a dry period that has prevailed for the past two hundred years
or more. For several hundred years all the great glaciers have receded, but
we should not expect such recession to continue indefinitely. Geology
furnishes abundant evidence that great changes took place in the climate of
the earth during the prehistoric ages; that there were several glacial periods,
the last occurring during pleistocene times, somewhere between twenty and
fifty thousand years ago, and that there were intervals between the
culminations of the Ice Ages of probably fifty thousand to one hundred
thousand years. Between these long winters, that have meant death and
desolation to much of what are now the most civilized portions of the earth,
there have been warm periods of thousands of years’ duration.
Fossil remains show that regions far north, now covered with perpetual
ice, once supported a luxuriant flora and fauna, and many regions in the
temperate and equatorial zones that are now deserts were once overgrown
with forests and teeming with animal life. The fundamental thing of the
cosmos is change—birth, growth, maturity; then decline, senility, death,
decay, disintegration; and always a renaissance, or new birth. Energy and
life seem to be eternal, but ever undergoing change. The Great Ice Cap may
again cover New England, the region of the Great Lakes, and flow
southward to the Ohio River, but the change will be so gradual, if it does
come, that there will be no great cities to be ground beneath the feet of the
boreal monster; cold that will precede the ice cap will destroy them and
they will be buried beneath the dust of accumulating ages before their icy
tombstone is erected. Then the healthful and invigorating climate of the
north part of our country will be transferred to the region of the Gulf of
Mexico. Civilization will and must migrate with the shifting of the climatic
belts. Because these changes cannot possibly concern us personally, we
have almost neglected the study of the great forces that silently yet most
persistently are at work altering the conditions under which future man
must live and work out the destiny of coming generations.
Effects of Forests on Climate and Floods. Next to the fallacious belief
in a change of climate during the life of an individual there are few if any
errors that have gained such wide acceptance as a belief that the cutting
away of the forests has caused a marked change in climate and especially in
the frequency and intensity of floods and droughts. The writer shared in the
mistake with regard to the influence of the forests in restraining run-off and
augmenting floods, until compelled by an order of the Congress of the
United States to prepare a report on the floods of the nation that had
occurred during the time of the gradual reduction of the forest areas.
Dividing into two equal periods the forty years for which the Weather
Bureau has comprehensive records of the rainfall upon the catchment basins
of the Tennessee, the Cumberland, and the Ohio rivers, and for which it has
records of the height of the rivers, contrary to his belief, he found that the
high waters were no higher with a given rainfall, the floods of no longer
duration, nor the low waters of summer lower, during the last half of the
period than during the first half.
It is now pretty generally conceded by hydraulic engineers that the
broken, permeable soil of the husbandman, frequently stirred by cultivation
a part of the year and filled with countless billions of the tiny water-
absorbing rootlets of the grasses and the cereal crops during the remainder
of the annual period, is equally as good a conserver of the rainfall as the
forests themselves, even if it is not better.
Some years ago the writer was delivering a series of Chautauqua lectures.
He arrived at Devil’s Lake, North Dakota, and found that the Chautauqua
amphitheater was on the banks of Devil’s Lake, once bordering the town,
but now receded to a distance of five miles and confined to a narrow valley.
In driving from the city to the lecture hall he remarked to his escort that
they seemed to be traveling along the bottom of an ancient lake. His
companion said, “Yes, a lake, but not an ancient one. Fifty years ago I used
to dive off a springboard right there in front of the railroad station.” In the
course of his lecture the writer referred to this incident and told them that,
contrary to their belief, their climate had not changed, that fifty years ago
they sold their old lake to some gentlemen in Chicago and that they had
been selling it over again every year since; that the former compact surface
of the virgin prairie resisted the penetration of the rainfall, or at least only
slowly absorbed it, and allowed it to collect in the depression adjacent to
the city; but now, in the broken, permeable soil of the farmer it was taken
up by millions of tiny rootlets and the hand of the Great Alchemist had
transformed their lake into wheat, the sale of which was responsible for the
presence of the speaker on the platform of a largely-attended Chautauqua.
The lake had gone never to return unless the region were again to become
the haunt of the buffalo and the prairie dog instead of civilized man. The
rainfall was the same, but it was now being utilized for the benefit of
mankind.
In this problem of rainfall, floods, and the forests, most persons assume
that when the forest is cut the land is at once denuded of vegetation. On the
other hand a second growth will effectually shade the soil within a few
months or a few weeks after the large trees are removed, and if the land is
cleared and rendered fit for the plow, growing crops take the place of the
forest-covering the greater portion of the time.
 There is an abundance of reasons for the protection of our diminishing
forests and for the creation of new forest areas without assigning to the
forests functions that they do not exercise. The covering of an area by a
great city, a village, a forest, a barn, or a tent modifies the climate of the
particular area covered so long as the covering remains, but there is no
appreciable climatic effect a few feet above the surface of the earth between
a forest and a field of grain. The climate of a region like the American
continent is controlled fundamentally by the great oceans that wash its
shores, by the trend of its mountain systems and their height, and by the
direction of its prevailing winds. The vast vaporous atmosphere that flows
inland from the Atlantic Ocean to the foothills of the Rocky Mountains,
deluging our cereal plains with its life-giving precipitation will continue its
pluvial generosity without any heed whatever to the puny scratchings of
man upon the surface of Mother Earth. Nothing that man can do will
intensify drought conditions on this continent or augment the volume of
floods. It is time that we return to sanity in considering this matter instead
of being frightened by the dire forebodings of well-meaning but purely
visionary enthusiasts, no matter how noble their aspirations may be or how
self-sacrificingly they have consecrated themselves to the redemption of
humanity.
It is certain that forests restrict the flow of moderate falls of rain, but they
do not restrain the flow of flood waters, because, surprising as it may seem
to one who has not tested the matter, floods do not occur until after all
surfaces, open fields and forests alike, have become saturated, and then the
run-off of the two surfaces is equal.
 CHAPTER XIV
CLIMATES FOR HEALTH AND PLEASURE

ONE’S LIFE WOULD BE PROLONGED IF, LIKE THE BIRDS, ONE COULD MIGRATE
ANNUALLY WITH THE TEMPERATURE—CHRISTMAS IN MANY CLIMES—THE
HOTTEST AND COLDEST PLACES IN THE WORLD

From what has gone before it is apparent that the regions of the earth
where man is at his best estate, so far as climate can determine his
environment, may be broadly defined in this country as southern New
England, southern and central New York, the Middle Atlantic States, the
Ohio Valley, the southern Lake Region and westward to the middle of
Kansas and Nebraska; in Europe it includes the British Isles, France,
Switzerland, extreme northern Italy, Austria, Germany, Belgium, Holland,
and the extreme southern parts of Norway and Sweden. But in none of these
regions is the climate equally good during all seasons. In fact there are two
short seasons in each year when it is debilitating.
The great majority of the people, like galley slaves chained to their oars,
must remain in the same place throughout the year, others may have a
vacation of several weeks, and still others are free to change their location
as often as fancy calls them. The latter might well learn from the birds, and
by migrating with the temperature, going far north in summer and far south
in winter, maintain themselves throughout the entire year in the most
perfect atmospheric conditions for health, happiness, and long life. Many a
man of fifty, having accumulated enough to modestly supply his wants,
could add ten to thirty years to his life, or might even double the period of
his existence, by ceasing to strive after riches, and by giving himself up to a
healthful movement about this beautiful world. His principal companions
should be good books,—the study of which will enlarge his mental horizon
and increase his capacity to see, comprehend, and enjoy, and fit him to
speak, act, and think in ways that will inure to the public good. If he has not
had the benefits of a college education, now is the golden opportunity to
read, and have pleasure in the reading, popular books on Geology, Botany,
Biology, Astronomy, and Physics, and to become familiar with the history
of his own country and of the world. It need not be a period of idleness but
one of beautiful growth and of appreciation of the wonders of creation. And
thus will his spirit be lifted up and fitted for a higher realm of existence in
the world to come.
To those who must remain at home during heat spells, the advice is given
to close not only the shutters but the windows on the east side of the house
during the forenoon and do the same on the west side in the afternoon. The
best night’s sleep will be gained in a room facing north on any floor that is
not next the roof; this room will be cooler if it is protected by another room
on its east and one on its west side.
Long Life in the Open Air and the Sunshine. It is difficult to decide
which most conduces to health and longevity: cheerfulness of mind and
kindness of thought, or life in the open air and in the blessed sunshine. If
one can enjoy both of these beneficent conditions they should live as long
as they desire to remain on earth. Most people live as long as they deserve
to live. It has facetiously been said that old age is a bad habit. The writer is
disposed to agree with the humorist. Certain it is that few persons who
believe in the limitation of life to three score and ten ever live beyond that
period, while one should be possessed of a sound body and a superior mind
at that age, with just anticipations of a third of a century of usefulness and
happiness yet to come. As a man thinketh, so is he. We are just beginning to
comprehend something of the wonderful power with which the Creator has
invested us in the development and the care of our bodies. Anger, hatred,
malice, jealousy, selfishness, fear, and worry create poisons that may bring
on disease and death, but they certainly create a morbidity in the body that
shortens life.
 Sunshine destroys molds, bacteria, and other enemies of the human race
that lurk in the darkness. It strikes dead the tubercle bacillus, which is such
a scourge to mankind. Its remedial power comes largely from invisible light
—the ultra-violet and the supra-red rays. You are blind to these rays but
your skin and blood are not; they need the sunshine to give them vitality—
not quack medicines or medical tonics for which, through the venal
partnership of the Press, millions of the afflicted are induced not only to
part with the money so much needed by their families and themselves, but
to aggravate their sufferings. The sunshine of a high region is beneficial to
those ill with coughs, colds, bronchitis, tuberculosis, anæmia, or other
wasting diseases, because the upper altitudes are rich in many rays that are
beneficial, some of which are absorbed by the higher air and do not
penetrate to the earth, or only reach the earth in minute quantities. There on
the mountain the sun’s rays are unpolluted by the dust and the bacteria of
lower levels and the cities. But one does not need extreme altitudes. Two to
three thousand feet may be sufficient.
Mountain and Sea Air and the Injury from Over-bathing. The
seashore is properly a great national playground during the heat of summer.
Evaporated spray leaves a trace of salt in the air which, with the salt of the
ocean, seems to be beneficial to many. Likewise there is no condition of life
that is not benefited by the pure air of the wooded mountains. Those of
moderate vigor may build up and maintain high vitality by continuous
bathing in the cool, pure waters of mountain lakes and streams, but to many
daily swimming in either fresh or salt water, except that it be for a mere dip
and right out again, that is so cold as to be painful to the delicate sensations
of the skin, is extremely debilitating to all bodily functions. Be moderate.
How to Find the Climate You Seek. At sea level in the tropics heat and
moisture combine to produce great physical discomfort. But even under the
equator it is possible to escape the tropical heat of low levels by ascending
four to six thousand feet, as can be done in some places in Porto Rico and
Cuba. Most of the capitals of South American countries are located at
altitudes of five to ten thousand feet; and Brazil is planning to abandon her
capital at sea level and move the administrative machinery of government
from the splendid city of Rio de Janeiro to a mountain location in the
interior.
Any region of the Alleghany system of mountains above a thousand feet
elevation possesses climatic conditions of therapeutic value. Illustration of
this fact is seen in the success of the noted sanitaria in the Adirondacks, and
in the mountain regions of North Carolina and Virginia, and in the northern
part of New England. These sections are especially frequented by persons
suffering from pulmonary diseases, or from nervous exhaustion, many of
whom find not only relief but cure. Cool and healthful conditions of
temperature may be found during the summer along the ridges and on the
peaks of the entire mountain system that extends from North Carolina
northward through Virginia, Pennsylvania, New York, and New England.
The advice of one’s physician should be sought, if one is ailing, before
determining between the seashore and the mountains, but in general those
suffering from diseases of the respiratory organs are better located in the
high levels, remote from the humid air of the ocean.
In winter Bermuda, Florida, Porto Rico, Cuba, the southern part of the
Gulf States, much of Southern California, and Hawaii have balmy climates
that permit of outdoor life without temperatures too high to be comfortable.
Hawaii and Bermuda have mild climates not only during winter but
throughout the entire year. The Riviera on the Gulf of Genoa and the
beautiful Lake region of Italy enjoy the balmy air of the Mediterranean and
are protected from the cold winter winds by the Alps.
From October to May that portion of the Rocky Mountain plateau that
includes Arizona, New Mexico, and the northern interior of Old Mexico has
one of the finest climates in the world for those afflicted with pulmonary
diseases, as the sunshine is abundant and the day and night temperatures
such as to permit an almost continuous out-of-doors existence. But the heat
and the extreme dryness of the air in June, July, August, and the first half of
September is irritating to the nerves and debilitating in general. Fortunately,
when the conditions are not favorable in the extreme southwest part of the
country, they are at their best in the mountains of the Middle Atlantic States
and New England, which offer to the pleasure or the health seeker a cool,
pure air unsurpassed by any other region of the earth.
For an all-the-year climate for the health seeker, it only can be said that
the ideal conditions do not continue at any place throughout the entire year.
Possibly it is well that it is so, as a change may be beneficial for no reason
except that it is a change. There is one great caution ever to be borne in
mind, and that is that the health seeker must not continue or repeat the same
unhygienic life in his new climate that brought on the disease in the old.
Climate of Cuba. The climate of one tropical country may differ
materially from that of another in the same latitude as a result of difference
in altitude, proximity to large bodies of water, and position with respect to
the prevailing winds. Cuba being in the region of the northeast trade winds,
more rain falls on the north side of its mountains than on the south side. The
temperature of the southeast coast is higher than it is on the northern and
western coasts, and the range of temperature everywhere between night and
day is small, rarely ten degrees and usually much less. It therefore has a
warm, humid, and monotonous climate, except in the high levels of its
mountains. The winter tourist will find the conditions of the greater part of
the island somewhat similar to those in the region of Miami, Florida, but
warmer. Havana is not so hot as Santiago. The highest temperature ever
recorded at Havana is 101° and the lowest 50°. A fairly pleasant
temperature always can be found within a short ride to the mountains. As in
most tropical countries, Cuba has a dry and a wet season. The rainy season
is May to October. In the early part of September, 1900, over thirty-six
inches of rain fell within thirty-six hours at Santiago. As a rule the
precipitation is in the shape of heavy showers, the clouds clearing as soon
as the rain ceases; the showers usually occur in the afternoon. Cuba, in
common with all the islands of the West Indies, occasionally is visited by
destructive hurricanes; these storms mainly are confined to the period
August to October. Frequent terrific thunderstorms occur in summer.
Climate of Porto Rico. Its mountainous character gives it a marked
diversity of climate, torrential rains falling on the windward side of its
mountains, while the leeward sides are comparatively dry. The highest
temperature in San Juan since 1876 is 101° and the lowest 57°. In this city a
cool breeze, known as the “briza”, adds to the comfort of the late afternoon
and evening. The wet season begins a month earlier than in Cuba and lasts a
month longer. San Juan is probably the most healthful city in the West
Indies, but those reared in northern climates invariably suffer from its
enervating influence after several years of continuous residence. Water is
abundant, there being some seventy rivers and over a thousand small
streams. The mountains are clothed in vegetation to their tops, and frost of a
killing nature is practically unknown in the island.
Climate of the Hawaiian Islands. Much has been written about the
charm of the Hawaiian Islands, their mountains, volcanoes, tropical
verdure, and delightful climate. It is indeed a garden spot, and its soil and
climate make it so. Nowhere in the islands does the temperature reach 90°
at any time of the year, while at Honolulu, the largest city and the capital, a
temperature lower than 60° is rarely experienced. Of course, as one ascends
the high mountains for which the group is noted, much lower temperatures
are encountered, while snow is not infrequent near the tops. July and
August are the warmest months and January the coldest. The climate is
soothing and dreamy and doubtless would prolong the life of many who are
aged and slowly passing to their end, and that of others of low vitality but
no organic disease. Most of the rain falls November to May, but some falls
in every month of the year. At Honolulu the amount is about that which
falls in Wisconsin, but at a station in the Kohala Mountains one hundred
and fifty-four inches have been measured as the rainfall for seven months,
and forty-two inches for one month, the latter being a larger amount than
the annual rainfall for the State of Iowa.
Climate of the Philippines. The highest temperature so far recorded at
Manila is 100° and the lowest 60°. It is therefore warmer than either
Havana or Porto Rico. The hottest months are April, May, and June, but the
cool months are but a trifle cooler than the warm months, the annual range
of temperature being but three degrees. The humidity is high at all seasons,
and therefore the heat is oppressive and debilitating. The greater part of the
rainfall of Manila is from June to October. Some relief may be gained from
the low-level heat by retreat to the mountains of some of the islands. It will
require several generations before the white man can become acclimated to
this region. The islands lie between latitude 6° and 18° North. White
children born of American parents and raised there never will have the
energy or ambition of their progenitors. If it were not for the invigorating
air of the mountain resort at Baquio, many American officials could not
continue a residence in the Philippines.
Climate of Bermuda in Comparison with the Popular Winter Resorts
of Florida and California. It is a mistake to represent the climate of
Bermuda as one of balmy sunshine during winter months. It has some
glorious days, but a large proportion are cloudy, rainy, cool, and windy, and
too cold for comfortable or healthful bathing from the middle of December
to the first of May. And yet, its climate is healthful as a whole for nine
months of the year and more stimulating than is that of Florida in winter. If
one wishes sunshine and sea bathing in midwinter, it is better to go to Palm
Beach, St. Petersburg, or Miami, Florida; but if one desires to have a
moderately cool climate with a temperature of but little variation between
midday and midnight, and occasionally a day with sufficient warmth and
sunshine to justify a dip in the ocean or in the many land-locked bays with
which the islands abound, one well may come to Bermuda. Such winter
clothing as one naturally would wear in Philadelphia or Washington is what
one will need in order to be comfortable. Bermuda is no place for Palm
Beach suits, outing shirts, and Panama hats in winter. Many tourists are
mislead by the advertisements of steamship lines and bring clothing which
is suitable only for early fall and late spring.
From the first of November to the middle of May the author occupied a
room on the ground floor, facing the waters of Hamilton Harbor, and only
fifty feet from the shore line. Here the diurnal range of temperature is much
less than at Prospect Hill, where the Government’s observations are made.
From the middle of December to the middle of March, a thermometer in
this room sluggishly ranged from 60° at night to 64° during the day, and
days when the wind was high and rain falling—as occurs about one third of
the time in winter—the thermometer would not vary a degree from 60°
during the entire twenty-four hours. During April the range each day was
from 68° at night to 70° at midday, and during November and May from
70° to 76°.
The selection of the best winter climate for health and for pleasure is so
important that comparative data are here given of the most popular places
that are easy of access to the people of the United States.
Bermuda has a wind velocity much greater than that of any of the resorts
named in the tables, and its relative humidity is about that of Florida.
The charm of Bermuda is that the flowers bloom, vegetables grow, and
the trees remain green the year round. Even though frequent short showers
may fall each twenty-four hours more than half of the days during winter,
the soil is so porous that there is little or no mud, and life is largely one of
the open air, with a winter temperature that conduces to activity; in fact, the
temperature is such that one requires heavy clothing all the time if one is to
sit inactive in the open. There is neither frost, fog, nor malaria, nor snakes.
Bermuda lies 666 miles south of New York City and about 700 miles due
east from Charleston, S. C., and 293 miles from the southern edge of the
Gulf Stream, which, if the truth must be told, exercises no such influence on
the climate of Bermuda as highly colored advertising circulars would have
one believe. It is the great ocean, upon whose surface the islands make the
most infinitesimal dot, that controls the climate of the Bermudas. The Gulf
Stream, wonderful phenomenon that it is, is a sort of bug-a-boo to some
who never have intelligently studied ocean meteorology. Travelers tell of
the superheated atmosphere they encountered on crossing the Stream, and
educators who should know better teach that the entire climate of Europe is
markedly influenced by it. The fact is that there is no distortion whatever of
the isothermal lines as they enter and leave the Gulf stream in any region
north of Bermuda. (See Chart 14.) The climate of Bermuda and of Europe is
controlled largely by the great Atlantic Ocean, not by this small river of
warm water, which broadens out and loses its identity long before the coast
of Europe is reached, and whose influence is soon dissipated in the vast
expanse of ocean air. The ocean has a great circulating system, northward
on the western and southward on its eastern side. This circulation pushes
the isothermal lines northward on one side and southward on the other.
The islands of Bermuda rise some 15,000 feet from the floor of the
ocean, and project above the water to heights varying from 50 to 260 feet
above sea level. Like jewels nestling upon the bosom of a sub-tropical
ocean these islands, from one half to three miles wide, are strung along so
close that one almost can hop over from one to the other. They lie in the
form of a fish-hook; from the hole where the line of the fisherman would be
tied to the point of the hook is about twenty-six miles. The topography is
irregular and picturesque. On land there are caves and grottoes and
subterranean lakes. January to May rose borders are abloom. In April the
oleander is showing pink and crimson along every roadside, and the hedges
hold these beautiful flowers for months; at Easter time lilies carpet the
ground and perfume the air. Here morning glories have many forms and
colors, which, with pendent bells, climb wide-spreading cedar trees, and
wild passion flowers cover rocky cliffs.
The sea is so transparent that many feet below the surface the eye may
follow the movements of marine life housed about by coral formations of
strange devices. The colors of the sea are as changeable as the opal. Over
shallow bottoms the colors are delicate shades of light green, over the
shoals brownish hues, and beyond the dangerous reefs, which have sent
many a sailor to his long home, and behind which numerous pirates of old
have taken refuge, the waters vary from the light blue of the sapphire to
deep green. The prismatic colors are forever laughing and dancing to the
eye of the beholder. The shadow of a cloud, a ripple of the surface, a
different angle to the fall of sunshine as the day advances, deepen or
brighten the tints through a wide range of color.
Through the glass bottom of a boat one may look into the gardens. Rising
from the bottom and waving gracefully with the movements of the waters,
like tree ferns moved by gentle zephyrs, are purple sea fans and tall black
rods. Beautifully colored fishes dart about, or lazily bask in the sun that
illumines their coral grottoes; weeds of many colors; green and scarlet
sponges; vegetable growths delicate in formation and brilliant anemones
cling to ledges of rock that here and there are tinted with pink.
Rival champions of the east and the west coasts of Florida may fortify
themselves by a study of the tables. It may be noted that Miami and Tampa
have the same midday temperature, but that Tampa has a greater range, the
night temperature on the average falling five degrees lower than Miami;
also that Tampa, which can be taken as typical of St. Petersburg, has but
twenty-one rainy days on an average from December to March inclusive,
while Miami has thirty-four. Bermuda has sixty-five days with rain during
the period, with much wind. From these data one may select the climate that
best suits him and he may know that the data are accurate and put forth by
some one not interested in advancing the interest of one place over another.
No country in the world has more delightful and healthful climates for
winter and for summer than can be found in the wide domain of the United
States.
 U. S. WEATHER BUREAU
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE, HUMIDITY, DAYS WITH RAIN, CLOUDINESS, AND WIND AT
Los Angeles, California

DATA JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. ANNUAL

Maximum 64 66 67 70 72 77 82 82 81 76 72 67 73
Highest maximum 87 88 99 100 103 105 109 106 108 102 96 89 109
Minimum 44 45 47 49 52 56 59 60 58 53 48 46 52
Lowest minimum 28 28 31 36 40 46 49 49 44 40 34 30 28
Daily range 21 21 20 21 22 23 25 24 25 24 24 20 22
Relative humidity 65 69 69 72 76 76 75 74 73 69 62 58 70
Days with .01 or more rain 7 6 7 4 2 1 0 0 1 3 3 6 40
Percentage sunshine 65 68 65 68 63 69 76 79 77 76 77 74 71
Hourly wind velocity 5.1 5.3 5.3 5.2 5.2 5.0 4.7 4.6 4.5 4.5 4.6 5.0 4.9

Miami, Florida

Maximum 69 70 76 80 86 89 89 89 88 82 76 70 80
Highest maximum 85 88 92 93 94 94 96 96 94 93 88 91 96
Minimum 58 59 64 66 70 73 75 75 74 71 67 61 68
Lowest minimum 29 29 39 46 62 61 69 67 62 53 38 32 29
Daily range 11 11 12 14 16 16 14 14 14 11 9 9 12
Relative humidity 81 80 79 76 79 82 82 83 83 80 79 81 80
Days with .01 or more rain 10 8 7 7 10 14 14 15 17 15 9 9 135
Percentage sunshine 60 62 67 73 67 60 64 64 62 53 61 57 62
Hourly wind velocity 11 11 11 11 10 9 8 8 9 12 11 10 10
 U. S. WEATHER BUREAU (Continued)
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE, HUMIDITY, DAYS WITH RAIN, CLOUDINESS, AND WIND AT
Jacksonville, Florida

DATA JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. ANNUAL

Maximum 56 57 63 67 75 80 82 82 78 70 62 56 69
Highest maximum 81 86 91 92 108 101 104 101 99 95 86 82 104
Minimum 47 49 54 59 63 72 74 74 71 63 54 47 61
Lowest minimum 15 10 26 34 46 54 66 64 49 37 26 14 10
Daily range 9 8 9 8 12 8 8 8 7 7 8 9 8
Relative humidity 81 79 77 74 75 79 80 83 84 82 81 81 80
Days with .01 or more rain 9 9 8 7 9 13 15 15 13 10 8 8 124
Percentage sunshine 55 57 68 73 71 65 63 63 59 56 63 53 62
Hourly wind velocity 8 8 9 9 8 8 7 7 7 8 7 7 8

San Diego, California

Maximum 62.2 62.6 63.6 65.2 66.0 69.2 72.3 73.6 73.1 70.4 67.7 64.3 67.5
Highest maximum 83 89 99 96 98 94 93 93 110 96 93 84 110
Minimum 46.4 47.6 49.6 52.4 55.5 58.7 62.2 63.6 61.3 56.6 51.4 47.9 54.5
Lowest minimum 25 34 36 39 45 50 54 54 50 44 36 32 25
Daily range 15.8 15.0 13.9 13.2 10.5 10.5 10.1 10.2 11.9 13.6 16.4 16.3 13.1
Relative humidity 71 74 74 75 77 80 81 80 79 76 70 68 75
Days with .01 or more rain 7 7 7 4 3 1 0 1 1 3 4 6 44
Percentage sunshine 67 67 66 69 58 62 67 72 72 73 76 74 68
Wind velocity 5.1 5.8 6.2 6.4 6.4 6.1 5.9 5.7 5.7 5.3 5.0 5.0 5.7
 U. S. WEATHER BUREAU (Continued)
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE, HUMIDITY, DAYS WITH RAIN, CLOUDINESS, AND WIND AT
Tampa, Florida

DATA JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. ANNUAL

Maximum 69 70 77 80 86 89 89 89 88 82 76 70 80
Highest maximum 82 86 92 90 94 95 96 96 96 93 87 83 96
Minimum 51 52 58 61 67 71 73 73 72 65 58 52 63
Lowest minimum 23 22 32 38 53 64 65 66 54 43 32 19 19
Daily range 18 18 19 19 19 18 16 16 16 17 18 18 17
Relative humidity 82 80 80 75 75 80 82 83 84 80 81 82 80
Days with .01 or more rain 4 6 6 3 4 9 11 12 7 4 4 5 75

Bermuda
Observations taken on the hill at Prospect, 250 feet elevation, and furnished through the courtesy
of Sir Frederick Stupart, Director of Canadian weather service

Maximum 67 67 68 70 74 78 84 85 83 78 73 69 75
Highest maximum 79 75 78 80 83 88 92 94 91 88 82 79 94
Minimum 58 57 57 58 63 68 73 74 72 69 63 60 64
Lowest minimum 39 45 44 40 49 54 65 64 59 60 49 46 39
Daily range of temperature 10 10 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 11
Relative humidity 82 81 81 81 84 85 84 83 83 82 81 81 82
Days with .01 rain or more 17 16 15 12 11 11 12 15 14 15 16 17 171
Hourly wind velocity 15 16 15 14 12 11 11 10 11 12 13 14 13
Greatest monthly rainfall 9.71 10.40 10.05 13.31 9.09 10.98 11.24 21.33 16.30 17.73 11.36 10.58
Average rainfall 4.90 4.79 5.05 4.90 4.39 5.18 3.76 5.98 5.24 7.91 4.32 4.98 61.40
 The Scientific American thus speaks of the uses of climatic data:
“What are climatic statistics good for? To this query one is tempted to
retort: What are they not good for? Let us set down a few typical cases in
which such data are desired.
“A merchant plans to undertake the sale of rubber coats in foreign
markets. Hence he wishes to know all about the distribution of rainfall,
both geographically and as to season. Which are the rainy regions of the
globe? When do the heaviest occur in each of these regions? Where do
the prevailing temperatures indicate the need of heavy coats, and where
light?
“An invalid contemplates visiting a certain health resort. What mean
temperatures occur there at the season of the proposed visit? What
ranges of temperature between day and night? How much does the
temperature vary from day to day? How much sunshine may be
expected? Is the atmosphere moist or dry? What of the winds? Such are
some of the questions he is likely to ask.
“A horticulturist proposes to introduce a foreign plant in this country.
Where will he find the most favorable climate for it? In order to settle
this question he first tries to secure certain information about the climate
of the plant’s original habitat—the march of temperature through the
season of growth, average dates of first and last frost, normal
fluctuations of rainfall, humidity, sunshine, etc. If the desired
information is obtained, the next step is to ascertain where (if anywhere)
similar climatic conditions prevail in the United States, and this is
generally an easy task.
“An engineer is planning a sewer system. He needs data of excessive
rainfall for the locality under consideration, so that he may estimate the
maximum amount of storm-water the sewers will ever need to dispose of
 in a given time. Their capacity should not exceed this amount beyond a
reasonable margin of safety: otherwise cost of construction would be
unnecessarily great.
“This list of examples might be extended almost indefinitely. It will
suffice, however, to show how wide a range of climatic information is
required to meet all possible demands. The different branches of industry
are concerned with different sets of climatic data. One set helps
determine the best location for a railroad: another the kind of goods that
will be shipped over it and the way in which they will need to be packed
and cared for during shipment. The climatic conditions that must be
considered in planning a military campaign are quite unlike those that
engage the attention of a hydrological engineer in laying out a system of
irrigation. Climatic statistics of interest to aviators are not identical with
those that bear upon the problems of ecology or forestry or sanitation. In
short, climate means different things to different people.”
Christmas in Many Climes. A general idea of the diversification of
climate may be gathered from a description of the weather of some
particular day of the year as it exists in many different parts of the world.
One is too prone to assume that the weather one has on a given day prevails
everywhere. For the moment one does not consider the effect of distance
from the equator, proximity to large bodies of water, and elevation above
sea level and above the surrounding region. When a holiday or any day of
special interest occurs, while the weather cannot make the occasion a
success, it can quite effectively destroy all pleasure in the event. When we
approach the day of all days in the year when two fifths of the people of the
world celebrate the natal day of Christ, interest in the weather increases.
The little ones of our clime pray that a mantle of snow may cover the
ground, so that dear old Santa Claus may come with his reindeer and sleigh.
The boys and girls long for the snow-covered hillsides and the glassy
ponds; and even our good old grandmother smiles in anticipation of such a
Christmas Day as gladdened her heart when she was a wee tot.
 It may be interesting to know under what kind of skies the people of
other lands celebrate this international holiday. In the Northern Hemisphere
places near the same latitude may have weather conditions greatly at
variance the one from the other, because of conditions previously explained.
It is our winter now; not because the sun is farthest from us, for in five days
the earth will reach the time of perihelion in its course around the sun, and
be nearer to the central luminary than at any other time of the year, but
because the inclination of the earth’s axis causes us to receive the rays of
the sun at a lower angle than during any other season and its intensity is
reduced. The conditions are reversed to the people of the Southern
Hemisphere; they now receive the most direct rays of the sun and have their
summer, which is intensified by the nearness of the earth to the sun.
The event that gave origin to our Christmas holiday occurred nearly two
thousand years ago in Bethlehem of Judea; and it may be a new idea to us
to try to think of the weather that prevailed at that time and the character of
the Christmas Day that land may have this year. We know that it was not
cold and cloudy on that eventful night so long ago, for the shepherds were
feeding their flocks upon the hillsides and the Wise Men of the East beheld
a star and followed it. The star shone brightly from the time they left Herod
until they reached the place where the Infant lay. We may therefore judge
that this part of their journey was made under a clear sky and that the same
conditions prevailed at Bethlehem. Weather observations made at
Jerusalem, a few miles from Bethlehem, during modern times, show that
during December there are less than fourteen cloudy days on the average.
The prevailing winds are from the Mediterranean Sea, only thirty miles to
the west of Bethlehem, and therefore rarely does the temperature exceed
65° during the day or fall to freezing at night. While there is evidence that
the climate is drier now throughout all of the Holy Land than at the birth of
Christ, it is highly probable that when He was born the stars were shining
brightly and the hills were green and beautiful and the weather smiling its
benediction upon the Son of God.
 We now will glance at the weather that experience teaches us will
probably prevail in some of the principal cities of the world on Christmas
Day, and thus have impressed upon us the fact that on any day of the year
humanity lives under widely differing weather conditions throughout the
world.
In our own country we know that Maine is the home of ice, snow, and
chilling blasts, while in California and Florida orange blossoms perfume the
temperate air.
In London Christmas is not always bright and comfortable, for on the
average twenty-one days in December are cloudy and the temperature
ranges from a few degrees below freezing at night to about 50° during the
day.
In Paris the weather is about the same as in London. It has the same
percentage of cloudiness, and its daily range of temperature is from 32° to
45°, slightly colder than London. The influence of wind direction and the
relation of water and land areas to the location of a city are well
exemplified in the fact that Paris, farther south than London, has a lower
winter temperature. In the United States the coldest winter winds are from
the northwest and they also would be so in Western Europe were it not for
the fact that they draw from the ocean, whose waters are much warmer in
winter than the interior of the continent of Europe. The northeast winds are
therefore the coldest that come to Paris and London. In the first case they
draw from the cold interior, and in the second case the air in passing to
London from the northeast must pass over the North Sea and the extreme
temperature of the cold land is somewhat modified by even this
comparatively small body of water with the result that the average daily
maximum temperature of London for December is five degrees warmer
than its neighbor some two hundred miles farther south.
Berlin and Vienna have the same degree of cloudiness, but there the
similarity ceases. Berlin, only about one hundred miles from the Baltic Sea
on the northeast and about double this distance from the North Sea on the
northwest has an average range of but eight degrees between day and night
temperatures, while Vienna, deep-set in the interior of a great continent, has
a daily range of thirty-seven degrees, the average temperature swinging
from 13° to 50° each day during December.
Constantinople was named after the Roman Emperor who made it his
capital and who first protected the early Christians from persecution, then
became converted and, in the manner of his time, forced others to accept the
doctrine at the point of the sword. Here Christianity was first recognized
and adopted as a State religion, but since the middle of the fifteenth century
Constantinople has been the home of the Sultan of Turkey and the principal
city of those who worship Muhammid as the prophet of God instead of
Christ. This ancient city, so interwoven in the history of Christianity, has a
delightful climate at Christmas time, the daily range being from between a
little above freezing and 65° or 70°, with clouds obscuring the sky about
one half the time.
Historical Rome has about as many clear days as cloudy ones and the
days are pleasant and the nights simply cool.
At Cairo, in the land where Joseph was sold into bondage and where
Pharaoh raised him to the highest position in the land next to his own, no
more delightful place can the traveler find at Christmas time. Only one day
in three is cloudy and the gentle winds are warm and balmy, with a daily
range in temperature of 12°.
In Calcutta there is a great amount of sunshine, only one day in five
being cloudy, with an average daily minimum temperature of 58° and a
maximum of 80°.
Bombay is also sunshiny at this time of the year and excessively hot,
with a range each day from 66° to 88°. Here, as at Calcutta, Brahmanism
and Buddhism rule instead of Christianity.
 China, that enormous empire that believes in the ethical philosophy of
Confucius, whose inhabitants have lived for four thousand years with less
strife and bloodshed than any other nation, has as great a variety of climate
during December in the widely separated parts of its broad domain as has
the United States. On any day of the Christmas month some parts of this
country are bound in icy chains, while other parts are sweltering in a torrid
temperature.
That wonderful Island—Japan—whose people have made such amazing
strides in catching up with the most advanced civilization of the Occident,
and who never have accepted Christianity, has a most delightful climate
during winter, with a large amount of sunshine and moderate temperatures.
The vast Christian nation so long ruled by the Tzar, and now in such
deplorable chaos, has a varied climate during December. From temperate
conditions in the southern portion of its European possessions it gradually
grows colder as one goes northward until a region of great severity is
reached. At Petrograd the average night temperature is 6° below zero. At
Moscow it is colder, the average of its minimum temperature being 11°
below. Two thirds of the time it is cloudy at these two cities.
Verkhoyansk, in the central portion of Siberia, is nearly the coldest place
in the world where observations are regularly taken. There Christmas Day
may be ushered in with a temperature as low as 75° below zero. For days at
a time this extreme cold remains, the warmest part of the day varying but
little from the coldest.
In many of the cities of the Southern Hemisphere Christmas Day is likely
to be such as will cause the sojourner to long for some cooler region. There
it is midsummer, the grass is green and the fruit is on the tree. We of the
North could hardly realize that it is December. In the pampas of the
Argentine Republic everything is parched. The white stucco walls and the
red tile roofs in the cities reflect the intense rays of the sun into the
shimmering air. In Rio de Janeiro the days are almost unbearable, the daily
temperature rising to 100° and over at midday and seldom falling to 60° at
night. Bear in mind that the greater part of the area of South America lies
between the equator and 30° south latitude. But wherever in these South
American cities one can escape to an elevation of several thousand feet a
pleasant temperature may be found.
At Santiago, Chili, it is more comfortable than in Brazil, for the nights
are cool, even though the day temperatures rival those of the Argentine
Republic. But here the cool mountain tops are almost hanging over the
coast cities.
At Cape Town, in the extreme south part of Africa, two days out of three
are clear and the daily range of temperature is from 48° to 83°, making
fairly pleasant conditions during the Christmas holidays.
At Melbourne, Australia, one half of the days are cloudy, and the
temperature is moderate, having a range from 54° to 75°.
Thus we see that the climatological features of the world, not only on
Christmas but on any other day of the year, are as varied as the hopes and
wishes of man, and whatever his desires or physical necessities may be, a
climate may be found under the influence of which he may find pleasure
and gain health.
The Hottest and the Coldest Places in the World. It is an innate
characteristic of the human race to be interested in the abnormal, whether it
be in the achievements of men or in the extremes of natural phenomena.
This is especially true with regard to the weather. During periods of
extremes of heat or cold the natural inquiry is as to whether there ever has
been a period of equal or greater severity. Although suffering intensely there
always is a desire to “beat the record.” It therefore may be of interest briefly
to refer to the hottest and the coldest places in the world.
North America. One of the most torrid places in the United States is in
that remarkable region known as Death Valley. It is located in Southern
California. Its name is supposed to be derived from a melancholy tragedy
that occurred in 1850, in which every member of a party of emigrants
perished in Death Valley from thirst and exhaustion, leaving the bones of
themselves and their animals to whiten in the sun. The valley is the bed of
an ancient salt sea which existed when the climate was much wetter than
now; its soil is largely composed of sand, salt, and borax. The borax
deposits are large; at places they form crusts that support the weight of
travelers. The length of the valley is seventy-five miles, but it is narrow at
the bottom, in places being no more than six miles. One of its remarkable
features is that its bottom, in many places, is three hundred feet below the
level of the sea, one hundred miles to the west. It is fed by several small
streams and innumerable warm springs, the water from which is entirely
absorbed by the porous soil, although water may be found by digging down
a few feet. The water is unfit for use. It is a desolate and forbidden region,
inhabited by gnats, toads, lizards, and snakes. However, the employees of a
company engaged in the business of marketing borax spend a portion of
each year there.
In 1891 an observer of the U. S. Weather Bureau remained in Death
Valley from May to September, during which time he made daily
observations of the weather. His experience was a most trying one, drawing
heavily upon his physical and mental stamina to complete the period of
time that had been set for him. For the entire time of one hundred and fifty-
four days less than one half an inch of rain fell. There occurred several days
in succession with a temperature of 122°. However, this is not the highest
temperature ever recorded in the United States. In July, 1887, at Mammoth
Tank, in the Colorado Desert, the temperature reached 128° in the shade,
and again, in 1884, 124° was reached at the same place. On July 18, 1891,
in Death Valley, the maximum was 120° and the minimum 99°, making an
average for all hours of 108.6°. The extremely high temperatures reached in
the Colorado Desert, which embraces a portion of Southern California and
Arizona, do not vary greatly from those of Death Valley; they are not
exceeded anywhere in Central or North America. Such degrees of heat, if
experienced for two or three weeks in the more humid regions of the eastern
half of the United States, would nearly depopulate the region by the havoc
of death.
The lowest temperatures in the United States occur in extreme northern
portions of Minnesota, North Dakota, and Montana, where temperatures
from 50° to 55° below zero have been recorded. It is interesting to note that
in this same region the summer temperatures have risen to readings of from
105° to 108°. Of course this heat is quite different in its effects upon life
from the heat of the Gulf or Atlantic coasts. One feels a marked difference
between the sun and the shade temperatures in these semi-arid regions.
Sunstroke is infrequent and death seldom results from exposure, as it does
in the East.
The region of severest cold in North America is found about the Great
Bear Lake in the British Northwest Territory, where temperatures of 58°
below zero have been recorded.
South America. The hottest portion of South America is in the interior,
with extensive systems of mountain ranges along the coast preventing the
inward flow of the moist rain-bearing winds from the ocean. In a stretch of
country extending from Uruguay northward into the interior of Brazil, the
average of the highest temperature of each year for a period of several years
is 104°, with individual readings much higher. Except on the top of the
mountains, or well up their sides, no severely cold weather occurs in South
America, seven eighths of its territory lying between the equator and
latitude 30° south.
Africa. In Africa is to be found the hottest region of the world, the great
Desert of Sahara, upon whose sands beats down the fierce tropical sun with
merciless intensity. Here shade temperatures of 130° are frequently
experienced. Only those bred to extreme tropical desert heat can long live
under such conditions. In a portion of the desert lying between Egypt and
the Red Sea the temperature has been known not to fall below 113° for a
period of ten days, while on several nights the lowest temperature reached
was 118°, with a practically calm air. Africa lies with about one half of its
immense area on each side of the equator, and the greater part of its territory
inside the Tropical Zone. Except in a few isolated cases on high mountains,
temperatures as low as zero never are experienced.
Europe. The warmest portion of Europe is in the region round and about
the Mediterranean Sea. The coldest places in all Europe are in the western
part of Russia and in the northern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Here
the average of the coldest days of winter is 50° below zero.
Asia. It is difficult to determine in what part of Asia the highest
temperature occurs, as data from many parts are meager. It is known
however that extremely hot weather prevails in India and Arabia. Siberia,
however, experiences the coldest weather to be found anywhere in the
world. At Werchojansk, in that country, a temperature of 90.4° below zero
was observed in January, 1884, while the average temperature for the whole
month was 69.4° below zero.
The coldest weather of the world is not found at the North or the South
Pole, as many suppose, but rather at the center of vast continents, far from
the modifying influence of oceans.
Australia. In extreme heat the interior of Australia is fairly comparable
with northern Africa, Persia, Afghanistan, and northern India, where every
year maximum temperatures of 115° occur, and where, at times, an extreme
heat of 120° or 125° is experienced in the shade.
We now know that the forceful, dominating peoples come out of the
regions where the heat is not so great as to debilitate, nor the cold so fierce
as to deaden the mental and the physical faculties; but rather from the
region of the thoroughfare of the great circum-polar storm tracks, where
there are frequent changes of weather from sunshine to clouds, and where
there is a fairly wide difference in temperature between night and day and
between winter and summer. For the best coördination of the mental and the
physical faculties, so as to produce the most efficient composite of man, the
temperature should range between 45° and 50° at night and between 65°
and 70° during the day, with about sixty-five to seventy per cent. of relative
humidity. Some day we will artificially create the exact conditions of
temperature and moisture needed for patients in hospitals and sanitaria.
Science is persistently seeking means to increase comfort and prolong life.
 CHAPTER XV
CONDENSATION

HOW HAZE, RAIN, SNOW, HAIL, FROST, CLOUD, AND FOG ARE FORMED

Haze is what might be called diluted cloud or fog; it differs from them
only in the degree of its density. One may see several miles through a haze,
because the minute particles of spheres of water or ice are far apart in
comparison to what they are in fog or cloud.
Raindrops vary in size from O.03 to O.20 of an inch in diameter. Each
drop is composed of literally millions of minute specks of water that have
condensed each about a minute mote of dust. These motes are a million of
times below anything that may be seen with the most powerful microscope.
Recall what is said in Chapter IV about the size of the molecules in water: if
a raindrop were enlarged to the size of the earth, the molecules of which it
is composed would be no larger than a baseball, and the smallest of them no
larger than tiny green peas. Without free surfaces upon which condensation
may begin there can be no rainfall. Dust motes furnish these surfaces;
without them air may be supersaturated without condensation occurring
except where it comes in contact with solid matter. The little spherical
masses of water join together so as to form raindrops in some manner not
well understood. When enough of them coalesce so that the weight of the
drop is too heavy to be supported by the motions of the air it falls to the
ground, or is evaporated by the warmer and drier lower air. Raindrops form
mainly in the stratum between one and three miles above the earth. It is
seldom that the stratum of air next the earth is saturated, even during
rainfall. One might evaporate millions of gallons of water and find no dust
as a residue, or at least nothing visible to the human eye, so infinitesimal
are the motes of condensation. As high as thirty millions have been shown
to exist in a single cubic centimeter of air (Chapter IV), and a million times
that number could occupy such space without being visible, and the dust
mote is composed of molecules, and the molecules of atoms. It is
impossible for the human mind to grasp the idea of the degree of smallness
to which the atom attains, and when one tries to conceive of the electrons
from which the atom is built up, he must try to think of them not as objects
but as the place or condition where matter slowly fades away into nothing;
as the place possibly where matter is transmuted into electrical energy and
ceases to exist.
The raindrop cannot be formed at great altitudes because the vaporous
atmosphere is confined to low levels by temperature. At 100°, which often
exists at the bottom of the atmosphere, air at saturation contains 19.77
grains the cubic foot; at 80°, 10.93; at zero, .04; and at -40°, which always
may be found at about four and one half miles high, air cannot contain in
excess of .01 of a grain. Raindrops are mainly caused by the cooling of air
down to its dew point.
Rain Water Is Not Pure. Hailstones often incase foreign matter that has
been carried upward by violent winds. Rain water is pure when it is
condensed, but it gathers other matter as it falls, such as the pollen of plants,
and the broken siliceous shells of microscopic life carried by winds of the
tropics; it also washes ammonia from the air in small quantities,—about
thirty pounds per acre in the eastern half of the United States each year. A
raindrop increases in velocity as it falls until the resistance of the air
becomes just equal to the weight of the drop; after that it falls at a uniform
rate. It will surprise many to learn that if it were not for the retardation
effected by the resistance of the air, a raindrop falling from only half a mile
would be as dangerous to life as a rifle bullet, for the speed with which a
projectile travels can be made sufficient to compensate for its softness or
yielding qualities.
 How Much Water Is It Possible to Precipitate from the Earth’s
Atmosphere? If the entire amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere
were precipitated instantly it would furnish a rainfall of only two inches for
the whole surface of the earth. A steady downpour for twenty-four hours
usually amounts to some two or three inches. Over small areas and in
exceptional cases as many feet have been known to fall in that time, as
fresh, vapor-bearing winds steadily blew into a storm center, rose,
discharged their burdens as they cooled with ascent, and then flowed away,
again to be charged with moisture when they came into contact with wet
surfaces. It is impossible to drown the entire earth with rainfall, no matter
how long continued.
 FIG. 31.—SNOW CRYSTALS.

Snow. Snow is water vapor condensed in the congealed form, without

passing through the liquid state. When the minute pieces of ice of which the
flake is composed are magnified several hundred times they are found to be
composed of the most wonderfully beautiful figures. Thousands have been
photographed, but the versatility of nature is so great that no two ever have
been found that were exactly alike. Figure 31 gives some idea of their
infinite variety and perfect symmetry. They are always governed by the
number six. The most common form at the beginning of winter is a six-
rayed star, each ray branching. As the winter advances and the cold
becomes more severe, the flakes take a simpler form, finally becoming
slender six-sided prisms with sharp ends, under the influence of severe cold
waves. Great pain is inflicted on the exposed parts of the body when these
prisms are encountered in a high wind.
When condensation takes place in a warm stratum it will be in the form
of minute massive spherical particles or spherules. If these spherules are
then whirled aloft by ascending currents it is possible for them to be cooled
to far below the freezing point without turning to ice; they will, however,
congeal instantly when they touch one another or are jostled by touching
any solid or liquid surface. They may give a coating of ice to the limbs of
trees and the coating may increase until the limbs break, and the surface of
the earth thus may be covered with thin ice called sleet.
Hail. There is a difference of opinion among meteorologists as whether
the thunderstorm whirls about a vertical axis, like the tornado and the
hurricane, or whether it rotates about a horizontal axis. One may well
account for the formation of the hailstone by assuming that its alternating
layers of snow and ice are caused by the horizontal roll of a thunderstorm,
the under part of which has a temperature at or above freezing and the
upper half much below freezing. A raindrop is formed in the lower part,
frozen in its course through the upper part, receives a fresh coating of water
or snow with each revolution and a freezing before its circuit is completed.
It thus gains in size until it becomes too heavy to be sustained by the
whirling storm-cloud, when it falls to earth. Hail usually has the size of
small peas, but occasionally it falls in chunks sufficiently large to kill cattle
in the fields. On August 15, 1883, a hailstone weighing eighty pounds is
said to have fallen in Kansas.
 Frost. Frost is composed of beautiful crystallizations, similar to snow.
Chapter VII describes the process of formation in detail.
Cloud. Cloud is formed by the cooling by expansion as currents of air
are carried aloft. Clouds are composed of minute watery droplets or of ice
spiculæ, depending on their temperature, and the latter largely is determined
by elevation. A cloud differs from mist or rain in the size and number of its
particles, and from fog in its position and the method of its formation. There
are three fundamental formations, the cirrus, cumulus, and stratus. The
others are combinations of these. The cirrus are thin, high, veil-like clouds,
always composed of ice spiculæ; the cumulus look like great banks of snow
with bulging, oval tops in which thunder heads may form; the stratus spread
out like a great blanket. The cirrus usually fly at the top of the storm
stratum, some five to seven miles high; the other clouds at some lower
level. When rain is falling from a cloud, it is called nimbus.
Fog Is Cloud at a Low Level. It is formed by warm water vapor rising
from lakes or rivers into the cool night air at the bottom of valleys, or by the
cold waters of oceans being forced up over a bar, where the coldness that
they impart to the adjacent air condenses some of its vapor.
Artificial Rain Making. Many swindlers have preyed upon the credulity
of the public by claiming to have a process for the making of rain, and in
some cases large sums of money have been paid by commercial or other
associations to these charlatans. In 1892 the United States Congress
appropriated $20,000 for the testing of the theory that rain could be created
by the setting off of large quantities of explosives. The experiment was
unsuccessful, as the scientists of the Government insisted it would be. The
Greeks had a popular belief that when a host of their soldiers went out to
meet an army of Persians the vapor rising from the hot breath, blood, and
sweat of the struggling mass was later condensed into rain by the
concussion of the battle clubs and the hoarse cries of the victors, and many
of the veterans of our Civil War were firm in the opinion that their great
battles were followed by rains that were the result of the cannonading. Both
the Greeks and our American soldiers were mistaken. Rain often has fallen
at the close of great battles, not because of the concussion of the conflict,
but because rain falls on an average of one day in three in the regions where
most of the great battles have been fought, and the movement of armies
began on the fair days when travel was good. If it were the custom to begin
battles on rainy days we would have the contrary and equally erroneous
theory that concussion clears the atmosphere.
Prevention of Hail by the Firing of Guns. Even a Papal decree was not
entirely effective in preventing the people in southern Europe from ringing
the church bells to prevent the formation of hail when a storm threatened,
and within the past quarter-century large grants of public money were
foolishly wasted in the firing by the vineyardists of France and other parts
of Europe of a gun specially designed to destroy hail clouds. These guns
sent harmless smoke rings a few feet aloft. The writer felt constrained to
employ the extensive machinery of the Weather Bureau to counteract the
effect of glowing accounts of the success of these guns that were sent to this
country by some of the ignorant persons employed by this Government to
represent us as consuls abroad. Even though the hail-destroying guns
occasionally were choked with hail it was difficult for scientists to prevail
upon the public to stop their foolish and wasteful practice.
 CHAPTER XVI
DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN WEATHER SERVICE

THE LARGEST AND THE MOST EFFECTIVE METEOROLOGICAL BUREAU IN THE

WORLD

Even to those who are familiar with the application of meteorological

science to the making of weather forecasts, and with the material benefits
accruing to the commerce and industry of the United States from timely
warnings of marine storms, frosts, and cold waves, it will be interesting to
note that at the time of the founding of the first of the thirteen original
Colonies, at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607, practically nothing was known
of the properties of the air or of methods for measuring its forces. To-day
electrically recording automatic meteorological instruments measure and
transcribe for each moment of time at two hundred stations in the United
States, the temperature, the air pressure, the velocity of the wind, the
direction of the wind, the beginning and ending of rainfall, with the amount
of precipitation; and the presence of sunshine or cloud; and three thousand
voluntary observers each day record the temperature and the rainfall.
That we live in an age of great intellectual acumen, and that he is indeed
a wise prophet who can even dimly outline the possibilities of the next
century, is fitly shown by the development of meteorological science during
the recollection of the present generation; although one must admit that in
the making of weather forecasts, valuable as they are, we have not
advanced beyond the partly empirical stage. It is, therefore, improbable that
in the making of these forecasts we shall ever attain the accuracy acquired
by theoretical astronomy in predicting the date of an eclipse or the
culmination of any celestial event.
 It was not until 1644, twenty-four years after the landing of the Pilgrims
at Plymouth Rock, that Torricelli discovered the principle of the barometer
and rendered it possible to measure the weight of the superincumbent air at
any spot where the wonderful yet simple little instrument might be placed.
Torricelli’s great teacher—Galileo—died without knowing why nature,
under certain conditions, abhors a vacuum, but he had already discovered
the principle of the thermometer. The data from the readings of these two
instruments form the base of all meteorological science. Their inventors as
little appreciated the value of their discoveries as they dreamed of the
coming great western empire which should first use their instruments to
measure the inception and development of storms, and later, with the aid of
the electro-magnetic telegraph, to give warnings to threatened regions of the
approach of hurricanes, cold waves, floods, and frosts that have been worth
at least one hundred million dollars to this country during the past ten years
without counting the many thousands of lives saved among mariners.
Doctor John Lining, of Charleston, South Carolina, kept a daily record of
the temperature in this country as early as 1738, although the accurate
thermometers of Fahrenheit had then been in use but a few years and the
errors due to imperfect mechanical construction may have been
considerable as compared with the refined instruments now used for
measuring temperature. About one hundred years after the invention of the
barometer, viz., in 1747, Benjamin Franklin, the patriot and statesman, the
diplomat, the scientist, divined that certain storms may move in a direction
opposite to the blowing of the wind and that they progress in an easterly
direction. It was prophetic that this idea should come to him long before
any one had ever seen charts showing observations simultaneously taken at
many stations. But although his ideas in this respect were more momentous
than his act of drawing the lightning from the clouds and identifying it with
the electricity of the laboratory, yet his contemporaries thought little of his
philosophy of storms, and it was soon forgotten. It will be interesting to
learn how he reached his conclusion as to the cyclonic or eddy-like nature
of storms. He had arranged with a co-worker at Boston to take observations
of an eclipse at the same time that Franklin was taking readings at
Philadelphia. Early on the evening of the eclipse an unusually severe
northeast wind and rainstorm set in at Philadelphia and Franklin was unable
to secure any observations. He reasoned that as the wind blew fiercely from
the northeast the storm, of course, was coming from that direction, and
Boston must have experienced its ravages before Philadelphia was reached.
Reports indicated that the storm was widespread. What was the surprise of
Franklin, when, after the slow passage of the mail by coach, he heard from
his friend in Boston that the night of the eclipse had been clear and
favorable for observations, but that a terrific northeast wind and rainstorm
began early the following morning. Franklin then sent out inquiries to
surrounding stage stations and found that at all places southwest of
Philadelphia the storm began earlier and that the greater the distance the
earlier the beginning as compared with its advent in Philadelphia; but
northeast of Philadelphia the time of the beginning of the storm was later
than at the latter city, the storm not reaching Boston until twelve hours after
it began at Philadelphia. In considering these facts a line of inductive
reasoning brought him to the conclusion that the wind always blows
towards the center of the storm; that the northeast storm which Boston and
Philadelphia had experienced was caused by the suction exercised by an
advancing storm eddy from the west which drew the air rapidly from
Boston toward Philadelphia, while the source of the attraction—the center
of the storm eddy—was yet a thousand miles to the southwest of the latter
place; that the velocity of the northeast wind increased as the center of the
storm eddy advanced nearer and nearer from the southwest until the wind
reached the conditions of a hurricane; that the wind between Boston and
Philadelphia shifted its direction so as to come from the southwest after the
center of the storm eddy had passed over this region; and that the force of
the wind gradually decreased as the center of attraction—which always is
the storm center—passed farther and farther away to the northeast.
 Another man whose name is dear to the heart of every patriotic American
conducted, in conjunction with a friend, a series of weather observations,
beginning in 1771 and continued during the stirring times of the
Revolution. This was the sage of Monticello, Thomas Jefferson.
During the first half of the nineteenth century, nearly a hundred years
after Franklin’s northeast rainstorm, Redfield, Espy, Loomis, Henry, and
other American scientists laboriously gathered by mail the data of storms
after their passage and demonstrated their principal motions to be such as
Franklin had supposed. Professor Joseph Henry, Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution, in 1855, constructed the first daily weather map
from simultaneous observations collected by telegraph. He did not publish
his forecast but used his large wall map for the purpose of demonstrating
the feasibility of organizing a Government weather service. If there were no
other achievements to the credit of the institution founded in this country
through the benevolence of the English philanthropist, James Smithson,
who, by the way, never gazed upon our fair land, the work of the
Smithsonian Institution in connection with practical meteorology would
always give it a warm place in the hearts of those who believe the crowning
achievements of science consist in giving to the world knowledge which
results in the saving of human life, the amelioration of the sufferings of
human beings, and the acceleration of the wheels of commerce and
industry.
Although American scientists were the pioneers in discovering the
progressive character of storms and in demonstrating the practicability of
weather services, the United States was the fourth Government to give legal
autonomy to a weather service. Holland established a weather service, with
telegraph reports and forecasts, in 1860; England followed with a smaller
service in 1861; and France in 1863. But none of these countries has an area
from which observations can be collected great enough to give such a
synoptic picture of storms as is necessary in the making of forecasts of
much utility. It would require an international service, embracing all the
countries of Europe, to equal, in extent of the area covered and of the
accuracy of its forecasts, the service of the United States, which was begun
in 1870, as the result of agitation by Lapham, Henry, Abbe, Maury, and
others.
The vast region now brought under the dominion of twice daily
synchronous observations embraces an area extending two thousand miles
north and south, three thousand miles east and west, and so fortunately
located in the interest of the meteorologist as to include an important arc on
the circum-polar thoroughfare of storms of the northern hemisphere.
Simultaneous observations, collected twice daily by telegraph from two
hundred stations, distributed throughout this great area, renders it possible
at several central offices, where all the reports are received, to present to the
trained eye of the forecaster a wonderful panoramic picture of atmospheric
conditions. Each twelve hours the kaleidoscope changes and a new graphic
picture of actual changes is shown. The movements of storm centers and
cold-wave areas are noted and estimates made as to their probable course
during the next twenty-four hours. Where else can the meteorologist find
such an opportunity to study storms and atmospheric changes?
In 1870, and for ten years thereafter, our forecasts and storm warnings
were looked upon by the press and the people more as experiments than as
serious statements. The newspapers especially were prone to facetiously
comment on the forecasts, and many were clamorous for the abolition of the
service during the first years of its existence. There was some ground for
the criticisms. We knew nearly as much about the mechanics of storms at
that time as we do to-day, but we had not, by a daily watching of the
inception, the development, and the progression of storms, trained a corps
of expert forecasters, such as now form a part of the staff of the Chief of the
Weather Bureau, and from which the writer was graduated before he
became Chief. Along about 1880, mariners began to note that danger
signals were, in far more than a majority of cases, followed by heavy winds;
they began to reason that it would be better to take precaution against
storms that never came, than to be unprepared for those which did come
according to the forecasts.
It is a fact that many times, by the operation of forces not indicated by
the surface readings, the barometer at the center of a storm begins to rise
and the velocity of the whirling mass to decrease. In such a case the storm
signals placed in advance of the storm center would fail to give the proper
information. Again, the storm center may suddenly acquire a force not
anticipated, or it may pursue a track considerably divergent from the normal
for the location and season. In this case, also, the forecasts may warn some
cities that fail to receive the effects of the storm. However, during the past
few years the staff of the Weather Bureau, which includes the ablest
meteorologists in the United States, has made a study of the peculiarities of
the different types of storms occurring in the different localities during the
various seasons of the year, their line of travel and the force they may be
expected to attain. Competitive examinations have been held to test the
comparative merits of those who, by natural ability, are best fitted to
correctly and quickly correlate in their minds the conditions shown on a
meteorological chart, and to make accurate deductions therefrom as to the
development, movement, and force of storms. This line of work and
investigation has resulted in improved forecasts; so much so that mariners
now universally heed the storm warnings; horticulturists and truck
gardeners make ample provision for protection against frost; the shippers of
perishable produce give full credence to the cold wave predictions. Of the
many West Indian hurricanes which have swept our Atlantic seaboard from
Florida to Maine during the past many years, not one has reached a single
seaport without danger warnings being sent well in advance of the storm;
and few unnecessary warnings have been issued. The result is that few
disasters of consequence have occurred. Large owners of marine property
estimate that one of these severe storms traversing our Atlantic coast in the
absence of danger signals would leave not less than three million dollars’
worth of wreckage. Twice a census was taken just after the passage of
severe hurricanes to determine the value of property held in port by the
danger warning sent out in advance of the storms. In one case the figure
was placed at thirty-four million dollars and in the other thirty-eight million
dollars. Of course this does not represent the value of property saved. It
simply shows the value of property placed in positions of safety as a result
of the danger signals and warning messages sent to masters.
On January 1, 1898, an extensive cold wave swept from the Rocky
Mountains eastward to the seaboard. Estimates secured from shippers in a
hundred principal cities indicate that property valued at three million four
hundred thousand dollars was saved as a direct result of the predictions sent
out well in advance of the coming of the severe cold. The utility of these
forecasts to the agriculture, the commerce, and the industry of the country is
so great that there is hardly a daily paper that does not publish weather
forecasts in a prominent place, and there is scarcely a reader who fails to
note the predictions.
Twenty-five years ago mariners on our Great Lakes and seaboard
depended on their own weather lore to warn them of coming storms. Then,
although the number of craft plying our waters was much less than now,
every severe storm that swept the Lakes or Atlantic coast left destruction
and death in its wake, and for days afterward the dead were cast up by the
receding waves, and the shores were lined with wreckage. Happily this is
not now the case, for the Weather Bureau is ever watching the changes of
atmospheric conditions, and giving to the mariner warning of coming
storms. Each observer telegraphs instantly to the Central Office whenever
the delicately adjusted instruments at his station show unusual agitation. By
this means the inception of many storms is detected when the regular
morning and evening reports fail to give notice of their origin.
Some idea of the vast interests floating on the Atlantic coast may be had
when it is stated that 5628 trans-Atlantic steamers, with an aggregate of
10,076,148 tons, and 5842 sailing craft, aggregating 2,105,688 tons, entered
and left ports on the Atlantic seaboard during a single year ten years ago,
and the record is vastly greater now. The value of their cargoes is more than
a billion and a half of dollars. Our coastwise traffic is enormous. Fifteen
years ago more than seventeen thousand sailing vessels and four thousand
steamers entered and left the ports between Maine and Florida. The number
has largely increased since. From these facts one can roughly measure the
value of the marine property which the Weather Bureau aims to protect by
giving warning of approaching storms.
It is the expectation of the meteorologist that some day he will be able to
accurately forecast the weather for weeks and months in advance. What a
wonderful conservation of human energy would result if it were possible to
tell the farmer when the great corn and wheat belts would have abundant
rain during the next growing season, or when droughts would parch and
wither the vegetation; or to truthfully inform the planter of the South that
the coming season would be favorable or unfavorable for the production of
cotton! Effort could be withheld in one part of the country, and greater
energy exerted in another.
This extension of forecasting doubtless will be accomplished as the result
of further study of solar impulses which disturb the orderly processes of the
earth’s atmosphere and initiate storms, combined with a comparative study
of meteorological data. We may be laying the foundation of a great edifice
which shall adorn the civilization of future centuries.
As storms of more or less intensity pass over large portions of our
country every few days during the greater part of the year, and as it is
seldom that the weather report does not show one or more storms as
operating somewhere within our broad domain, it is easy for some charlatan
to forecast thunderstorms about a certain time in July, or a cold wave and
snow about a certain period in January, and stand a fair chance to
accidentally become famous as a prophet. One may select any three
equidistant dates in January and forecast high wind, snow, and cold for New
York City, and stand a fair chance of having the fraudulent forecast verified
in two out of the three cases, provided that you claim a storm coming the
day before or the day after one of your dates is the storm that you expected.
From the introduction of the electro-magnetic telegraph in 1844 down to
1869 intermittent advocations were made by many in this country for a
national weather service. Finally Doctor Increase A. Lapham, of
Milwaukee, scientist and philanthropist, so aroused the property and
financial interests of the country with the facts that he presented relative to
the destruction of life and property by storms on Lake Michigan that
Congress, under provisions of a bill introduced by General Halbert E.
Paine, was induced to appropriate money to initiate a service. To General
Albert J. Meyer, Chief Signal Officer, U. S. A., was intrusted the duty of
inaugurating a tentative weather service by deploying over the country as
observers the military signalmen of his command. From this beginning has
evolved the present extensive Weather Bureau, which is the largest in the
world and more intimately serves the needs of the public than any other.
In 1869 Professor Cleveland Abbe published a weather bulletin at
Cincinnati, based upon simultaneous observations secured by telegraph
from about thirty stations. He was the first scientific assistant to General
Meyer and remained continuously with the service until his death in 1919.
Colonel (afterward Brigadier-General) H. H. C. Dunwoody, U. S. A., served
twenty-seven years as an expert forecaster or as the assistant chief of the
Weather Bureau. General A. W. Greely, of Arctic fame, the last of the
military chiefs, succeeded Brigadier-General William B. Hazen on the death
of the latter. Professor Mark W. Harrington was the first chief of the new
civil Weather Bureau; he served but four years and was succeeded by
Professor Willis L. Moore, who remained chief for eighteen years, serving
two years under President Cleveland, who appointed him, and during the
entire administrations of McKinley, Roosevelt, and Taft, and was removed
by Woodrow Wilson immediately on taking office. Professor Moore claims
the honor of having been the first presidential appointee to incur the
displeasure and receive the public condemnation of Woodrow Wilson. The
present chief is Professor Charles F. Marvin, who for many years served as
an assistant to Professor Moore.
INDEX
 INDEX

Abbe, Cleveland, 298;

publishes weather bulletin, 305;
his long service in the Weather Bureau, 305
Absolute humidity, 39
Absolute zero, 62
Aërial ocean, the air a great, 7
Aëroplane, importance of developing the, 27
Africa, and monsoon winds, 107;
hottest and coldest places in, 279
Agricultural interests, benefit of Weather Bureau service to, 301, 302
Air, great ocean of, around the earth, 7;
condition of, at various levels, 7-17;
liquid, 9;
blue tint of, 10;
thinness of stratum of, that sustains life, 14;
elasticity and density of, 14;
pressure of, 15;
weight of, 15;
everything evolved from, 15-17;
effect of cold wave on the, 36, 37;
explorations of the, 18-28;
circulation of the, 55;
increasing pressure increases temperature of, 61;
difference between weight and pressure of, 77;
course of a current of, 99;
earth warmer than, next above, 180;
cools with ascent and heats with descent, 184;
height of freezing cold in free, 185;
daily range of temperature in free, 185, 186;
movement of, in valleys, 204;
mountains and movement of, 205;
proper temperature and humidity of, in habitations, 217;
water vapor in, at various temperatures, 284;
retards falling raindrops, 285;
and the formation of cloud, 287, 288
Air travel, Major Blair on, 27;
Lieut. Col. Henry on, 28
Aitken, Robert Grant, method of counting dust motes, 44, 45
Altitude, gauged by boiling point of water, 60, 61;
wind’s velocity increases with, 109-111;
man’s adjustment to life at high, 186, 187;
temperature at high, 210-212;
amelioration of disease by moderate, 248, 249, 250
Altitudes, the cold and stillness in the higher, 10, 11
American Weather Service, development of, 291-306. See also UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU
Ammonia, 33
Aneroid barometer, volunteer observers and the, 66;
forecasting weather with the, 74-79
Animal life, necessity of oxygen to, 35
Anti-cyclone, general cause of, 98;
general whirl of, 103;
gyration of, 108, 109;
an area of high pressure, 119
Appalachian Mountains, effects of higher elevation of, 231, 232
Argentine Republic, Christmas Day in, 274
Argon, 33
Arrows, on weather map fly with wind, 116, 118
Artificial rain making, experiments with, 288, 289
Asia, and monsoon winds, 106;
hottest and coldest places in, 279-280
Astoria, Wash., climate of, 210
Atlantic Ocean, temperatures of waters of, 177
Atmosphere, of the sun, 2;
of Jupiter, Neptune, Uranus, and Saturn, 3;
carbon dioxide in, 5;
thickness of earth’s, 6;
how it is warmed, 8;
absorption of heat rays by, 8;
water vapor in earth’s, 8;
temperature of isothermal stratum of, 11;
gases of, in mechanical not chemical union, 32;
importance of proper proportions of gases of the, 32;
table of component parts of, 33;
beneficial effects of cold wave on, 36, 37;
dust motes and illumination of the, 45;
data meager as to circulation of upper, 103, 104;
storms and cold waves great eddies in the, 118;
variations in temperature due to motion of, 163, 164;
 absorption of solar rays by the, 166-168
Atmospheres, how they are formed, 1;
how maintained and how lost, 5;
earth’s four, 29-47
Atmospheric air, composition of, 29-37
Atoms, early belief in formation of all matter of, 30;
present knowledge of, 30, 31;
composition of, 31;
of various elements, 31, 32
Australia, and monsoon winds, 107;
hottest and coldest places in, 280

Bacteria, and putrefaction diminish with elevation and over seas, 10;
absence of, at high altitudes, 43;
gathered by snow, ice, and water, 43;
destroyed by sunshine, 248
Balloon, use of, in meteorological research, 19;
record of temperatures at high altitudes by, 124, 210-212
Barometer, discovered by Torricelli, 23;
aneroid, 66;
forecasting weather with the aneroid, 74-79;
table for forecasting weather by, 76;
discovery of principle of, 77-79;
effect of storms on, 79;
low at Poles, 103;
data from, in meteorological science, 292, 293
Bathing, fresh and salt water, 249
Berlin, Germany, temperature of earth at great depth at, 179;
Christmas Day in, 271
Bermuda, sub-permanent Highs and Lows in region of, 159, 251;
climate of, compared with Florida and California, 256-261;
author’s visit to, 257;
range of thermometer in Hamilton, 257;
wind velocity and humidity in, 257, 258;
charm of, 258;
location of, 258;
influence of ocean on climate of, 258, 259;
character of islands of, 259, 260;
flowers in, 260;
wind and rainfall in, 261;
meteorological statistics for, 264
Bethlehem of Judea, Christmas Day in, 268, 269
Bismuth, nucleus of atom of, 32
Blair, Major William R., on air travel, 27
Boiling point of water, 57, 58;
as a gauge for altitude, 60, 61
Bombay, India, Christmas Day in, 272
Boston, Mass., influence of ocean on summer temperature of, 194
Bowie, E. H., National Forecaster, rules for forecasting, 151-153
Brazil, high temperature in interior of, 278

Cairo, Egypt, Christmas Day in, 272

Calcutta, India, Christmas Day in, 272
California, summer temperature of coast of, 194;
wet and dry seasonal records in big trees of, 236, 237;
climate of Bermuda compared with that of, 256-261
Calms, belt of, at equator, 99
Calorie. See GRAM-CALORIE
Cape Town, South Africa, Christmas Day in, 274
Carbon, nucleus of atom of, 31
Carbon dioxide, in atmosphere of earth, 5;
one of earth’s atmospheres, 29;
functions of, 35-37;
seasonal proportions of, in air, 35;
proportions of, according to locality, 35;
injurious proportion of, 35, 36;
reaches maximum at night over land, 36;
dissolved in sea water, 36;
maximum at midday over oceans, 36;
density of, 36
Carbonic acid gas. See CARBON DIOXIDE
Carnegie Foundation, investigation of big trees in California, 236, 237
Caspian Sea, waters of, have receded, 235;
again advancing, 235, 236
Centers of Action, 101;
permanent Highs and Lows in Pacific Ocean are great, 158;
influence of certain, on climate, 192-194
Centigrade scale, compared with Fahrenheit, 67, 68
Central America, changes of climate in, 238
Change of climate, mistaken ideas of, 225-230;
importance of, to sub-arid West, 229;
in period of authentic history, 233, 234;
in United States, 235;
simultaneous in Europe and America, 237;
east and west, opposite in character from north and south, 237, 238;
in Central America, 238;
 in middle latitudes, 239;
in prehistoric times, 239;
as recorded by geology, 239;
shown by fossil remains, 239;
and civilization, 240;
author’s views on, 242, 243
Chautauqua lectures, author’s views on change in climate in, 242, 243
Chemical rays, a manifestation of solar energy, 49;
of light, 52
China, Christmas Day in, 272, 273
China Sea, and monsoon winds, 106
Chinook winds, 107
Christmas in many climes, 266-275
Circulation of air, 55;
general, of wind, 98-111
Cirrus clouds, 288
Civilization, influence of climate on, 213-224;
mistaken idea of change of climate and, 229;
must migrate with shifting of climatic belts, 240
Cleveland, President Grover, appoints Prof. Moore chief of Weather Bureau, 306
Climate, 161-187;
difference between weather and, 161;
changes in, 161;
how it is modified and controlled, 188-212;
its influence on civilization, 213-224;
has our, changed?, 225-244;
influence of forests on, 240-244;
controlling factors of American, 243, 244;
how to find the, you seek, 249-252;
of Cuba, 252, 253;
of Porto Rico, 253, 254;
of the Hawaiian Islands, 254, 255;
of the Philippines, 255, 256;
of Bermuda compared with Florida and California, 256-261
Climates for health and pleasure, 245-281
Climatic conditions, optimum of, favorable to man, 218, 219
Cloud, temperature as affected by, 172;
formation and composition of, 287, 288;
difference between mist, rain, fog, and, 288;
fundamental formations of, 288;
characteristics of the, formations, 288;
fog is, at a low level, 288
Cold, contraction of air by, 15;
development of man favored by, climate, 224;
 severest: in North America, 277, 278;
in South America, 278;
in Europe, 279;
in Asia, 280
Coldest and hottest places in the world, 275-281
Cold storage, efficient underground, 183, 184
Cold wave, scavenger of the air, 36, 37;
beneficial effects of, 37;
great eddies in atmosphere, 118;
and speed of storm movement, 123-126;
formation of, 124;
movement of, 125, 126;
detecting approach of, 125;
limitations on extent of, 126;
warnings of, by Bureau, 126, 127;
definition of, 127, 128;
maps showing zones of, 127, 128;
number of, 128, 129;
tempered by Great Lakes, 129, 130;
tempered by heat of large cities, 130, 131;
influenced by Rocky Mountain Divide, 131;
Weather Bureau warnings of, 301, 302
Colorado Desert, Cal., extreme heat in, 277
Columbus, Christopher, and the trade winds, 102
Combustion, rapid in liquid air, 9;
nitrogen will not support, 33;
and oxygen, 34
Commerce, benefits of Weather Bureau service to, 301, 302
Condensation, and variations in temperature, 163, 164, 282-290
Congelation, 174
Constantinople, Turkey, Christmas Day in, 271
Continents, circulation between oceans and, 105;
their influence on climate, 192-198;
characteristics of temperature of interior of, 194, 195
Contour of land, and frost, 86-97
Convection, and heat, 54, 55
Copper, nucleus of atom of, 32
Coronas, 141
Cox, Prof. J. H., and observations on frost, 93, 94
Cranberry bogs, and frost, 93-95
Crime, influence of weather conditions on, 215
Cuba, climate of, 252, 253
Cultivation of land surface, and frost, 93-95
Cumulus clouds, 288
Cushing, comparison of temperatures by, 196, 197, 215
Cyclone, general cause of, 98;
general whirl of, 103;
gyration of, 107-109;
the disk of air constituting a, 119;
an area of low pressure, 119;
action of the air in and around the, 120;
movement of the, 120;
general extent of, 141;
destructive force of, 142
Cyclones, localities in which, are formed, 156, 157

Dawson, Canada, annual range of temperature at, 169

Death rate, excessive humidity increases, 216, 217
Death Valley, Cal., intense heat in, 275-277;
area and forbidding character of, 276;
temperature records taken in, 276, 277
Deflection, due to earth’s rotation, 107
Density of earth’s atmosphere at different levels, 6
“Descriptive Meteorology,” 141;
reasons for change of opinion on change of climate expressed in, 233
Desert of Sahara, Africa, intense heat in, 279
Dew point, 38;
and frost, 89, 90
Diathermancy, 56, 124
Dirigible balloon, as competitor of railroad, 19;
importance of developing the, 27
Disease, elevation diminishes bacteria of, 10;
amelioration of, by sunshine, 248
Drainage, influence on frost, 94
Droughts, the breaking of, 136
Dunwoody, Brig. Gen. H. H. C., expert forecaster and chief of Weather Bureau, 306
Dust, in the atmosphere, 33
Dust motes, absence of, at higher altitudes, 9;
interference of sun’s rays by, 10;
source of, 43, 44;
vary according to locality, 44;
counting of, 44, 45;
and diffusion of light, 45, 46;
and twilight, 46, 47
Eads Bridge, St. Louis, freak of tornado and the, 147
Earth, early condition of, 1;
death of, due to lack of heat from sun, 3, 4;
early condition of atmosphere of, 5;
transmission of sun’s rays to, 7, 8;
water vapor in atmosphere of, 8;
four atmospheres of the, 29-47;
comparison of heat of sun and of, 48;
circulation of winds and rotation of, 98-111;
deflection of winds due to rotation of, 107-109;
conditions if axis of, were vertical, 164;
variations of heat of morning, midday, and evening, 166;
change of seasons and the, 166;
percentage of solar rays reaching the, 166-168;
lag of temperatures of the, 168;
kept from freezing by water vapor, 170;
how the, cools at night, 171, 172;
great heat of interior of the, 178, 179;
a poor reflector, conductor, and radiator, 179;
temperatures at various depths in the, 179;
warmer than air next above, 180;
conditions if, were all land, 188-190;
if axis of, were perpendicular to plane of orbit, 188, 189;
conditions if, were all water, 190-192;
the real, of land, water, and inclined axis, 192
Eclipse, study of sun’s atmosphere during, 2
Efficiency, weather conditions and human, 216;
maximum and minimum periods of human, 217, 218
Electricity, and atoms, 31;
a manifestation of solar energy, 49
Electron, nucleus of all atoms, 31
Elements, nuclei of atoms of various, 31, 32
England, second nation to establish weather service, 297
Equator, circulation of wind and temperature at, 99;
belt of calms at, 99
Equatorial currents, 202, 203
Equinoctial storm, 140
Equinox, significance of, 140
Equinoxes (Fig. 21), 163
Espy, James P., his theory of continuation of storms, 156, 296
Ether, in outer space, 7;
transmission of sun’s rays by, 7, 8;
interstellar space filled with, 48;
man’s ignorance of structure of, 48;
 transmission of solar energy through, 49
Eurasia, cooling of continent of, in winter, 106;
extremes of temperature in continent of, 195-197
Europe, sections of, where climatic conditions are best, 245;
hottest and coldest places in, 279
Evaporation, 58, 59;
cooling effects of, 74;
and frost, 92;
lowers temperature of wet soil, 180

Fahrenheit Scale, compared with Centigrade, 67, 68

Floods, influence of forests on, 240-244;
flow of, not restricted by forests, 244
Florida, climate of Bermuda compared with that of, 256-261
Fog, formation of, 92, 288;
and frost, 92;
temperature as affected by, 172
Föhn winds, 107
Forecasting, general rules for, 149-153;
importance of use of weather map in, 149;
the temperature by amateurs, 149, 151;
expectations of future, 303, 304;
fake, 304
Forests, exaggerated idea of influence of, on climate, 198, 200;
their influence on climate and floods, 240-244;
the author’s opinion on, 241;
as conservers of rainfall, 241;
mistaken idea of value of, as conservers, 243;
need of protection of, 243;
restrict flow of moderate rainfall but not floods, 244
Fossil remains, as evidence of changes of climate, 239
France, third nation to establish weather service, 297
Franklin, Benjamin, his study and theory of storm movements, 293-296
Freezing, of fresh and salt water, 173-175;
height of, cold in free air, 185
Frost, 85-97;
causes of formation of, 85;
light, heavy and killing, 86;
dew point in relation to, 89, 90;
black, 90;
locality and immunity from, 90, 91;
conditions conducive to, 91;
Weather Bureau observations on, 91, 92;
evaporation and, 92;
 cultivation of land surface and, 93-95;
effect of sand covering on, 94, 95;
dates of killing, spring and fall, 96, 97, 287
Fuel, proper humidity and conservation of, 73, 74

Galileo, and the thermometer, 23, 292, 293

Gases of the atmosphere, in mechanical not chemical union, 32;
importance of proper proportions of, 32
Geology, evidence of changes of climate given by, 239
Germs, in the atmosphere, 33
Glacial periods, 239
Glaciers, movement of, 60;
recession and advancement of, 239
Glashier, English meteorologist, balloon ascension by, 20
Gold, nucleus of atom of, 32
Gram-calorie, unit of heat, 51
Great Ice Cap, possible return of, 240
Great Lakes, temper severity of cold waves, 129, 130;
benefit of Weather Bureau service to mariners on the, 302
Greely, Gen. A. W., chief of Weather Service, 306
Gulf Stream, West Indian hurricanes generally follow the, 133, 201;
influence of, on climate, 202, 203;
source and course of, 202, 203;
individuality of the, 203;
has no effect on climate of Bermuda, 258, 259
Gyration, due to earth’s rotation, 108, 109

Hail, formation of, 287;

and thunderstorms, 287;
attempted prevention of, 290
Hailstones, foreign matter in, 284;
formation and size of, 287
Halos, cause and nature of, 140, 141;
lunar, 141
Harrington, Prof. Mark W., first chief of new civil Weather Bureau, 306
Havana, Cuba, climate of, 253
Hawaiian Islands, climate of the, 254, 255
Haze, nature and characteristics of, 282
Hazen, Brig. Gen. William B., chief of Weather Service, 306
Health, north winds conducive, south winds detrimental to, 26;
 temperature in its relation to, 216;
semi-annual maximum and minimum periods of, 217, 218
Health seeker, all-the-year climate for the, 252
Heat, expansion of air by, 15;
possibility of using earth’s interior, 18;
how it reaches the earth, 46;
source of, 49;
of sun and earth compared, 48;
manifestation and transmission of, 48, 49, 51;
difference between temperature and, 49, 50;
commercial and scientific unit of, 50, 51;
difference between waves of light, sound, and, 51;
conduction of, 54;
radiation of, 54;
convection of, 54, 55;
absorption of, 55, 56;
specific, 56;
latent, 56-58;
differing temperatures with same solar, 162-166;
great capacity of water for, 200, 201;
ocean currents distributors of, 201, 202;
extreme, in Death Valley and Colorado Desert, 275-277;
in South America, 278;
in Africa, 279;
in Europe, 279;
in Asia, 279, 280;
in Australia, 280
Heat rays, absorption of sun’s, 8
Heat waves, difference between light, sound, and, 51;
length of, 51
Helium, in earth’s atmosphere, 5, 6;
importance of manufacture of, 19;
nucleus of atom of, 31
Henry, Prof. Joseph, compiles first weather map, 296
Hersey, Lieut. Col. Henry B., on dirigibles and airplanes, 28
High-pressure belts, rains of the, 105
Highs, initiation of, 101;
placing of, on weather map, 115, 116;
characteristics of, 124;
conditions and action of air of, 131-133;
periodicity of, 132;
and warm waves, 136;
influence of certain, on climate, 192-194
Himalaya Mountains, and monsoon winds, 106, 206;
and climate of Asia, 206;
rainfall in the, 206
Holland, establishes first weather service, 297
Holy Land, formerly an abundance of water in, 235
Honolulu, Hawaii, climate of, 254
Hottest and coldest places in the world, 275-281
Human energy, climate and the distribution of, 220
Humboldt, Baron von, on civilization and climate, 214
Humidifiers, 72
Humidity, percentage expression of relative, 38, 39;
absolute, 39, 68-74;
tables of relative, 69-71;
importance of proper, in living quarters, 72;
diseases due to lack of, 73;
and conservation of fuel, 73, 74;
excessive, harmful to man, 216, 217;
proper percentage of, 217
Huntington, Ellsworth, comparison of temperatures by, 196, 197, 215;
on human energy, 217, 218;
on examination of big trees in California, 236, 237
Hurricane, West Indian, 133, 134;
the Galveston, 134;
nature and development of, 134, 135;
exposure of Atlantic coast to effects of, 135, 136
Hurricanes, general extent of, 141
Hydrogen, in earth’s atmosphere, 5, 6;
nucleus of atom of, 31;
and oxygen combined to form water, 32;
density of, 39;
combustible properties of, 39;
sources of supply of, 39, 40
Hygrometer, for measuring water vapor, 39

Ice, and bacteria, 43;

formation of, 43;
specific heat of, 56;
latent heat of melting, 57;
melting of, under pressure, 60
Ice ages, 239
Ice Cap, possible return of Great, 240
Iceland, sub-permanent Highs and Lows in region of, 159
Inclosed seas, temperature of waters of, 176-178;
latitude, season and depth change temperature of, 177, 178
Indian Ocean, and monsoon winds, 106, 107;
temperature of waters of, 176
Industry, benefits of Weather Bureau service to, 301, 302
Instrument shelter, 66-68
Instruments, in meteorological stations, 63;
for voluntary observer, 66-79
Invisible light, 52, 53
Iron, nucleus of atom of, 32
Isobars, on weather map, 115
Isothermal lines, ocean currents and changes in, 201, 202
Isothermal stratum, height of, 11;
temperature of, 11, 12, 211

Jacksonville, Fla., meteorological statistics for, 263

Japan, Christmas Day in, 273
Jefferson, Thomas, on the changing climate, 227;
records of readings of thermometer by, 232;
barometrical records of, 233;
loss of his barometer, 233;
weather observations by, 296
Jupiter, atmosphere of, 3;
and heat from sun, 3
Justice, weather records serve ends of, 79-83

Kansas City, Mo., climate of, 210

Kelvin, Lord, on the size of molecule of water, 30
Kites, in meteorological research, 19;
use of, by Weather Bureau, 22;
rectangular form of, 22;
observations from, 64;
construction and flying of, 64-66
Krakatoa, effects of eruption of, 43, 44
Krypton, 33

Lake Owens, Cal., waters of, have receded, 235

Lake Superior, temperature of waters of, 178
Lakes, influence of, on climate, 199, 200
Lapham, Dr. I. A., 298;
urges establishment of weather service, 305
Latent heat, 56-58
Latitude, its relation to health, strength, and efficiency of man, 218
Lead, nucleus of atom of, 32
Life, the atmosphere in relation to beginnings of, 2, 3;
thinness of stratum of air that sustains, 14;
how to prolong, 246;
in the open air and sunshine, 247-249
Light, slight refraction of, in higher altitudes, 9;
diffused by dust motes, 45;
source of, 49;
how it reaches the earth, 49;
a manifestation of solar energy, 49;
invisible, 52, 53;
and transparency, 56;
speed of, 162;
from the stars, 162
Light waves, difference between heat, sound, and, 51;
length of, 51;
velocity of, 51, 52;
and invisible light, 52, 53
Lining, Dr. John, temperature records kept by, 293
Liquid air, 9
Local forecasting, rules for making, 153-155
Lofoten Islands, temperatures recorded in the, 196
London, England, Christmas Day in, 269, 270
Loomis, Elias, 296
Los Angeles, Cal., climate of, 210;
meteorological statistics for, 262
Lows, the initiation of, 101;
placing of, on the weather map, 115, 116;
characteristics of, 124;
their influence on cold waves, 126;
conditions and action of air of, 131-133;
periodicity of, 132;
and warm waves, 136;
V-shaped, 137;
influence of certain, on climate, 192-194
Lunar halos, 141

Macready, Lieut. John A., altitude record of, 20

Mammoth Cave, temperature of, 181
Man, climate and the dominant races of, 213-224;
conditions best suited to health, strength, and efficiency of, 215, 216;
excessive humidity harmful to, 216, 217;
semi-annual maximum and minimum periods of efficiency of, 217, 218
Manila, P. I., climate of, 255
Maritime interests, benefits of Weather Bureau service to, 300-303
Marvin, Prof. Charles F., present chief of Weather Bureau, 306
Matter, early belief as to construction of all, 30;
present knowledge of nature of, 31;
determination of differences in, 31;
forms of simple, 31
Maury, Matthew F., 298
Mazatlan, Mexico, climate of, 209
Mediterranean Sea, temperatures of waters of, 177
Melbourne, Australia, Christmas Day in, 275
Mental activities, and weather conditions, 215, 216
Mercury, density of, compared to air, 15;
nucleus of atom of, 32
Mesopotamia, former fertility of, 234, 235
Meteorological conditions best suited to efficiency of man, 216
Meteorological science, in America, 291-306. See also UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU
Meteorological station, instruments installed in, 63
Meteorological statistics, tables of: for Los Angeles, Cal., 262;
for Miami, Fla., 262;
for Jacksonville, Fla., 263;
for San Diego, Cal., 263;
for Tampa, Fla., 264;
for Bermuda, 264
Meteorologists, association of aviator with, in map making, 23
Meteors, cause of luminosity of, 6
Meyer, Gen. Albert J., inaugurates tentative weather service, 305
Mexico City, climate of, 209, 210
Miami, Fla., temperature and rainfall at, 261;
meteorological statistics for, 262
Microbes of the air, 41-43;
functions of the useful varieties of, 41, 42;
and locality, 42;
and crowded habitations, 42;
effect of sunshine on, 42, 43;
dust-free air free of, 44
Milwaukee, Wis., rules for forecasting at, 153-155
Mind, effects of weather conditions on, 215
Mock moon, 141
Mock sun, 141
Molds, destroyed by sunshine, 248
Molecule, infinitesimal size of, of air and of water, 29, 30;
of raindrop, 282, 283
Molecules, space between, of gases, 29
Monsoon winds, 106, 107
Moon, a dead planet, 4;
absence of atmosphere around, 4, 5;
temperature of dark side of, 5;
has no influence on weather, 138-140;
and the tides of the ocean, 139;
no influence on crops, 140;
and halos, 141;
mock, 141
Moore, Prof. Willis L., experience at Chautauqua lectures, 19;
prediction of transoceanic flight by airplane, 19, 20;
experiments with small gas balloons, 21;
appointed chief of Weather Bureau, 306;
long service as chief, 306;
removal of, 306
Moscow, Russia, Christmas Day in, 273
Mountain air, beneficial effects of, 249, 250
Mountains, why peaks of, are cold, 8, 171;
effect of, on climate, 204-206;
and rain and snow, 205, 206
Mount Weather, Va., research work at, 21, 22;
value of work at, in World War, 24, 25;
altitude record of temperature at, 211, 212
Munich, Bavaria, record of earth’s temperatures at, 168

Neon, 33
Neptune, atmosphere of, 3;
and heat from sun, 3
New Bedford, Mass., daily weather records for long period at, 228
New York, N. Y., influence of ocean on summer temperature of, 194
Nimbus clouds, 288
Nitric acid, 33
Nitrogen, in atmosphere of earth, 8;
one of earth’s atmospheres, 29;
nucleus of atom of, 31;
debilitating effects of, 32;
functions of, 33;
absence of, above fifty miles, 212
North America, and monsoon winds, 107;
hottest and coldest places in, 275-278
“Northwester”, cause of, 117

Observations, great number and vast area covered by Weather Bureau, 298. See also WEATHER
OBSERVATIONS
Ocean, intense cold at bottom of, 175, 176;
temperature of inclosed seas differ from those of, 176, 177;
temperatures of Atlantic, 177;
latitude, season and depth changes temperatures of, 177, 178;
direction of wind affects shore temperature of, 178;
influence of, on climate, 192-198;
climate of Bermuda controlled by, 258, 259
Ocean currents, influence of, on climate, 200-202;
circulation of, follows winds, 200-202;
great distributors of heat, 201, 202
Oceans, circulation between continents and, 105
“Oldest Inhabitant”, hallucinations of, as to weather, 225-228
Open air, life in the, 247-249
Organic matter, in atmosphere, 33
Oxygen, in atmosphere of earth, 8;
and liquid air, 9;
one of earth’s atmospheres, 29;
nucleus of atom of, 31;
stimulating effect of, 32;
union of, with hydrogen to constitute water, 32;
functions of, 33-35;
proportion of, in free air, 34;
in places with restricted ventilation, 34;
necessary to life, 35;
causes of decrease of, 37;
ozone is highly electrified, 40;
absence of, above thirty miles, 212
Ozone, 33;
source of, 40;
characteristics of, 40;
effects of, 40, 41;
variation of, due to seasons and locality, 41;
effects of winds on, 41

Paris, France, Christmas Day in, 270

Permanent Highs and Lows in the Pacific, great Centers of Action, 158;
interference with storms from Orient by, 158
Petrograd, Russia, Christmas Day in, 273
Philippine Islands, climate of the, 255, 256
Pittsburgh, Pa., climate of, 210
Planets, quicker cooling of the small, 2;
lifeless, 2, 3
Plant life, necessity of oxygen to, 35;
carbon dioxide and, 35
Poles, temperature and circulation of wind at the, 99;
barometer low at, 103;
not the coldest points in the world, 280
Population, storm tracks and, 214-223
Porto Rico, climate of, 253, 254
Precipitation, factors controlling, of a region, 230
Pressure, difference between, and weight of air, 77;
belt of high, at latitudes 30° north and south, 99, 101;
indicated on weather map by Highs and Lows, 115, 116
“Principles of Human Geography”, 196, 215;
quoted, 219, 220, 236, 237
Putrefaction, bacteria of, diminish with elevation, 10

Races of Man, climate and the dominant, 213-224

Radiation, earth, 8;
of heat, 54;
and frost, 85-97;
and circulation of wind, 98;
earth and air cooled by, 171;
and temperature of valleys, 203, 204
Radium, nucleus of atom of, 32
Raindrops, size and composition of, 282;
falling or evaporation of, 283;
where, are formed, 283;
what causes, 284;
cannot form at great altitudes, 284;
velocity of falling, 284, 285;
air retards falling, 285
Rainfall, cause of heavy, in tropics, 104, 105;
monsoon winds and heavy, 106;
in Himalaya Mountains, 206;
average monthly, in North America and in the Old World, 207-210;
forests as conservers of, 241;
in Hawaiian Islands, 255;
instantaneous precipitation of all water vapor and, 285;
causes of heavy, 285
Rain making, artificial, 288, 289
Rain water, pure when condensed, 284;
collects impurities in falling, 284
Redfield, 296
Red Sea, temperatures of waters of, 176
Reflection, water rejects heat by, 172
Refrigerator, an economical, 59
Relative humidity, tables of, 69-71
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Christmas Day in, 274
Rivers, influence of, on climate, 199, 200
Rocky Mountains, influence on cold waves by the, 131;
effects of reduction in height of, 230-232;
records inscribed by waters on, 234, 235
Rome, Italy, Christmas Day in, 272
Rotation of earth, deflection caused by, 107-109
Russia, Christmas Day in, 273

St. Louis, Mo., tornado of 1896 in, 146-148

St. Paul, Minn., climate of, 210
Salt, in atmosphere, 33
Samoa, annual range of temperature in, 169
Sand, as a preventive of frost, 94, 95
San Diego, Cal., lowest temperature recorded at, 129;
meteorological statistics for, 263
Sanitaria, 250
San Juan, Porto Rico, climate of, 253, 254
Santiago, Chili, Christmas Day in, 274
Saturation, point of, 38;
dew point and, 38;
varies according to temperature of air, 38, 39
Saturn, atmosphere of, 3;
and heat from sun, 3
Schroeder, Major R. W., 11;
altitude record of, 20;
experience of, 20
Scientific American, The, on statistics of climate, 265, 266
Sea air, beneficial effects of, 249
Seasons, cause of change of, 166-168;
reversal of, in the northern and southern hemispheres, 169;
conditions resulting in no, 188, 190;
forces that influence and control the, 188-190
Silver, nucleus of atom of, 32;
 best conductor of heat among the metals, 54
Sleet, snow and the formation of, 286, 287
Smith, Robert Angus, on carbon dioxide, 34, 36
Smithson, James, 297
Smithsonian Institution, 296;
activities in practical meteorology, 297
Snow, water vapor in congealed form, 285;
beauty and variety of crystals of, 286;
and the formation of sleet, 286, 287
Solar energy, transmission of, through the ether, 49
Solids, heat expands most, 59
Solstices (Figs. 22 and 23), summer and winter, 164; (Fig. 26), 167
Sound waves, difference between heat, light, and, 51;
length of, 51;
velocity of, 51, 52
South America, and monsoon winds, 107;
hottest and coldest places in, 278
Space, ether in outer, 7, 48;
temperature of outer, 9;
darkness of outer, 9;
the proof of lack of light in, 9, 10;
transmission of heat through, 48;
absence of atmosphere in, 48
Stars, size of, and distance from earth, 162
Statistics, tables of meteorological, 262-264;
The Scientific American on climate, 265, 266
Steel, burns in liquid air, 9
Storm, in winter of 1893, 117-123;
Franklin’s study and theory of, movements, 293-296;
abnormal movement of some, centers, 300
Storms, terrible nature of, in early history of creation, 1;
general rules for forecasting, 75-79;
general action of, 115;
great eddies in atmosphere, 118;
movement of, 118, 119;
cold waves as affecting speed of, 123-126;
locality of origin of majority of our, 132;
general movement of, 133;
equinoctial, 140;
tornadoes, 141-148;
and their relation to density of population, 220-223;
ten-year record of, 221, 222;
area and movement of cyclonic, 231;
 Weather Bureau’s study of types of, 299, 300;
peculiar action of barometer in some types of, 299, 300;
Weather Bureau detects inception of, 302;
frequency of, 304
Storm tracks, civilization follows the, 213-224
Stratus clouds, 288
Strength, temperature and its relation to physical, 216
Sub-permanent Highs and Lows, 158;
of the Pacific a bar to storms from the Orient, 158;
effect of change of position of, 158-160;
in the region of Iceland and Bermuda, 159
Sulphates, in atmosphere, 33
Sulphur, nucleus of atom of, 31, 32
Summer, difference in length of, in northern and southern hemispheres, 169
Summer resort, an aërial, 13, 14
Summer temperature gradients in isothermal stratum, 12
Sun, atmosphere of the, 2;
conditions for beginning of life on the, 2, 3;
will be no life on, 3;
effect on earth of cooling of the, 4;
transmission of rays of, by the ether, 7, 8;
absorption by oxygen, nitrogen, and water vapor of rays of, 8;
and twilight, 46, 47;
comparison of heat of earth and of, 48;
mock, 141;
only source of appreciable heat, 162;
earth’s orbit around, 165;
cause of variation in heat of, reaching earth, 166;
absorption by atmosphere of rays of, 166
Sunshine, life in the open air and, 247-249;
destroys molds, 248
Supra-red rays, remedial powers of, 248

Tampa, Fla., temperature and rainfall at, 261;

meteorological statistics for, 264
Telescope, agitations of sun’s atmosphere revealed by, 2
Temperate zone, highest type of civilization found in the, 213-224
Temperature, of the isothermal stratum, 11, 12;
and water vapor, 37, 38;
difference between heat and, 49, 50;
proper method of taking, 63;
and frost, 85-97;
and circulation of wind, 98-111;
 red lines on map indicate similarity of, 122, 123;
record of, by balloons at high altitudes, 124;
how amateurs may forecast, 151;
with same solar heat differing, 162-166;
causes of variations in, 163;
of oceans, lakes, and rivers, 172, 173;
extremely low, of ocean bottoms, 175, 176;
of water changes with latitude, season and depth, 177;
of earth at depth of 3490 feet, 179;
daily range of, in free air, 185, 186;
of interior of continents, 194;
of coastal regions influenced by ocean in summer, 194;
lowest recorded, at Weather Bureau, 195;
highest, July, 195;
average maximum and minimum, recorded by Weather Bureau, 195;
extremes of, in Eurasian continent, 195-197;
questionable effect of Gulf Stream on, 203;
influence of valleys on, 203, 204;
extremes of, on mountains, 204, 205;
average monthly, in North America and the Old World, 207-210;
at high altitudes, 210-212;
effects of changes of, on man, 215;
in its relation to health, strength, and efficiency, 215, 216;
and mental activity, 216;
proper percentage of humidity and, 217;
the optimum of, for energy, 218, 219;
regions of favorable, the summer, 250;
author’s record of, in Bermuda, 257
Temperature inversion, 171
Temperatures, lag of earth’s, 168;
annual range in air, 168, 169;
highest and lowest:
in North America, 275-278;
in South America, 278;
in Africa, 279;
in Europe, 279;
in Asia, 279, 280;
in Australia, 280
Thermometer, Galileo’s discovery of principles of, 23;
principles and discovery of, 62, 63;
comparison of Fahrenheit and Centigrade scales of, 67, 68;
data from, and meteorological science, 293
Thomson, Sir William. See LORD KELVIN
Thorium, nucleus of atom of, 32
Thunderstorms, effect of, on Lows, 132;
cause, extent and movement of, 137;
frequency of, 138;
Highs and, 138;
 temperature and, 138;
Lows and, 138;
locale of, 138;
and the formation of hail, 287
Tornadoes, 141-148;
extent of, 141, 142;
velocity and destructive force of, 142;
locale of, 142;
frequency of, 142;
rate of movement and general direction of, 142;
warnings of coming of, 142;
seeking safety during, 142, 143;
an American type of storm, 143;
presence of water vapor necessary to cause, 144;
use of weather map in forecasting, 144, 145;
not increasing, 145;
difficulty of forecasting, 146, 147;
freaks of, 147, 148
Toronto, Canada, climate of, 210
Torricelli, and the barometer, 23, 292, 293
Trade winds, 101, 102
Transparency, 56
Tropical zone, cause of torrential rains in the, 100
Tropics, rain winds of the, 104, 105
Tubercle bacillus, destroyed by sunshine, 248
Twilight, and dust motes, 46, 47

Ultra-violet Rays, remedial powers of, 248

Underground habitations, plan for unique, 180-184
United States, where climatic conditions are best in the, 245;
fourth nation to establish weather service, 297
United States Weather Bureau, experiments with small gas balloons, 21;
observations with kites by, 21, 22;
storm warnings by, 24;
and voluntary observers, 66;
method of taking readings by, 66-79;
ends of justice served by records of, 79-83;
and prevention of frost, 95-97;
maps prepared by, 112-160;
timely warnings by, 117;
when warnings are displayed by, 122;
warnings of cold waves by, 126, 127;
definition of “cold wave” by, 127, 128;
and tornado warnings, 146, 147;
on forecasting, 151-153;
 rules for forecasting at Milwaukee, Wis., 153-155;
extent of area under observation by, 155-158;
comparison of crime and records of, 215;
rainfall records by, 237, 241;
record of floods by, 241;
and fake prevention, of hail, 290;
stations and observations of the, 291, 292;
fourth national weather service established, 297;
the result of efforts by American scientists, 298;
vast area under daily observation by, 298;
number of observations twice daily by, 298;
first work of, regarded as experimental, 299;
advance in efficiency of, 299;
growing faith in work of, 299;
its study of types of storms, 299, 300;
competitive examinations held by, 300;
warnings by, now accepted, 300;
warnings of West Indian hurricanes by, 300;
value of property saved through warnings of, 301;
utility of warnings of, 301, 302;
and warnings to mariners on Great Lakes, 302;
inception of storms detected by, 302;
expectations of future forecasting by, 303, 304;
first tentative, established, 305
Uranium, nucleus of atom of, 32
Uranus, atmosphere of, 3;
and heat from sun, 3

Valleys, influence of, on temperature, 203, 204

Vaporization, latent heat of, 58, 59
Vegetation, oxygen and, 36;
carbon dioxide and, 36;
and frost, 85-97
Velocity increased by altitude, wind’s, 109-111
Ventilation, detrimental effects of poor, 34;
need of, in closed or low places, 36;
in places of habitation, 37;
and underground apartments, 182, 183
Vera Cruz, Mexico, climate of, 209
Verkhoyansk, Siberia, extremes of temperature at, 196, 197;
Christmas Day in, 273
Vienna, Austria, Christmas Day in, 271
V-shaped Lows. See LOWS

Warm waves, cause and duration of, 136, 137

Washington Monument, pressure of air at top of, 79
Water, density of, compared to air, 15;
infinitesimal size of molecule of, 30;
union of hydrogen and oxygen to constitute, 32;
and bacteria, 43;
commercial and scientific unit of heat and, 50, 51;
boiling point of, 58;
boiling point of, as gauge for altitude, 60, 61;
frost as affected by body of, 90, 91;
rejects heat by reflection, 172;
solar rays penetrate, 173;
temperatures of large bodies of, 173;
difference in freezing temperature of fresh and salt, 173;
salt, better conductor of heat, 173;
a wonderful phenomenon of fresh, 173-175;
low temperature of, of ocean bottoms, 175, 176;
temperature of, of inclosed seas and oceans, 176, 177;
latitude, season and depth change temperature of, 177, 178;
direction of wind affects shore temperature of, 178;
has great capacity for heat, 200, 201
Water vapor, and earth’s atmosphere, 8;
absorption of sun’s rays by, 8;
level of, 8;
one of earth’s atmospheres, 29;
density of, 37;
varies according to locality, 37, 38;
temperature and, 38;
precipitation of, 38, 231;
transformations of, 38;
and the dew point, 38;
saturation point and temperature, 38;
measured by hygrometer, 39;
and frost, 85-97;
protects earth from freezing, 170;
changes in sun’s rays effected by, 170;
a separate atmosphere, 231;
and raindrops, 284;
rainfall and instantaneous precipitation of all, 285;
and snow, 285-287;
and fog, 288
Waves, difference between light, heat and sound, 51;
length of different, of solar energy, 51;
velocity of, 51, 52
Weather, forecasting, with aneroid barometer, 74-79;
moon has no influence on, 138-140;
general rules for forecasting, 149-153;
difference between climate and, 161;
changes daily, 161;
expectations of future forecasting of, 303, 304.
 See also UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU
“Weather Forecasting in the United States”, 151
Weather map, value of aviator in compiling, 23, 112-160;
supplied by Weather Bureau, 112;
value of, 112, 113;
advantage of familiarity with, 113, 114;
method of compiling, 114;
collection of data for, 114, 115;
marking isobars on, 115;
Highs and Lows of, 115, 116;
indication of storm action on, 115;
arrows fly with wind on, 116, 117;
winter storm of 1893 on, 117-123;
temperature readings on, 119;
indication of storm center on, 121;
meaning of red lines on, 122, 123;
forecasting tornadoes by use of, 144, 145;
general rules for forecasting and the, 149-153;
Prof. Henry compiles first, 296.
See also UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU
Weather observers, voluntary, 66-79
Weather observations, from kites, 64;
method of taking, 66-79;
extent of area under, 155;
practice of early meteorologists in, 155, 156;
advantages enjoyed by the Weather Bureau in, 156-158.
See also UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU
Weather records, serve ends of justice, 79-83. See also UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU
Weight, difference between, and pressure of air, 77
Wendham, first to use multiple plane kites, 64
West Indian Hurricane. See HURRICANE
Wheeling, W. Va., temperature of earth at depth of 3490 feet at, 179
Wilson, President Woodrow, removes Prof. Moore from office of chief of Weather Bureau, 306
Wind, and pressure of the globe, 98-111;
why it blows, 116;
cause of variation in velocity of, 116-117
Winds, trade, 101, 102;
of middle latitudes, 102, 103;
rain, of tropics, 104, 105;
rain in the region of west, 105;
variations in coastal, 106;
monsoon, 106, 107;
Föhn, 107;
Chinook, 107;
deflected by earth’s rotation, 107-109;
 velocity of, as affected by altitude, 109-111;
West Indian hurricane, 133, 134;
of Galveston hurricane, 134;
of tornadoes, 141-148;
of latitudes 30° north and south, 194
Winter resorts, with favorable climate, 251
Winter storm of 1893, 117-123
Winter temperature gradients in isothermal stratum, 12

Xenon, 33

Yakutsk, Siberia, annual range of temperature at, 169

Zero, absolute, 62
 FOOTNOTES:

[1] Unless otherwise expressed in this book it will be understood that all
temperatures are recorded by the Fahrenheit scale.
[2] The author wishes that this were literally true, for he believes that no great
man or great woman ever was born from a mother with a painted face, dyed lips,
false hair, and a body pitifully distorted by ungracefully ambling about in high
heeled shoes. The power of suggestion is so great in its influence on the plastic
mind of youth that a mother who is little else than a perambulating falsehood
will leave descendants wanting in many if not all of the attributes of manly and
womanly virtues.
[3] John Wiley & Sons, New York.
[4] “Principles of Human Geography”, Huntington and Cushing. John Wiley &
Sons, New York.
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
Some Charts and Figures have been moved to be closer to the text paragraph they
illustrate.
Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful
comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources.
Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added, when a predominant
preference was found in the original book.
Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, and inconsistent or
archaic usage, have been retained.
Pg 13: ‘important inform ion’ replaced by ‘important information’.
Pg 23: ‘co-operation of the’ replaced by ‘coöperation of the’.
Pg 62: ‘temperature of 459°’ replaced by ‘temperature of -459°’.
Pg 62: ‘and 273.1° on the’ replaced by ‘and -273.1° on the’.
Pg 70: Table: ‘20’ replaced by ‘30’ (Temp=63, Diff=15).
Pg 71: Table: ‘41’ replaced by ‘51’ (Temp=112, Diff=18).
Pg 131: ‘thousand of chimneys’ replaced by ‘thousands of chimneys’.
Pg 168: ‘depth of 20.2,° and’ replaced by ‘depth of 20.2°, and’.
Pg 210: ‘of Pittsburg and’ replaced by ‘of Pittsburgh and’.
Pg 214: ‘Humbolt says’ replaced by ‘Humboldt says’.
Pg 300: ‘deductions thereform’ replaced by ‘deductions therefrom’.
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